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« 

UNIVERSAL  HISTORY, 

ON  A 

NEW  AND  SYSTEMATIC  PLAN; 

FROM 


THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  TREATY  OF  VIENNA. 

TO  WHICH  IS  ADDED, 


A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  LEADING  EVENTS  SINCE  THAT  PERIOD. 


BY  H.  WHITE,  B.A., 


# 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 


WITH  ADDITIONS, 

BY  JOHN  S.  HART,  A.M. 

Principal  of  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  and  Professor 
of  Moral  and  Mental  Science,  Member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  See. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

W.  A.  LEARY  &  CO. 

No.  138  NORTH  SECOND  STREET. 

1850. 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1844,  by 

LEA  AND  BLANCHARD, 

in  the  clerk’s  office  of  the  district  court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the 

the  eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania. 


J.  Fagan,  Stereotyper. 


'  ' 


on 

v 


4 


ADVERTISEMENT 


TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


In  presenting  to  the  American  public  this  excel¬ 
lent  compend  of  Universal  History,  the  original 
work  is  given  entire,  without  abridgement  or  altera¬ 
tion.  It  has  been  thought  advisable,  however,  to 
add  a  few  pages  to  that  part  of  the  history  which 
relates  to  the  discovery  and  settlement  of  North 
America.  The  portions  thus  added  are  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  book  by  being  enclosed  in 
brackets.  Numerous  questions  have  been  prepared 
for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  its  use  as  a  Text¬ 
book  in  schools 

Philadelphia,  January,  1844. 


I 


(3) 


. 


* 

'4 


I  .  « 


r 

. 

' 


r 


PREFACE. 


This  Volume  contains  a  brief  narrative  of  the  principal  events 
^in  the  History  of  the  World,  from  the  earliest  ages  to  the  present 
^  time.  With  the  view  of  facilitating  the  researches  of  the  student, 
as  well  as  of  rendering  the  work  more  available  for  the  purposes 
J  of  tuition,  the  compiler  has  adopted  the  novel  arrangement  of  a 
division  into  periods  of  centuries.  This  plan  appeared  to  him 
x  likely  to  simplify  the  study  of  history,  by  its  enabling  the  unprac- 
tised  reader  to  synchronize  facts,  to  group  round  one  common 
centre  the  events  occurring  at  the  same  time  in  various  and  some- 
^  times  widely  distant  countries,  and  to  prevent  that  confusion  of 

v  dates  and  occurrences  so  common  with  those  who  have  read  his- 

*  -■».  , 

5  tory  in  detached  portions.  As  an  initiatory  work,  he  trusts  that 
it  will  be  found  valuable  in  promoting  a  knowledge  of  one  of  the 
most  useful  branches  of  learning ;  and  it  is  accordingly  presented 

t  to  the  Public,  not  without  hope  of  indulgence  and  approbation. 

The  writer  lays  no  claim  to  originality :  if  he  shall  be  pro- 
-  l  nounced  fortunate  in  the  choice  and  condensation  of  his  materials, 
he  will  have  attained  the  object  of  his  wishes.  He  has  consulted 
^  the  best  works  in  the  English  language,  and  acknowledges  his 
-  great  obligations  to  several  of  the  more  recent  French  and  German 
"V  writers.  The  references  introduced  into  the  body  of  the  work 
*  serve  to  indicate  the  main  sources  from  which  his  information  has 
been  derived ;  and  it  is  hoped  they  will  also  be  serviceable  to  the 
^  student,  by  directing  the  course  of  his  further  researches,  as  well 
as  inducing  him  to  continue  them  in  a  more  extended  field. 

As  Jo  the  method  to  be  pursued  in  using  this  manual  for  the 
purposes  of  tuition,  the  compiler  deems  it  unnecessary  to  offer  any 
lengthened  directions ;  the  experienced  teacher  will  readily  adopt 
c\J  that  best  suited  to  the  capacities  of  those  under  his  charge.  The 

6  work  may  be  used  simply  as  a  reading-book ;  but  a  certain  por¬ 
tion  should  be  given  out  for  the  attentive  study  of  the  pupil,  after 
which  he  should  be  questioned  closely,  not  only  as  to  the  more 

1*  (V) 


VI 


PREFACE. 


general  facts,  but  also  the  most  trivial  circumstances  recorded. 
With  this  view,  he  might  be  required  occasionally  to  return  writ¬ 
ten  answers  to  a  series  of  questions  somewhat  like  the  following, 
which  are  selected  from  a  list  the  Compiler  has  drawn  up  for  the 
use  of  his  own  classes:  —  Origin  of  the  Wars  of  the.Roses,  de¬ 
scribing  also  the  principal  events  ? — Attacks  on  the  power  of  the 
English  and  Scotch  aristocracy  from  1450  to  1513? — Obstacles 
that  Henry  VII.  encountered  on  ascending  the  throne? — Number 
of  wars  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  with  their  principal 
events?  —  Causes  that  led  to  and  favoured  Reformation  in  Ger¬ 
many  ? — Defects  and  good  qualities  of  Elizabeth’s  administration  ! 
and  similar  subjects.  In  these  exercises,  the  pupil  will  of  course 
be  aided  by  the  explanations  and  directions  of  the  teacher,  with 
reference  to  the  authorities  to  be  consulted. 

The  importance  of  combining  geographical  with  historical  in¬ 
formation,  will  be  readily  appreciated,  and  the  pupils  should  at  all 
times  be  able  to  give  at  least  a  general  description  of  the  various 
countries  and  cities  mentioned  under  each  century.  Those  more 
advanced  may  from  time  to  time  be  required  to  construct  maps 
of — 1.  The  world,  immediately  after  the  dispersion,  indicating  the 
parts  settled  by  the  sons  of  Noah  and  their  descendants ;  2.  Em¬ 
pire  of  Alexander  ;  3.  Roman  Empire  under  Augustus  ;  4.  Roman 
Empire  at  period  of  Barbarian  Invasion ;  5.  V^orld  in  time  of 
Charlemagne ;  6.  Europe  at  Ottoman  Invasion ;  7.  Europe  at 
breaking  out  of  French  Revolution.  They  may  also  be  advan¬ 
tageously  employed  in  forming  synoptical  tables,  as  indicated  in 
the  body  of  the  Work.  These  may  be  increased  or  diminished 
at  the  option  of  the  teacher ;  but  the  design  should  ever  be  to 
make  the  scholar  his  own  historian,  and  so  to  interest  and  exer¬ 
cise  him  in  the  study,  as  to  impress  the  facts  and  dates  perma¬ 
nently  on  his  memory. 


January,  1843. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION,  Page  II. 


PART  FIRST.— ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


FROM  THE  CREATION,  4004  B.  C., 

EMPIRE, 


PAGE 

41st  Century  b.  c. 

Creation  of  the  World . 13 

Sth  Century  b.  c. 

Death  of  Abel — Posterity  of  Adam 
— Seth  born . 14 

24th  Century  b.  c. 

Universal  Deluge . ib. 

23d  Century  b.  c. 

Sacred  History . 15 

China . 16 

Formation  of  Nations . ib. 

22d  Century  b.  c. 

Egypt  —  Beginning  of  Genuine 
History . 17 

20th  Century  b.  c. 

Sacred  History . 19 

19th  Century  b.  c. 

Egypt . 20 

18th  Century  b.  c. 

Sacred  History . 21 

Egypt . ib. 

17th  Century  b.  c. 

Sacre/cJ  History . 22 

Greece — Origin  of  the  Greek  Na¬ 
tions . ib. 

1 6th  Century  b.  c. 

Sacred  History . 23 

Greece . 24 


PO  THE  FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN 
A.  D.  476. 


PAGE 


15th  Century  b.  c. 

Sacred  History . 25 

Egypt . . 27 

Phoenicia . ib. 

Greece . 28 

1 4th  Century  b.  c. 

Judsea . 29 

Greece . ib. 

13th  Century  b.  c. 

Judsea . 30 

Greece . ib. 

12th  Century  b.  c. 

Judsea . 31 

Greece . 32 

11th  Century  b.  c. 

Judsea . 33 

Greece . 35 

Grecian  Colonies . 36 

10th  Century  b.  c. 

Judsea . 37 

Greece . 39 

Syria . 40 

9th  Century  b.  c. 

Judsea .  41 

Greece . 43 

Carthage . 44 

Macedonia . 45 

8th  Century  b.c. 

Judsea . 45 

Greece . 47 


(viO 


CONTENTS. 


y 


Vlll 


\ 


.  .  PAGE 

Assyria .  43 

Lydia . 5i 

Rome  —  Origin  of  the  Roman 

People .  52 

7th  Century  b.  c. 

Judaea .  53 

Assyria .  54 

Media .  55 

Persia .  56 

Egypt .  57 

Greece .  53 

Rome .  00 

6th  Century  b.  c. 

Judaea .  61 

Assyria .  62 

Persia .  64 

Egypt .  66 

Greece .  67 

Rome .  69 

China . .  70 

5th  Century  b.  c. 

Judaea .  71 

Greece .  ib. 

Persia .  77 

Rome .  78 

Carthage .  81 

4th  Century  b.  c. 

Greece .  82 

Arts,  Literature  and  Science  among 

the  Greeks .  89 

Rome .  91 

Judaea .  93 

Persia .  94 

3d  Century  b.  c. 

Rome .  95 

Greece  and  Macedon .  98 

Egypt .  99 

Parthia . 100 


PAGE 

2d  Century  b.c. 


Rome . . 

Judaea  and  Syria . no 

1st  Century  b.c. 

Rome  . . . 

Second  Literary  Era . 122 

Judaea .  ib. 


CHRISTIAN  ERA. 
1st  Century  a.  d. 


Rome .  124 

Judaea . 123 

History  of  the  Church . 131 

Britain . 133 

2d  Century  a.  d. 

Rome . . 

The  Church . 137 

3d  Century  a.d. 

Pome . 139 

Palmyra . 143 

Persia .  ib. 

Barbarian  Invasions . 144 

The  Church .  ib. 

4th  Century  a.  d. 

Rome . ]47 

Eastern  Empire . 151 

Western  Empire . 152 

Barbaric  Migrations . 153 

The  Church. . . 154 

5th  Century  a.  d. 

Division  of  the  Empire . 158 

Eastern  Empire . 159 

Western  Empire.  .  . . . 160 

Venice . 165 

Gaul .  ib. 

Britain . 166 

The  Church . ib. 

Appendix  to  Part  First — History 

of  Literature . . . 168 


PART  SECOND _ HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE,  A.D.  476,  TO  THE  ERA  OF  THE 
REFORMATION,  AT  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 


6th  Century  a.  d. 


Greek  Empire . 174 

Persia . 177 

Italy . . . 178 


France . 180 

Spain . 183 

Britain . 184 

The  Church . . . 185 


CONTENTS. 


ix 


PAGE 


7th  Century  a.d. 

Greek  Empire. . . 186 

Persia . 188 

Arabia . 189 

Italy . 194 

France . 195 

Spain . 198 

The  Church .  ib. 

8th  Century  a.  d. 

Greek  Empire . 199 

Arabia . 200 

Spain . 202 

Italy . ' _ 204 

France . 205 

The  World  in  the  time  of  Charle¬ 
magne . 208 

The  Church . \ . 209 

Appendix  to  Eighth  Century — 
Fine  Arts,  from  the  Fail  of 
Rome  to  Charlemagne . 211 

9th  Century  a.  d. 

Greek  Empire . 212 

Arabia . 214 

Spain . 215 

France . 216 

The  Northmen . 218 

Germany . 219 

Italy . 220 

Britain . 222 

The  Church . 224 


10th  Century  a.d. 


Greek  Empire . 225 

Italy . 226 

France . 227 

Germany . 229 

Britain . 231 

Spain . 232 

Arabian  Empire . 233 

The  Church . 234 

The  World  at  the  End  of  the 

Tenth  Century . 235 


11th  Century  a.d. 


Greek  Empire . 236 

Italy . 238 

Germany . 239 

France. . . 242 

Spain . 243 

Arabian  Empire . 244 


page 

Britain . 254 

The  Church . 249 

The  Crusades . 251 

State  of  the  World  at  the  Epoch 
of  the  Crusades,  from  1096 
to  1273 .  254 

12th  Century  a.d. 

Greek  Empire. . . 255 

The  East . ...257 

Italy . .  ib. 

Germany . 258 

France . 260 

Spain . 261 

Britain .  ib. 

The  Church . 264 

13  th  Century  a.  d. 

Greek  Empire . 266 

Germany . 268 

Italy . 270 

France . . . 275 

Britain . 278 

Spanish  Peninsula . 279 

The  East . 281 

The  Church . 282 

Crusades . - . 284 

14th  Century  a.  d. 

Greek  Empire . 286 

The  East . 287 

Germany . 288 

Italian  Peninsula . 291 

France .  295 

Britain . 299 

Spanish  Peninsula . 303 

The  Church . 304 

Inventions,  &c . 306 

15th  Century  a.d. 

Greek  Empire . 307 

Ottoman  Empire  and  Turkey.  . .  308 

Germany . 311 

France . 315 

Britain . 321 

Italian  Peninsula . 330 

Spanish  Peninsula . 334 

Discoveries  and  Colonies . 339 

The  Church . 341 

Appendix  to  Part  Second — Com¬ 
merce,  the  Progress  of  Learn¬ 
ing,  Discoveries,  &c . 343 


PART  THIRD.— MODERN  HISTORY. 


FROM  THE  ERA  OF  THE  REFORMATION,  AT  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF 

THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 


PAGE 

16th  Century  a.  d. 


Britain . . . . 351 

Ireland . 361 

France . 362 

Italian  Peninsula . 369 

Spanish  Peninsula . 374 

The  Netherlands . 376 

Germany . 378 

Hungary  and  Bohemia . 383 

Poland  and  Russia . 384 

Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway.  .  386 
Ottoman  Empire  and  the  East. . .  387 

Colonies  and  Discoveries . 391 

Discoveries  and  Settlements  in 

North  America . 392 

The  Church . 395 

Letters,  Arts  and  Sciences . 398 

17th  Century  a.  d. 

Great  Britain . 401 

France . 407 

Spain  and  Portugal . 410 

Italian  Peninsula . 411 

Germany . .412 

Holland . 414 

Denmark . 416 

Sweden . 417 

Poland . 419 

Russia . 421 

Ottoman  Empire . 422 

The  East . 423 

Colonies . 425 

Settlement  of  the  United  States.  .  426 

The  Church . 430 

Literature,  Arts  and  Sciences ....  ib. 

18th  Century  a.  d. 

Great  Britain . 433 

France . 440 


PAGE 

Spain . 449 

Portugal . 452 

Italian  Peninsula . 453 

Germany . . 455 

Holland . 459 

Denmark . 461 

Sweden . 463 

Poland . 465 

Prussia . 468 

Russia . 471 

Turkey . 474 

Persia . 476 

India . 477 

United  States . 481 

Hayti . 484 

The  Church . 486 

Literature,  Arts  and  Sciences. . . .  487 

19  th  Century  a.d. 

Great  Britain . 491 

France . 496 

Spain . 504 

Portugal . 506 

Italy . 507 

Germany . 508 

Holland . 509 

Denmark . ib. 

Sweden . 510 

Prussia .  ib. 

Russia . 511 

Turkey . 512 

British  India . 513 

United  States . 515 

Brazil . . 517 

Spanish  Colonies .  ib. 

Literature,  Arts  and  Sciences.  ...  518 
Conclusion . 520 


INTRODUCTION. 


t 

Universal  History  is  commonly  divided  into  three  portions : — 

I.  Ancient  History,  which,  beginning  with  the  creation  of  the 
world,  4004  b.  c.,  terminates  a,  d.  476,  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Roman  empire. 

II.  The  Middle  Ages,  which  extend  from  the  fall  of  Rome,  a.  d. 
476,  to  the  discovery  of  America,  a.  d.  1492. 

III.  Modern  History,  which  commences  at  the  latter  epoch, 
and,  if  we  do  not  distinguish  it  from  Contemporaneous  History, 
is  continued  to  the  present  time. 

The  events  which  mark  the  separation  between  the  First  and 
Second  periods,  are  the  Irruption  of  the  Barbarians,  the  conse¬ 
quent  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  and  the  foundation  of  the 
modern  European  states;  between  the  Second  and  the  Third  are 
the  extension  of  learning  by  the  invention  of  printing,  the  taking 
of  Constantinople,  the  maritime  discoveries  of  Spain  and  Portu¬ 
gal,  with  the  more  extensive  use  of  fire-arms. 

I.  Ancient  History  may  be  subdivided  into  four  periods : — 

1.  The  Antediluvian ,  comprising  the  creation,  the  fall  of  man 
with  its  immediate  train  of  consequences,  and  ending  with  the 
general  deluge,  2348  b.  c. 

2.  The  Heroic ,  commencing  with  the  establishment  of  the  eai 
liest  empires  and  most  ancient  cities,  and  including  the  fabulous 
ages  of  Greece. 

3.  The  Historic ,  which  begins  with  the  first  Olympiad,  776  b.  c., 
nearly  synchronous  with  the  foundation  of  Rome,  753  b.  c.,  and 
comprises  the  legislative  eras  of  Lycurgus  and  Solon,  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  and  the  earlier  part  of  Roman 
history  to  the  end  of  the  Punic  wars. 

4.  The  Roman ,  from  the  fall  of  Carthage,  146  b.  c.,  to  that  of 
Rome,  a.  d.  476. 

II.  The  Middle  Ages  may  be  conveniently  arranged  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  six  periods : — 

1.  The  foundation  of  the  modern  states  of  Western  Europe,  a.  d. 
476-622,  when  the  Saxons  invaded  Britain,  449;  the  Visigoths 
settled  in  Spain,  507 ;  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy,  489 ;  and  the  Franks 
began  the  formation  of  the  French  monarchy,  a.  d.  481. 

(*i) 


Xll 


INTRODUCTION. 


2.  The  second  comprehends  the  age  of  Mohammed,  with  the 
propagation  of  his  creed  and  the  establishment  of  the  states  which 
embraced  his  religion,  a.  d.  622-800. 

3.  The  third  embraces  the  period  when  the  empire  of  the  West 
was  partially  restored  in  the  Franko-Germanic  dominions  of 
Charlemagne,  800-936. 

4.  The  fourth  is  the  interesting  period  of  the  dark  ages,  936- 
1100,  during  which  the  monarchy  of  Charlemagne  fell  to  ruin,  the 
Capetian  dynasty  began  to  reign  in  France,  Italy  was  parcelled 
out  among  a  number  of  petty  princes;  while  in  Germany  Otho 
commenced  the  long-continued  struggle  against  feudalism. 

5.  The  fifth  is  the  romantic  or  heroic  period  of  the  Crusades, 
1096-1273,  in  which  the  Roman  legal  code,  the  foundation  of 
great  part  of  modern  jurisprudence,  began  to  be  studied. 

6.  The  sixth  beheld  the  revival  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Italy,  the 
taking  of  Constantinople  and  consequent  diffusion  of  its  learned 
men,  the  revival  of  letters,  the  discovery  of  America,  1492,  and 
the  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1497. 

III.  Modern  History  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  six 
portions : — 

1.  The  period  of  the  Reformation,  from  its  commencement  by 
Luther  in  1517,  till  the  termination  of  the  long  series  of  Italian 
wars  in  1559. 

2.  The  period  of  the'  religious  wars,  particularly  in  France, 
from  1559  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  which  produced 
many  important  changes  in  Europe. 

3.  The  period  from  1648  to  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1715, 
during  which  Russia  entered  into  the  European  commonwealth, 
and  Great  Britain  began  to  assume  preponderating  influence  on 
the  Continent. 

4.  The  fourth  period  terminates  with  the  peace  of  Versailles, 
1783,  which  established  the  independence  of  the  United  States, 
and  during  which  Prussia  became  a  first-rate  power. 

5.  The  French  Revolution,  from  the  meeting  of  the  States- 
general  in  1789,  to  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815. 

6.  The  period  from  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  1815,  to  the  present 

day. 


I 


ELEMENTS 

OF 

% 

UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


PART  FIRST. 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

FROM  THE  CREATION  4004,  B.  C.  TO  THE  FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN 

EMPIRE,  476  A.  D. 


FORTY-FIRST  CENTURY 

4004,  Creation  of  the  World. 

Creation,  4004  b.  c. — “  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven 
and  the  earth,”  and  by  the  power  of  his  word,  gave  to  a  rude  chaotic 
mass  the  admirable  beauty  and  variety  which  n<  v  everywhere  salute 
the  eye.  Man  was  formed  the  last  and  best  of  his  works,  in  the  image 
of  his  Maker,  upright  and  happy,  with  powers  of  understanding  and 
will.  With  his  companion  Eve,  miraculously  framed  out  of  his  own 
substance,  be  dwelt  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  where,  yielding  to  the  sug¬ 
gestions  of  the  Tempter,  he  transgressed  the  divine  commands,  and 
incurred  all  the  penalties  due  to  the  violation  of  a  positive  law.  Sin 
with  its  mournful  train  entered  into  the  world;  and  though  the  Messiah 
was  graciously  promised,  our  first  parents,  being  driven  from  Paradise, 
were  condemned  to  a  life  of  toil  and  to  the  forfeiture  of  immortality. 

Geologists  assign  a  period  to  the  earth  far  exceeding  that  given  in  the  Mosaic 
records,  and  trace  the  various  stages  through  which  it  is  supposed  to  have 
passed  from  the  time  when  the  will  of  God  called  its  rude  germs  into  existence 
until  the  creation  of  man.  Water  first  enveloped  the  nucleus  of  the  earth  ;  a 
few  shell-fish  and  plants  composed  the  animal  and  vegetable  Kfe.  To  these, 
after  successive  revolutions,  were  added  the  mollusca,  fishes,  and  amphibious 
animals.  These  again  made  way  for  the  sea-horses,  whales,  and  others,  whose 
huge  carcasses  were  in  their  turn  added  to  the  solid  matter  of  the  globe,  which 
was  now  beginning  to  produce  vegetable  substances  adapted  to  the  use  and 
support  of  land-animals.  The  monsters  of  creation,  such  as  the  mammoth, 
were  next  called  into  existence,  to  disappear  after  an  appointed  period,  when 
the  present  race  of  animals  and  man  himself  were  to  succeed.  Such  is  the 
progress  of  creation  as  imagined  by  the  persevering  geologists  of  the  last  fifty 
years,  which,  far  from  contradicting  the  narrative  of  Moses,  confirms  our  faith 


14 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


THIRTY-NINTH  CENTURY. 

875,  Death  of  Abel — Posterity  of  Adam — Seth,  born  3874. 

Abel. — After  his  fall,  Adam  had  two  sons,  Cain  and  Aoel;  the  one 
a  husbandman,  the  other  a  shepherd,  and  each  as  different  from  tne 
other  in  temper  as  in  occupation.  Filled  with  rage  and  jealousy  at  the 
acceptance  of  his  brother’s  sacrifice,  Cain  put  forth  his  hand  and  mur¬ 
dered  him,  3875.  Thus  our  first  parent  beheld  the  fruits  of  his  disobe¬ 
dience,  not  only  in  the  presence  of  death,  till  then  unknown,  but  in  his 
first-born  becoming  the  minister  of  vengeance.  The  descendants  of  his 
third  son,  Seth,  were  as  distinguished  for  piety,  as  those  of  Cain-  for 
irreligion ;  the  former  were  in  consequence  denominated  the  sons  of  God, 
the  latter  the  sons  of  men. 

In  the  new  world  population  rapidly  increased ;  fields  were  cultivated,  cattle 
bred,  and  their  skins  used  for  clothing;  Jabal  made  the  first  tents;  musical 
instruments  were  the  invention  of  Jubal;  and  Tubal-Cain  (supposed  by  some 
to  be  the  Vulcan  of  Pagan  mythology) .discovered  the  art  of  working  in  metals. 
Already  the  strong  began  to  assume  authority  over  the  weak.  The  offering 
of  expiatory  sacrifices  and  the  sanctification  of  the  sabbath  originated  in  this 
early  period. 


TWENTY-FOURTH  CENTURY. 

2348,  Universal  Deluge. 

Deluge. — The  death  of  Adam  (3074,)  the  translation  of  Enoch  (3017,) 
the  feebleness  of  the  other  patriarchs,  and  the  luxuriant  abundance  of 
the  earth,  filled  man’s  heart  with  presumption  and  guilt.  Impiety  made 
rapid  progress,  and  like  a  contagious  pestilence  infected  all  the  mass  of 
society.  In  the  midst  of  the  general  depravity  one  individual  alone 
found  grace  in  the  eyes  of  the  Lord.  In  the  year  of  the  world  1G56,  the 
whole  of  the  human  race  was  destroyed  by  a  deluge,  the  only  survivors 
being  Noah  and  his  family,  in  all  eight  persons,  who  were  preserved  in 
an  ark  built  in  obedience  to  the  divine  command,  2348  b.  c.  On  the 
subsiding  of  the  waters,  this  vessel  rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  in  Arme¬ 
nia,*  whence  all  the  earth  was  again  progressively  peopled.  The  rain¬ 
bow  was  then  appointed  as  a  covenant  between  God  and  man,  that 
there  should  not  be  any  more  flood  to  destroy  the  earth. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  effects  of  the  Deluge  was  the  rapid  decrease 
of  the  duration  of  human  life.  The  ten  antediluvian  patriarchs  lived  on  an 
average  850  years  each,  while  their  immediate  successors  did  not  exceed  320. 
But  under  a  favourable  climate  and  with  an  increasing  population,  the  arts 
soon  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection.  The  longevity  of  the  postdiluvian 
patriarchs  had  the  effect  of  maintaining  the  natural  authority  of  the  parent, 
while  it  also  tended  to  repress  the  fickle  passions  of  youth.  When  God’s 
more  immediate  protection  wTas  removed,  the  span  of  life  wras  contracted  ;  and 


*  This  celebrated  mountain  is  situated  in  3£P  42'  N.  44°  18'  E.  nearly  in  the  centre 
between  the  southern  extremities  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian  seas,  and  is  visible  at 
the  distance  of  180  or  200  miles.  Spreading  its  broad  base  along  the  plain  of  the  Araxes, 
it  rises  in  majestic  grandeur  17,260  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  whole  of  its  upper 
region  being  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  it  is  regarded  with  the  greatest  veneration 
by  the  natives,  who  have  many  religious  establishments  in  its  vicinity. 


TWENTY-THIRD  CENTURY  B.  C. 


15 


now  its  very  brevity  gives  vigour  to  all  the  efforts  of  society,  and  the  rapid 
change  of  actors  inspires  each  with  a  hope  of  excelling  in  his  own  brief  stage.* 


TWENTY-THIRD  CENTURY. 

Sacred  History. — Dispersion  of  Mankind — Formation  of  Nations — 2247, 
Babel — Nimrod  founds  the  Chaldean  Monarchy,  2234. 

China. — First  dynasty  :  Fohi,  2207. 

Sacred  History . 

The  Dispersion. — The  distribution  of  the  world  among  the  children 
of  Noah  was  not  made  at  random  ;  for  as  early  as  the  third  generation 
■ifter  the  Flood,  it  was  arranged  by  the  patriarch  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  God.  By  this  division  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  fell  to 
Japhet ;  Central  Asia  to  Shem ;  and  to  Ham  were  assigned  the  distant 
regions  of  Africa.  But  violence  was  early  used  to  derange  this  parti¬ 
tion;  Nimrod,  the  Belus  of  profane  writers,  expelled  Ashur  from  the 
land  of  Shinar,  and  Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham,  seized  upon  Palestine, 
which  belonged  to  Shem.  In  the  subsequent  expulsion  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  by  the  Hebrews,  we  behold  the  certain  though  tardy  retribution  of 
the  Almighty. 

Babel,  2247. — The  descendants  of  Cush,  who  had  refused  to  follow 
the  rest  of  the  children  of  Ham  into  Africa,  seized  upon  the  fertile  plains 
of  Shinar,  where  under  Nimrod  they  began  to  build  the  tower  of  Babel, 
and  lay  the  foundation  of  a  permanent  monarchy.  But,  lest  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  the  infant  society  of  the  world  should  be  crushed  by  an  oppres¬ 
sive  despotism,  God  confounded  their  language  and  scattered  them  over 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Around  that  remarkable  edifice|  the  magnificent 
city  of  Babylon  was  afterwards  raised  (32°  25'  N.  44°  E.) 

Assyria  and  Babylon.  —  Rejecting  the  narratives  of  the  Greeks, 
which  appear  to  have  no  better  basis  than  a  vague  and  popular  tradition, 
we  learn  from  the  Scripture  history  that  Ashur,  being  supplanted  by 
Nimrod,  retired  towards  the  mountains,  and  built  a  city  of  defence  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  which  afterwards,  under  the  appellation  of 
Nineveh,  became  the  seat  of  empire  about  the  year  2234.  Incessam 


♦There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  precise  epoch  of  the  Deluge.  It  is 
fixed  by  the  learned  authors  of  VArt  de  verifier  les  Dates  at  3308  b.  c.,  by  the  Septuagint 
text  at  3246,  both  of  which  nearly  concur  with  the  beginning  of  the  Hindoo  Kali  Yug, 
3101  b.  c.  The  period  assigned  to  the  creation  is  equally  unsettled;  and  more  than  200 
dates  have  been  collected  by  Desvignoles,  ranging  from  6984  to  3483,  b.  o. 

fThe  remains  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  are  supposed  still  to  exist  in  the  Birs  Nemroud 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  about  six  miles  to  the  south-west  of  Hillah.  Mr. 
Rich  describes  this  venerable  ruin  as  a  prodigious  mound,  nearly  half  a  mile  in  circum¬ 
ference  and  198  feet  in  height ;  on  its  summit  is  a  solid  pile  of  brick,  37  feet  high  by  28 
in  breadth,  shattered  at  the  top,  and  rent  by  a  large  fissure.  Around  it  lie  immense  frag¬ 
ments  of  brick  work,  of  no  determinate  figure,  and  converted  into  solid  vitrified  masses, 
as  if  they  had  undergone  the  action  of  the  fiercest  fire.  Nebuchadnezzar,  about  600  b.  c 
formed  it  into  that  celebrated  tower,  which  was  reckoned  among  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  When  Alexander  the  Great  undertook  to  restore  it  to  its  former  splendour,  10  000 
men  were  occupied  two  months  in  clearing  away  the  ruins  caused  by  the  devastations 
of  Xerxes.  The  building  was  probably  intended  for  a  fire-tower ,  on  which  to  offer  sacri 
fices  to  the  Sun  (Bel  or  Baal). 


16 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


hostility  prevailed  for  centuries  between  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians, 
who  had  not  all  left  the  plains  of  Shinar  (Mesopotamia.)  The  name 
of  Babylon  does  not  again  occur  in  authentic  history  until  the  8th 
century  b.  c.,  shortly  before  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  under  whom 
it  became  the  capital  of  an  extensive  monarchy.  The  Chasdim  (descend¬ 
ants  of  Cush)  who  still  remained,  were  known  as  the  Chaldeans,  pro¬ 
bably  a  caste  of  priests,  renowned  for  their  scientific  attainments. 

CHINA. 

Fohi. — Though  it  is  difficult  to  assign  a  fixed  epoch  for  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  Chinese  history,  we  must  reject  the  exaggerated  state¬ 
ments  which  give  a  duration  to  the  empire  of  nearly  280,000  years.  It 
is  probable  that  the  Eastern  parts  of  Asia  were  visited  early,  and  that 
the  immediate  posterity  of  Noah  descended  from  the  central  mountains 
to  those  fertile  plains  which  are  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  the 
Hoang-Ho  and  the  Kiang,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  a  regular  society 
under  the  celebrated  Fohi,  2207.  By  him  the  people  were  divided  into 
a  hundred  families,  each  having,  as  at  present,  a  particular  name ;  the 
sacred  rites  of  marriage  were  enforced  ;  the  land  was  cultivated,  cattle 
bred,  and  metals  forged.  He  died  in  the  115th  year  of  his  reign. 

The  existence  of  Fohi,  and  the  chronological  list  of  his  successors  given  by 
Chinese  writers  down  to  the  third  century  b.  c..  are  questioned  by  the  critics 
of  modern  days,  who  treat  as  fables  every  thing  that  is  transmitted  in  the 
national  annals  before  that  period.  Fohi  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  only 
another  name  for  Noah. 

Formation  of  Nations. 

All  the  various  races  that  people  the  earth’s  surface  spring  from  the  three 
sons  of  Noah,  and  are  divided  into  three  corresponding  branches. 

I.  Japhet  may  be  regarded  as  the  parent  of  the  White  or  Caucasian  branch, 
which  spread  over  most  part  of  Europe,  S.  Asia,  and  N.  Africa.  It  admits  of 
three  subdivisions : — 

a.  — The  Arameans ,  a  race  dwelling  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Medi¬ 
terranean,  including  the  Arabs,  Egyptians,  and  Abyssinians  ; 

b. - — Indians,  Pelasgians,  and  Germans,  from  whom  are  descended  the 
inhabitants  of  India,  and  of  great  part  of  Europe  ; 

c.  — Scythians  and  Tartars ,  or  the  people  bordering  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 
among  whom  are  the  Turks,  Hungarians,  and  Finns. 

II.  Shem  is  the  parent  stock  of  the  tawny,  olive,  or  Mongol  race,  which 
admits  of  six  divisions : — 

a.  — The  Mantchoos  in  Central  Asia; 

b.  — The  Chinese  in  China  and  Japan  ; 

c.  — The  Hyperboreans,  who  peopled  the  extreme  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  such  as  the  Laplanders,  Samoeids  and  Esquimaux. 

d.  — The  Malays  in  Malacca,  and  those  islands  comprehended  in  the  term 
Malasia,  the  chief  of  which  are  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Celebes. 

e.  — The  Oceanians,  differing  little  from  the  preceding,  inhabit  the  numerous 
small  islands  lying  in  a  S.  E.  direction  between  Japan  and  the  equator,  with 
New  Zealand,  the  Sandwich,  and  the  Society  Islands. 

f.  — Americans,  or  copper  coloured  Indians,  who  composed  the  primitive 
population  of  the  New  World. 

III.  Ham  was  the  father  of  the  black  race,  which  may  be  subdivided  into,- 

a.  — The  Ethiopians  in  Central  Africa  ; 

b.  — The  Caffres  on  the  south-eastern  coast , 

c  The  Hottentots  of  the  South  of  Africa. 


TWENTY-SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 


17 


Both  tradition  and  history  point  to  the  remote  East  as  the  storehouse  of  the 
human  race.  From  the  table-land  in  the  vicinity  of  Balkh,  in  more  recent 
times,  issued  the  Huns,  Avars,  Magyars,  Mongols,  and  Turks;  and  modern 
researches  derive  the  Hindoos  from  the  same  locality. 

Traces  of  three  primeval  languages  may  also  be  found  :  —  1.  The  Arabic  or 
Chaldee ,  from  which  spring  the  dialects  used  by  the  Assyrians,  Arabs,  and 
Jews: — 2.  From  the  Sanscrit ,  radically  different  from  the  Arabic,  spring  the 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Celtic  dialects,  the  Persian,  Armenian,  and  old  Egyptian: 
—  3.  From  the  Slavonic  or  Tartarian ,  essentially  different  from  the  two  pre¬ 
ceding,  are  formed  the  various  dialects  of  northern  Asia  and  north-eastern 
Europe.  The  Hindoos  preserve  a  tradition  that  there  were  originally  eighteen 
languages. 

Modern  naturalists,  confining  their  view  to  the  animal  nature  of  man  and 
taking  no  account  of  language  or  of  the  minor  and  superficial  varieties  in  the 
exterior,  admit  at  present  of  jive  races: — Caucasian,  Negro,  Tartar,  American, 
Malay. 

Consult :  Buffon’s  Natural  History,  vol.  i. 


TWENTY-SECOND  CENTURY. 

Egypt. — 2188,  Menes — Beginning  of  Genuine  History. 

Preliminary  Observations. 

Great  obscurity  covers  the  early  part  of  Egyptian  history ;  the  account 
given  by  Moses  has  reference  merely  to  his  own  age ;  and  the  information 
derived  from  Herodotus,  Manetho,  and  others,  tends  rather  to  confuse  than 
enlighten  us.  The  sacred  island  of  Meroe,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Astaboras  and  the  Astapus  (the  Tacazze  and  the  Blue  River)  with  the  Nile, 
appears  to  have  been  the  centre  of  commercial  and  religious  resort.  Thence 
the  primitive  civilizers  of  mankind,  bearing  with  them  the  worship  of  Ammon 
and  Osiris,  the  arts  of  life,  the  habits  of  trade,  and,  above  all,  the  science  and 
implements  of  agriculture,  gradually  spread  their  industrious  colonies  down  the 
Nile.  In  some  parts  they  found  a  rude  race  already  settled  (probably  some 
pastoral  Arab  tribes  who  had  come  round  by  the  way  of  the  isthmus),  and  over 
whom  they  assumed  the  ascendant  of  superior  civilisation,  and  formed  a  higher 
caste.  At  an  early  period  the  mountains  which  skirt  the  fertile  plains  of  Thebes, 
were  excavated  into  dwellings  for  themselves  and  their  gods;  whence,  gra¬ 
dually  spreading  over  the  intervening  plain,  they  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
“  hundred-gated  city.”  Sacerdotal  colonies,  forming  separate  nomes,  gradually 
fixed  themselves  in  all  places  suited  for  agriculture  or  traffic ;  the  temple,  col¬ 
lege,  and  mart,  became  a  new  city,  and  perhaps  a  kingdom.  Almost  every 
ancient  city  bore  the  name  of  its  god,  as  Diospolis  (Thebes),  Heliopolis  (On), 
Hephaistopolis  (Memphis),  and  many  others. 

Menes. — Egyptian  history,  properly  so  called,  begins  with  this  sove¬ 
reign,  when  the  sacerdotal  form  of  government  was  changed  into  the 
monarchical,  or  the  reign  of  the  gods  gave  way  to  that  of  men.  This 
first  mortal  king  has  been  identified  by  many  chronologers,  on  insuffi¬ 
cient  grounds,  with  the  Mizraim  of  the  Scriptures.  Others  have  sup¬ 
posed  him  to  be  the  same  as  Osiris,  Osymandyas,  Uchoreus,  and  Mccris 
Of  Menes  or  of  his  age  we  have  only  a  few  vague  traditions.  Herodotus* 
ascribes  to  him  the  construction  of  a  vast  dam  or  mound,  by  which  the 
course  of  the  Nile  was  altered  and  confined  and  Memphis  secured  against 
inundation.  Diodorus  says  that  he  taught  the  people  to  worship  the 
gods  and  offer  sacrifice,  and  that  he  introduced  luxury  and  a  sumptuous 
style  of  living.  From  Menes,  to  Moeris  in  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  there 
2* 


18 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


is  a  wide  chasm,  feebly  supplied  by  the  scattered  notices  in  the  Penta¬ 
teuch.  The  priests  read  to  Herodotus  a  fabulous  roll  of  330  inglorious 
monarchs,  eighteen  of  whom  were  Ethiopians,  with  one  queen,  named 
Nitocris. 

Religion. — The  main  doctrine  of  the  Egyptian  religion  was  the  transmigra¬ 
tions  of  souls  to  an  inferior  or  superior  state  of  being,  according  as  a  man 
pursued  vice  or  virtue  during  his  life.  The  principal  divinities  of  Egypt  were 
Kneph ,  the  creator  of  the  universe,  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  serpent ; 
PhtJia,  the  vivifying  power  of  nature,  whom,  owing  to  his  symbol,  fire,  the 
Greeks  confounded  with  Vulcan;  Osiris,  or  the  Sun;  and  Isis,  or  the  Moon. 
The  heavenly  bodies  were  regarded  as  the  great  causes  of  nutrition~and  genera¬ 
tion.  Terrestrial  and  mortal  divinities  were  also  worshipped,  many  of  whom 
had  been  kings,  and  were  thus  honoured  as  gods,  for  the  benefits  they  conferred 
on  their  subjects  during  life.  Baby  or  Typhon  was  detested  as  the  murderer 
of  Osiris  and  the  scourge  of  his  family  and  nation.  Horus,  Thoth,  Serapis,  and 
Anubis  were  other  of  their  deities.  The  religious  extravagance  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tians  accorded  divine  honours  to  many  animals  and  vegetables.  Cats  were  held 
especially  sacred,  and  their  death  was  mourned  by  shaving  the  eyebrows.  The 
preservation  of  this  animal  during  a  conflagration  was  of  more  importance  than 
that  of  a  house  ;  and  for  having  killed  one  undesignedly,  a  soldier  in  the  army 
of  Antony  was  torn  in  pieces  by  the  enraged  multitude.  The  bull  Apis  was 
worshipped  in  a  magnificent  temple,  and  by  the  noblest  priests.  His  death  was 
considered  a  national  calamity,  and  the  installation  of  his  successor  at  Memphis 
was  a  universal  holiday.  By  their  long  residence  in  Egypt  the  Israelites  had 
gradually  acquired  many  of  the  religious  notions  peculiar  to  the  country  ;  hence 
the  molten  calf  set  up  in  the  desert,  and  the  golden  calves  worshipped  at  Bethel 
arid  Dan,  under  Jeroboam,  were  representations  of  the  Egyptian  Apis. 

Government. — The  30,000  years  of  the  reign  of  the  Sun,  the  3984  of  the 
twelve  gods,  and  217  of  the  demigods,  are  either  an  allegory  or  an  astronomical 
problem  converted  into  history.  The  earliest  form  of  government  of  which  we 
can  speak  with  any  certaint}'  was  sacerdotal,  which  was  followed  by  the  regal. 
The  population  was  divided  into  castes,  as  in  Hindostan  at  the  present  day  ;  the 
priesthood  were  in  the  first  rank,  the  soldiers  in  the  second,  then  followed  the 
nusbandmen,  traders,  and  artificers  ;  sailors  and  shepherds  formed  the  lowest. 
The  country  was  originally  divided  into  nomes  or  districts,  each  so  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  various  local  usages  and  objects  of  worship,  as  to  lead  to  the 
conjecture  that  they  once  formed  permanent  and  independent  states.  The  four 
principal  dynasties  were  those  of  Tanis,  Memphis,  Thebes,  and  This. 

Arts  and  Sciences. — The  Egyptians,  at  an  early  period,  had  made  astonish¬ 
ing  progress  in  certain  sciences.  The  contention  of  the  necromancers  with 
Moses  shows  the  great  advances  they  had  made  in  natural  magic, —  namely* 
physics  and  chemistry.  Geometry  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  destruction 
of  the  landmarks  in  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile.  Architecture  was  car¬ 
ried  to  great  perfection  ;  the  construction  of  the  arch  was  not  unknown,  and 
Mr.  (now  Sir  J.  G.)  Wilkinson  places  its  introduction  so  far  back  as  1540  b.  c., 
coeval  with  the  eighteenth  dynasty ;  and  the  stupendous  pyramids,  while  they 
astonish  the  traveller  by  their  magnitude,  attest  the  astronomical  skill  of  their 
builders.  Each  side  of  the  base  of  the  great  pyramid,  multiplied  by  500,  pro¬ 
duces  a  geographical  degree.  Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  these  monu¬ 
ments  were  built  before  the  Flood.  It  is  not  improbable  that  they  were  erected 
to  gratify  the  pride,  or  satisfy  the  superstition  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  The 
temples  and  palaces  of  Thebes  are  colossal,  but  ill  proportioned ;  the  ground  is 
in  many  places  strewed  with  massy  obelisks  formed  of  a  single  stone  ;  and 
^venues  of  sphinxes  still  direct  to  the  centre  of  religious  worship.  The  walls 
and  ceilings  of  public  and  private  buildings  are  covered  with  paintings,  as  fresh 
as  when  first  executed ;  but  the  four  simple  and  unmixed  colours  which  are 
used  declare  the  infancy  of  the  art. 

Hieroglyphics. — The  sanguine  anticipations  of  the  learned  appear  to  be  dis¬ 
appointed  by  the  meagre  results  obtained  from  deciphering  the  Egyptian  writ¬ 
ings,  whether  on  stone  or  papyrus.  The  hieroglyphs  (sacred  engraved  characters) 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


19 


are  a  kind  of  allegorical  picture-writing,  in  which  the  signs  borrowed  from  natural 
objects  serve  partly  to  represent  sounds,  and  partly  to  express  ideas.  There 
are  two  other  species  of  writing : — -the  hieratic ,  confined  to  the  priests  ;  and  the 
demotic ,  used  in  common  life — both  apparently  running  hands  derived  from  the 
hieroglyphic  system. 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY. 

✓ 

Sacred  History. — 1921,  Call  of  Abraham — Destruction  of  Sodom. — 
1968,  Ninus  supposed  to  reign  in  Assyria. 


Abraham,  of  the  race  of  Shem,  was  born  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 
Although  connected  with  the  idolatrous  fire-worship  of  his  native  coun¬ 
try,  he  possessed  some  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  for  he  obeyed  the 
divine  command  without  hesitation,  and  moved  westward  to  Haran ,  that 
Charrae  famous  for  the  defeat  and  death  of  Crassus.  Passing  the 
Euphrates,  he  at  last,  after  various  wanderings,  settled  in  the  Promised 
Land.  The  kings  of  the  Pentapolis  having  revolted  against  Chedor- 
laomer,  king  of  Elam  (Elymais,)  that  monarch  was  obliged  to  take  up 
arms  against  them,  in  order  to  preserve  the  fidelity  of  the  adjoining 
states  He  defeated  the  allied  army  and  captured  Lot,  the  nephew  of 
Abraham,  by  whom  he  was  shortly  after  rescued,  1913.  Returning 
from  his  victory  over  the  Elamites,  he  was  met  by  Melchizedek  king  of 
Salem,  priest  of  the  Most  High,  who  blessed  him  and  received  in  return 
a  tithe  of  the  spoil,  as  an  offering  to  the  God  who  had  crowned  the 
undertaking  with  success.  But  the  piety  of  the  patriarch  was  unable  to 
avert  the  destruction  of  the  Cities  of  the  Plain,  1897.  Jehovah  rained 
down  fire  and  brimstone  from  heaven,  and  the  Dead  Sea  now  covers  the 
ruins  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  and  Zeboirn.  On  the  birth  of 
Isaac  (1896,)  the  mother  urged  Abraham  to  drive  out  Hagar  with  the 
child  Ishmael,  which  she  had  born  him,  lest  he  should  share  the  paternal 
heritage.  The  two  exiles  retired  to  the  desert,  where  the  youth  married 
an  Egyptian  woman,  and  his  descendants  are,  to  this  day,  a  living  wit¬ 
ness  to  the  truth  of  the  prophecy  of  the  angel, — he  will  be  a  wild  man , 
his  hand  will  be  against  every  man ,  and  every  mail's  hand  against  him , — 
Persians,  Greeks  and  Romans,  Mongols  and  Tartars,  having  vainly 
endeavoured  to  subdue  them.  The  Hejazite  kings  of  Arabia,  to  whose 
dynasty  Mohammed  belonged,  reckon  the  son  of  Hagar  among  their 
ancestors. 

When  Isaac  was  little  more  than  twenty  years  of  age,  God  demanded 
him  as  a  burnt-sacrifice ;  but  the  faith  of  the  patriarch  prevented  the 
consummation  of  the  painful  duty,  and  the  covenant  made  before  Abra¬ 
ham  quitted  Chaldea  was  renewed  in  stronger  terms,  187*2.  This  father 
of  the  faithful  expired  at  the  age  of  175,  b.  c.  1821,  leaving  behind  him 
a  numerous  family.  Besides  the  Israelites  and  Ishmaelites,  he  was,  by 
his  second  wife  Keturah,  the  ancestor  of  the  Midianites  and  several 
other  Arab  tribes. 


20 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Character  of  Abraham. 

In  whatever  light  we  view  the  patriarch,  we  remark  traits  of  grandeur  that 
place  him  beside  the  great  heroes  of  antiquity.  He  was  a  despotic  king  over 
his  descendants  and  slaves,  without  the  inconvenient  title  and  ceremonies 
Princes  sought  his  alliance,  as  their  equal ;  like  a  modern  sheik ,  he  made  peace 
or  war  as  he  pleased.  Possessing  countless  herds,  the  only  riches  of  the  age, 
he  lived  in  abundance,  rejecting  all  presents,  lest  any  should  boast  that  he  had 
enriched  himself  by  them.  As  a  religious  man,  he  had  the  most  implicit  con¬ 
fidence  in  the  promises  of  God,  and  was  always  resigned  to  his  commands, 
even  to  the  sacrifice  of  his  only  son.  As  soon  as  the  Almighty  spoke,  he 
believed  against  all  appearances,  hoped  even  against  hope,  and  obeyed  in  spite 
of  the  strongest  affections  of  our  nature.  He  was  a  man  of  divine  mould,  the 
model  as  well  as  the  father  of  all  true  believers. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Egypt. — Invasion  of  the  Shepherds. 

Greece. — 1856,  Kingdom  of  Argos  founded  by  Inachus. 


Shepherd  Kings. — The  invasion  of  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings 
is  an  event  of  great  importance  in  Egyptian  history,  but  much  uncer¬ 
tainty  exists  as  to  the  period  when  it  took  place.  We  learn  that,  in  the 
reign  of  Timaos  (Thammuz),  Egypt  was  invaded  by  a  pastoral  tribe, 
who,  after  subduing  the  lower  country,  extended  their  ravages  to  the 
Thebais,  which,  however,  they  could  not  reduce,  and  where  a  native 
dynasty  long  continued  to  reign.  They  are  said  to  have  made  Memphis 
their  capital,  and  to  have  established  a  fortified  camp  at  Abaris  (Pelu- 
sium,)  in  the  Saitic  nome,  where  they  stationed  240,000  men.  These 
invaders  are  represented  on  the  monuments  with  tattooed  limbs  and  skin 
garments,  and  as  preserving  their  wild  habits  and  rudeness  until  their 
expulsion.  This  event  took  place  under  the  first  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty  of  Thebes,  260  years  after  the  inroad.  Amosis,  or  Thoutmosis, 
raised  the  country  from  its  prostrate  state,  and  formed  one  compact  king¬ 
dom  with  Thebes  for  its  capital. 

This  period  of  Egyptian  history  is  greatly  confused,  as  much  from  the  want 
of  information  as  from  contradictory  accounts.  Heeren  places  the  Shepherd 
dominion  between  1800  and  1600  b.  c.  contemporary  with  Moses  and  the 
Exodus;  he  also  supposes  a  number  of  successive  invasions.  Dr.  Hales 
assigns  2159  b.  c.  for  the  epoch  of  the  Pastoral  Kings,  and  supposes  them  to 
have  been  expelled  about  27  years  before  the  commencement  of  Joseph’s 
administration.  The  authors  of  the  Universal  History,  following  Josephus, 
give  a  duration  of  more  than  500  years  to  this  dynasty.  Rollin  places  them 
between  2084  and  1825  b.  c.,  and  makes  Abraham  visit  Egypt  under  one  or 
these  foreign  kings.  The  Jewish  annalist  maintains  that  these  exterminating 
invaders  are  merely  the  70  peaceful  members  who  formed  the  family  of  his 
ancestor  Jacob.  The  red  hair  and  blue  eyes  of  the  Hyksos  seem  to  indicate 
a  northern  and  probably  a  Scythian  origin ;  they  certainly  have  nothing  of  the 
Arabian  character. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


21 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Sacred  History. — 1837,  6.  Esau  and  Jacob — 1728,  Joseph  in  Egypt. — 

1706,  Israelites  settled  in  Goshen. 

Egypt. — Foreign  Intercourse. 

Sacred  History . 

The  life  of  Isaac  was  not  eventful.  He  dwelt  within  the  borders  of 
the  Promised  Land,  where  he  practised  agriculture,  and  became  so 
wealthy  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbouring  princes.  By  his 
prudence  he  averted  the  calamities  of  war,  and  renewed  the  treaty  that 
had  been  concluded  between  his  father  and  Abimelech.  His  two  sons, 
Esau  and  Jacob,  were  men  of  different  characters :  the  elder  applied 
himself  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  by  the  active  pleasures  of  the 
chase  acquired  a  hardy  frame  of  body;  Jacob,  on  account  of  his  mild 
and  peaceful  manners,  was  the  object  of  his  mother’s  peculiar  affection. 
The  latter  defrauded  Esau  of  his  father’s  benediction,  and  was  obliged 
to  flee  from  his  just  resentment.  In  his  journey  toward  Mesopotamia, 
1760,  he  was  visited  by  God  in  his  sleep,  who  promised  him  a  numerous 
posterity,  as  well  as  the  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  On  the 
death  of  Isaac,  at  the  age  of  180  years,  the  two  brothers  divided  the 
inheritance ;  the  younger  remained  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  while  the 
other  returned  to  the  country  'which  had  derived  from  him  the  name  of 
Edom  {red.)  His  numerous  posterity  occupied  that  part  of  Idumea 
called  Amalekitis ,  from  a  descendant  of  Ham,  or,  according  to  some,  from 
Amalek,  the  grandson  of  Esau. 

Joseph. — The  twelve  sons  of  Jacob  did  not  all  imitate  the  piety  of 
their  father.  One  of  the  number,  Joseph,  became  the  victim  of  their 
jealousy,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  was  sold  by  them  to  a  caravan  of 
Ishmaelites  who  were  on  their  way  to  Egypt,  1728.  Here  he  speedily 
rose  to  honour,  became  the  minister  of  Thoutmosis ,  the  reigning  pharaoh, 
and  by  his  foresight  he  preserved  the  country  from  famine  during  seven 
years  of  sterility.  He  strengthened  the  royal  power,  and  secured  the 
comforts  of  the  people,  by  establishing  a  fixed  land-tax  or  rent  of  one- 
fifth  of  the  produce  instead  of  the  previous  arbitrary  exactions.  His 
own  influence  was  confirmed  by  a  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the 
priest  of  On ;  and  the  government,  which  had  been  theocratic  and  mili¬ 
tary,  now  became  entirely  sacerdotal.  Jacob,  with  all  his  family,  were 
soon  after  settled  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  1706,  which  not  only  afforded 
excellent  pasture,  but  was  separated  by  its  remoteness  from  the  Egyp¬ 
tians,  who  had  recently  suffered  too  much  from  the  Shepherd  Kings  to 
associate  readily  with  those  who  followed  the  same  occupation.  By  this 
means  also  the  exposed  frontier  was  confided  to  the  protection  of  a  hardy 
and  warlike  race. 


EGYPT. 

The  state  of  Memphis,  in  which  Joseph  resided,  comprised  at  this 
period  Middle  and  Low'er  Egypt ;  and  the  Mosaic  records  prove  that  it 
contained  a  brilliant  court,  with  its  castes  of  priests  and  w’arriors. 
.  Thoutmosis  reigned  twenty-five  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Shep 


22 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


herd  dynasty.  Among’  his  successors  is  reckoned  Mceris,  who  is  said  to 
have  excavated  the  great  lake  which  bears  his  name. 

This  century  witnessed  the  first  communication  between  the  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  Egyptians.  Joseph  and  the  twelve  patriarchs  on  the  one 
side,  a  King  of  Thessaly  and  the  Titans  on  the  other,  sought  an  asylum 
in  Egypt.  The  Israelites  were  then  a  mere  nomad  tribe,  like  the  Arabs 
at  the  present  day ;  the  Greeks  were  Scythians  or  Pelasgians ;  both 
were  new  people:  while  the  Chaldeans,  the  Sidonians,  and  the  Egyp¬ 
tians,  were  skilled  in  astronomy  and  navigation,  and  learned  in  theology, 
morals,  politics,  the  art  of  war,  and  maritime  commerce.  During  their 
stay  in  Egypt,  the  Greeks  and  Hebrews  derived  from  a  common  source 
their  first  learning,  subject  to  the  various  influences  of  the  climate  and 
superstitions  of  the  countries  to  which  they  removed. 

Read :  Russel’s  Ancient  and  Modern  Egypt  in  the  Edinburgh  Cabinet 
Library,  and  Wilkinson’s  Manners  of  the  Egyptians. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY 

Sacked  History. — 1635,  Death  of  Joseph. 

Greece. — The  Pelasgi — Sicyon. 

Sacred  History . 

The  settlement  of  the  Jewish  people  in  Egypt  tended  in  some  degree 
to  recall  them  from  their  nomad  state.  The  patriarch  Jacob  lived  only 
seventeen  years  to  enjoy  the  presence  of  his  son  Joseph,  and  witness  the 
happiness  of  his  family.  He  died  in  1689  b.  c.,  at  the  age  of  147, 
blessing  his  children,  and  foretelling  the  birth  of  the  Messiah  from  the 
race  of  Judah.  His  favourite  son  survived  fifty-four  years,  and  saw  his 
descendants  in  the  fourth  generation.  He  expired  in  1635,  regretted  by 
all  Egypt,  and  with  him  terminates  the  history  of  the  book  of  Genesis, 
containing  a  period  of  2369  years.  In  the  division  of  the  Promised 
Land,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  sons  of  this  patriarch,  ranked  as 
heads  of  tribes,  on  an  equality  with  the  eleven  sons  of  Jacob. 

GREECE. 

Origin  of  the  Greek  Nations . 

The  first  settlers  of  Greece  were  Ionians,  a  Pelasgic  race,  who  derived 
their  name  from  Javan  (Heb.  Ion,)  son  of  Japhet.  He  is  mentioned  in 
Genesis  as  among  those  by  whom  the  isles  of  the  Gentiles  were  divided 
in  their  lands ,  and  Greece  is  called  Javan  several  times  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  The  Hellenes ,  if  not  an  offshoot  of  the  Pelasgians,  were 
also  of  eastern  origin,  and  by  these  two  were  the  different  states  of  the 
Archipelago  originally  formed.  There  wTas  also  a  continual  influx  ot 
the  wandering  hordes  of  the  north.  Scythia  then,  as  in  latter  times, 
supplied  abundant  streams  of  barbarians,  who  sought  a  milder  climate 
and  a  more  fertile  soil  than  their  own.  These  nomad  tribes,  like  the 
Indians  of  America,  subsisted  on  the  produce  of  the  chase  or  the  wild 
fruits  of  the  woods  ;  but  we  are  entirely  ignorant  of  their  history,  man¬ 
ners,  and  religion. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


23 


The  Pelasgians  have  left  an  imperishable  record  in  the  numerous 

uildings  that  bear  their  name.  In  the  ruins  of  the  fortifications  of 
Lycosura  we  see  all  that  remains  of  the  oldest  Greek  city.  Their  ma¬ 
sonry  was  polygonal,  each  stone  fitting  into  the  other  without  cement. 
The  Cyclopean  walls,  often  confounded  with  the  Pelasgic,  are  at  least 
four  or  five  centuries  later. 

While  these  primitive  tribes  remained  in  a  savage  state  of  ignorance, 
the  arts  and  sciences  were  advancing  to  perfection  in  the  East.  The 
troubles  in  Egypt,  consequent  upon  the  invasion  of  the  shepherd  races, 
compelled  great  numbers  to  seek  peace  and- tranquillity  beyond  the  sea, 
and  by  them  settlements  were  formed  in  Peloponnesus  and  Northern 
Greece.  Their  knowledge  was  communicated  by  degrees  to  the  inhab¬ 
itants  of  the  country,  who  at  last  were  civilized.  The  first  care  of  Ina- 
chus,  who  arrived  in  Argolis  about  1856  b.  c.,  was  to  raise  a  temple  to 
Apollo  on  Mount  Lycaon.  Cecrops,  from  the  nome  of  Sais,  pursued  a 
similar  course  in  order  to  reclaim  the  uncivilized  inhabitants  of  Attica, 
1556.* 

Although  many  of  the  primitive  Greeks  had  withdrawn  into  the 
mountains  of  Arcadia,  as  the  ancient  Britons  retired  into  the  fastnesses 
of  Wales,  yet  they  generally  adopted  the  Egyptian  laws  and  institu¬ 
tions,  which  they  cherished  and  long  preserved  with  devoted  constancy. 
The  paintings  still  seen  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  (s eeRosellini)  form 
a  complete  illustration  of  the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod. 

The  Phoenicians  were  the  next  colonists,  but  with  a  different  object. 
Their  vessels  infested  the  Grecian  coasts,  ravaging  and  plundering  the 
adjacent  towns,  and  carrying  the  inhabitants  into  slavery.  Their  very 
name,  among  the  early  Greeks,  like  the  Punic  faith  of  the  Romans,  was 
expressive  of  fraud,  deceit,  and  treachery. 

Consult:  Thirlwall’s  Hist.  Greece,  vol.  i.  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Sacred  History. — 1581,  Birth  of  Moses — Job. 

Greece. — 1556,  Cecrops — Deluge  of  Deucalion — Amphictyonic  Council. 

$  acred  History . 

Moses. — After  the  death  of  Joseph  in  1635,  the  Israelites  increased  so 
rapidly  in  numbers  and  in  strength  as  to  excite  the  fears  of  the  reigning 
monarch.  The  ordinary  modes  of  diminishing  the  population  proving 
inefficient,  the  'pharaoh  commanded  all  the  male  children  to  be  slain  as 
soon  as  born.  The  affection  of  Jochebed  preserved  her  son  Moses  for 
three  months,  when  the  fear  of  discovery  at  last  compelled  her  to  expose 
him  on  the  banks  of  the  >.  ile,  1571.  Here  he  was  providentially  seen 


*  The  reign  of  Cecrops  is  the  first  epoch,  1581,  in  the  Arundelian  (or  Parian)  marbles. 
These  are  an  Athenian  chronicle,  graven  on  marble  in  Greek  capitals,  found  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  17th  century  in  the  island  of  Paros,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  and  transported 
to  England  by  Thomas  earl  of  Arundel,  whose  grandson  presented  them  to  the  Univer- 
Bity  of  Oxford.  The  chronicle,  the  authenticity  of  which  now  begins  to  be  questioned, 
was  engraved  264  b.  c.  It  has  been  frequently  printed. 


24 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


and  rescued  by  the  king’s  daughter,  Therm utis,  who  brought  him  up  as 
her  own  child,  and  educated  him  in  all  the  learning  of  her  country. 
Having  slain  an  Egyptian  who  was  maltreating  a  Hebrew,  he  was 
compelled  to  flee  for  refuge  into  the  land  of  Midian,  near  the  Red  Sea, 
1531  b.  c.,  where  he  resided  forty  years.  While  tending  the  flocks  of 
Jethro,  his  father-in-law,  in  the  desert,  he  received  a  summons  from  the 
Almighty  to  return  into  Egypt,  and  lead  his  chosen  people  from  their 
land  of  bondage,  1491  b.c. 

Job. — This  patriarch,  whose  name  has  become  a  synonym  with 
patience,  was  born  and  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Idumea  (Uz.)  Reduced  to 
extreme  poverty,  bereft  of  all  his  children  in  one  day,  his  body  covered 
with  sores,  and  lying  on  a  dunghill,  he  still  put  his  confidence  in  God.  - 
Virtue  so  great  could  not  fail  to  meet  with  its  reward ;  hence  his  tem¬ 
poral  blessings  were  restored  tenfold,  and  he  ended  his  life  in  peace  and 
tranquillity.  Following  the  Bible  chronology,  we  have  placed  the  epoch 
of  Job,  1520  b.  c.,  much  later  than  the  internal  evidence  seems  to  justify. 
Some  make  the  Idumeans  who  plundered  him  to  be  the  Hyksos  on  their 
w’ay  to  Egypt.  Dr.  Hales,  and  Dr,  Brinkley  the  late  bishop  of  Cloyne, 
give  the  date  of  2337  b.  c.  Ducoutant  places  him  in  2136  b.  c.,  while 
the  learned  authors  of  VJlrt  de  verifier  les  Dates  make  him  flourish 
between  1725  and  1685  b.  c. ;  others  bring  him  lower  still,  even  to 
894  b.  c. 

Consult:  Wemyss’  Job  and  his  Times  and  Russell’s  Connection  of  Sacred 
and  Profane  History,  vols  i.  &  iii. 

GREECE. 

While  Argolis  advanced  in  civilization  under  the  family  of  Inachus, 
Phegae  in  Arcadia,  Mycenae  in  Argolis,  and  Sparta,  were  founded  by  the 
chiefs  whose  names  they  bear.  In  the  space  of  313  years,  four  colonies 
were  established  in  Thessaly  and  Arcadia,  by  three  different  princes 
known  by  the  same  apellation,  Pelasgus.  The  first  dynasty  of  the 
Shepherd  Kings  of  Egypt  becoming  extinct  in  the  person  of  their  sixth 
monarch,  the  changes  which  ensued  gave  birth  to  many  emigrations, 
among  others  to  that  of  Ogyges,  in  whose  reign  over  Attica  and  Bceotia, 
the  lake  Copais  burst  its  banks  and  destroyed  two  cities  which  this 
monarch  had  founded  near  its  shores.  The  remote  period,  however,  at 
which  this  event  took  place,  has  caused  all  the  traditions  of  the  primi¬ 
tive  ages  of  Greece  to  be  distinguished  by  the  term  Ogygian.  In  the 
time  of  Sylla,  a  festival  was  still  celebrated  at  Athens  commemorative 
of  the  catastrophe.  Somewhat  later  occurred  the  deluge  of  Deucalion, 
which  appears  to  have  been  confined  to  Thessaly,  and  to  have  been 
caused  by  a  convulsion  of  the  earth  which  stopped  up  the  course 
of  the  Peneus,  as  it  flowed  between  Olympus  and  Ossa,  1529  b.  c.  The 
same  flood  drove  the  Hellenes  from  Phocis,  whence  passing  into  Thes¬ 
saly,  they  expelled  the  Pelasgi,  and  afterwards  spread  through  all 
Greece. 

Amphictyon. — In  1521  b.  c.,  Amphictyon,  the  son  of  Deucalion, 
established  the  celebrated  council  which  bears  his  name, — an  institution 
not  unlike  the  modern  German  Diet, — hy  which  the  various  Hellenic 
states  of  Greece  were  united  in  the  bonds  of  a  common  alliance,  for  the 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


25 


purpose  of  protecting  their  general  interests  and  guarding  against  foreign 
invasion.  Tne  several  deputies  bound  themselves  by  oath  never  to 
overthrow  any  of  the  allied  cities,  nor  to  turn  aside  the  running  streams, 
either  in  peace  or  in  war;  and  to  oppose  to  the  utmost  any  nation  that 
dared  to  attempt  such  things.  Their  places  of  meeting  were  Thermo¬ 
pylae  and  Delphi.  To  Acrisius,  sovereign  of  Argos,  is  ascribed  the 
formation  of  its  power  and  laws.  The  most  celebrated  exertion  of 
authority  on  the  part  of  the  council  respected  the  town  of  Crissa,  against 
which  it  declared  war.  Hostilities  were  protracted  for  more  than  ten 
years,  when,  principally  by  the  advice  of  Solon,  the  place  was  reduced, 
and  the  surrounding  territory  consecrated  to  the  god  of  the  Delphic 
temple,  595  b.  c. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

S/cred  History.— 1491,  Exodus — 1451,  Entry  into  Canaan. 

Egypt. — 1473,  Conquests  of  Sesostris. 

Phoenicia. — Foreign  Discovery  and  Trade. 

Greece  -Theseus — Court  of  Areopagus. — 1493,  Thebes;  1490,  Sparta; 

1404.  Corinth  Founded. 

Sacred  History . 

The  Exodus. — Moses,  after  some  hesitation  to  obey  the  divine  com¬ 
mands,  went  with  his  brother  Aaron  to  the  court  of  Pharaoh,  to  deliver 
the  solemn  embassy  of  the  Almighty.  The  monarch  (Amenophis)  in 
return,  added  to  the  sufferings  of  the  Israelites ;  nor  did  he  cease  to 
afflict  them  until  the  ten  plagues  had  wearied,  though  not  convinced  his 
haughty  spirit.  On  the  15th  Nisan ,  the  Hebrew  nation  began  their 
joyful  march  towards  the  Red  Sea,  1491  b.  c.,  each  tribe  in  its  proper 
station,  advancing  in  battle-array.  Scarcely  had  they  begun  their  long 
journey,  when  the  monarch  repented  his  weakness,  and  hastily  pursuing 
with  a  numerous  army,  overtook  them  in  a  narrow  defile  which  opens 
upon  the  Arabian  Gulf.  In  their  extremity,  with  the  sea  before  them 
and  implacable  enemies  behind,  the  people  began  to  murmur,  saying, 
were  there  no  graces  in  Egypt,  that  thou  hast  taken  us  away  to  die  in  the 
wilderness?  But  Jehovah  meditated  a  signal  deliverance:  the  sea  divi¬ 
ded  its  w? ves  before  them  ;  they  passed  through  dryshod ;  while  the 
returning  waters  buried  Pharaoh’s  host,  so  that  none  remained  to  tell 
the  dreadful  tale.  In  the  space  of  215  years,  God  had  so  favoured  the 
descendants  of  Abraham,  that  from  about  70  persons,  the  family  of 
Jacob  had  increased  to  600,000  fighting  men,  or  a  gross  population  of 
more  than  two  millions. 

The  Wandering. — The  whole  period  of  forty  years  spent  in  the 
desert  was  signalized  by  miracles.  A  deficiency  of  bread  was  made  up 
by  the  manna  which  lay  on  the  ground  covered  with  the  morning 
dew, — the  bitter  waters  were  purified, — a  flight,  of  quails  furnished  the 
people  with  meat, — the  hard  rock,  at  the  touch  of  Moses’  rod,  gave 
forth  a  clear  and  copious  stream  of  water,  the  earth  opened  and  swal¬ 
lowed  up  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram,  1471, — fire  from  heaven  de¬ 
stroyed  part  of  the  camp, — and  a  destructive  pestilence  carried  off  nearly 
3 


20 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


15,000  of  the  murmurers.  Three  months  after  the  departure  from 
Egypt,  the  God  of  Jacob  appeared  on  mount  Sinai,*  and,  clothed  in 
majesty,  made  known  the  law  of  the  two  tables,  comprehending  the  ten 
commandments.  Being  unwilling  to  trust  the  report  of  the  spies  whom 
M  oses  had  sent  to  view  the  Land  of  Promise,  the  Israelites  were  all 
condemned  to  perish  in  the  desert,  with  the  exception  of  Joshua  and 
Caleb,  and  those  who  had  not  yet  reached  the  age  of  twenty  years. 
In  vain  did  Moab  and  Midian  unite  against  them, — in  vain  did  the 
hostile  nations  seek  the  aid  and  purchase  the  imprecations  of  Balaam  : 
his  curses  were  converted  into  blessings.  After  forty  years,  their  wan¬ 
derings  drew  to  an  end.  Moses  assembled  the  tribes;  committed  the 
Book  of  the  Law  to  the  priests  ;  and  for  the  last  time  publicly  addressed 
the  people.  When  his  exhortation  was  concluded,  he  went  to  the  top 
of  Mount  Pisgah  (ten  miles  north-east  of  the  Dead  Sea,)  and  there  died 
in  sight  of  the  promised  inheritance,  1451  b.  c. 

Character  of  Moses. 

Considered  in  a  merely  human  light,  Moses  is  not  less  celebrated  as  a  poli¬ 
tician  than  as  a  historian  and  poet.  Pagan  antiquity,  while  denying  his  divine 
mission,  has  represented  him  as  a  man  of  profound  learning,  who  rescued  the 
.Tewrs  from  debasement  and  slavery,  and  taught  them  the  knowledge  of  the  one 
true  God.  The  five  books  of  the  Pentateuch  are  the  most  ancient  wriiings  in 
the  world,  and  no  history  presents  a  stronger  character  of  authenticity.  "  His 
legislation  was  promulgated  at  a  time  when  the  word  law  was  unknown  to 
other  nations.  This  code  has  been  divided  into  five  parts :  namely,  religion, 
morals,  and  civil,  military,  and  political  affairs.  Its  real  wisdom  is  proved  by 
its  existing  still  at  the  end  of  forty  centuries,  while  the  more  recent  institutes 
of  Minos,  Lycurgus,  Numa,  and  Solon  have  fallen  into  desuetude. 

It  is  worth  while  to  observe  what  progress  the  arts  had  made,  even  among 
the  nomad  Jewrs,  while  Greece  w^as  yet  barbarous.  In  the  description  of  the 
building  of  the  Tabernacle  wre  read  of  the  founding  and  working  of  metals  ;  of 
cutting  and  engraving  precious  stones  ;  of  the  trades  of  the  cabinet-maker, 
embrovderer,  and  perfumer. 

Entry  into  Canaan, — 1461  b.  c. — Moses,  as  the  civil  and  religious 
head  of  the  Wandering  Tribes,  strictly  speaking  had  no  successor. 
Joshua  was  appointed  military  leader  to  subdue  the  Land  of  Canaan, 
and  portion  it  out  among  the  victors.  On  the  10th  Nisan,  he  crossed 
the  frontier  river,  the  submissive  waters  of  the  Jordan  yielding  a  passage 
to  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  which  led  the  way.  The  ramparts  of  Jericho 
miraculously  fell  before  them, — a  warning  to  the  devoted  nations,  and 
an  encouragement  to  the  Israelites.  Ai  was  taken  by  stratagem ;  the 
five  allied  kings  of  the  Amorites  were  defeated,  the  sun  itself  stopping 
in  its  course  to  aid  the  chosen  people,  while  a  terrible  storm  of  hailstones 
killed  more  than  had  fallen  by  the  sword. j  Joshua  now  divided  the 
portion  of  the  land  which  he  had  conquered,  and  renewed  the  Covenant 
with  God.  The  tribe  of  Levi,  which  formed  a  literary  and  wealthy 
counterpoise  to  the  aristocratic  and  democratic  part  of  the  state,  was  not 
included  in  this  partition,  but  forty-eight  cities  were  allotted  them  from 


*  Ancient  tradition  and  locality  seem  to  identify  Sinai  with  Mount  Serhal  (above 
8000  feet  high),  the  first  peak  of  the  chain  to  those  coming  from  Suez. 

t  The  Chinese  preserve  a  tradition,  that  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Yao,  whom  they 
make  contemporary  with  Joshua,  the  sun  did  not  set  for  ten  days.  The  Egyptian  priests 
told  Herodotus,  that  within  the  period  of  341  generations  about  11.000  years!  the  sun 
bad  deviated  four  times  from  his  usual  course. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


27 


the  other  tribes ;  a  regulation,  however,  which  circumstances  prevented 
beim>’  carried  into  full  effect.  On  Joshua’s  death,  1443  b.  c.,  Caleb 
succeeded  to  the  government ;  but  the  people  soon  alter  turned  to  the 
idols  of  the  Canaanites,  and  drew  down  upon  themselves  the  anger  of 
God. 

The  formation  of  the  Jewish  republic  was  the  work  of  Moses  in  the  desert. 
Its  polity  was  evidently  intended  for  a  season  only  ;  its  theology  was  the 
simplest  of  the  age.  The  unity  and  individuality  of  the  Deity  were  acknow¬ 
ledged,  while  the  absence  of  all  direct  revelation  of  a  future  state  was  in  some 
measure  compensated  by  blending  moral  precepts  with  ritual  observances,  and 
the  infliction  of  temporal  punishments- for  personal  or  national  disobedience. 
All  possible  means  were  exerted  to  isolate  the  Jews  from  the  surrounding 
nations,  by  prohibiting  commerce,  emigration,  and  travelling.  But  their 
attachment  to  external  circumstances  was  so  strong,  that  in  spite  of  the  gor¬ 
geous  ceremonies  of  their  own  ritual,  they  were  soon  found  adopting  the  blood¬ 
stained  idolatry  of  the  Canaanites  or  the  gross  superstitions  of  Egypt.  This 
would  probably  not  have  happened  if  the  whole  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  had 
been  exterminated,  according  to  the  intention  of  Moses,  as  the  worship  of  the 
true  God  would  have  been  thereby  rendered  the  sole  religion  of  the  country. 

EGYPT. 

Sesostris. — Sesostris  or  Rhamses  III.  the  Great,  is  the  hero  of  early 
Egyptian  history,  the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty  (19th,)  and  the  liberator 
of  his  country  from  the  Hyksos,  who  had  renewed  their  invasions  in  the 
reign  of  his  father,  Amenophis  III.  Great  difference  of  opinion  prevails 
as  to  the  age  of  Sesostris,  but  it  seems  very  probable  that  he  flourished 
during  the  wandering  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert.  His  conquests 
extended  over  Libya,  Ethiopia,  Media,  Persia,  Bactria,  Scythia,  and 
Asia  Minor,  from  all  which  countries  he  levied  tribute.  The  trophies 
of  his  victories,  in  the  form  of  pillars,  were  found  from  the  Danube  to 
the  Ganges,  and  southward  to  Ethiopia;  and  a  hundred  famous 
temples  were  raised  from  the  spoils  of  his  enemies.  He  divided 
the  country  into  36  nomes,  at  the  head  of  which  he  placed  officers  to 
collect  the  taxes.  He  intersected  the  provinces  with  canals,  and  was  the 
first  Egyptian  monarch  who  was  powerful  at  sea.  Becoming  blind,  he 
committed  suicide  in  the  33d  year  of  his  reign.  The  traveller  may  yet 
see  his  names  and  titles,  wars  and  triumphs,  depicted  on  the  walls  of 
palaces  and  temples  at  Luxor,  Karnac,  Thebes,  and  Nubia. 

PHOENICIA. 

The  name  Phoenicia  is  applied  to  that  narrow  strip  of  the  Syrian 
coast  (150  miles  long,  and  24  broad,)  which  extends  from  Tyre  to 
Aradus.  Sidon  was  its  oldest  city,  built  by  the  eldest  son  of  Canaan. 
The  inhabitants  applied  themselves  at  an  early  period  to  commerce, 
navigation,  and  manufactures ;  and  first  communicated  to  the  people  of 
the  West  the  sciences  of  Asia.  They  visited  and  planted  colonies  on  all 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  ventured  as  far  as  the  British  Isles  in 
search  of  tin,  and  navigated  the  Baltic  to  procure  amber.  They 
embarked  at  Elath  to  make  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa,  and  formed 
settlements  eastward  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  They  seem  to  have  disco¬ 
vered  islands  beyond  the  western  shore  of  Africa.  They  excelled  in 
the  manufacture  of  glass,  and  the  now  forgotten  art  of  dyeing  purple 


28 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


To  this  people  is  also  attributed  the  invention  of  alphabetical  characters, 
and  their  introduction  into  Europe.  Our  knowledge  of  their  history  is 
very  slender,  for  Tyre  fell  before  literature  had  taken  root  in  the  W  est, 
and  its  writers  perished  with  it.  This  city  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Agenor,  an  African  prince,  about  1*255  b.c.,  and  its  line  of  kings 
begins  with  Abical,  the  contemporary  of  David,  about  the  year  1050. 

The  prosperous  period  of  their  history  extends  from  1000  to  332  b.  c. 
Phoenicia  did  not  constitute  one  empire,  but  was  formed  of  several  inde¬ 
pendent  states,  united  as  fear  or  interest  prompted  them  ;  and  hence 
arose  the  supremacy  of  Tyre,  the  most  powerful  of  their  number. 

Consult :  Rollin’s  Ancient  Hisiory. 

GREECE. 

Athens  was  founded  by  Cecrops  in  the  16th  century,  but  Theseus 
formed  the  state  by  gathering  together  the  twelve  districts  or  boroughs, 
which  had  formerly  been  independent;  by  uniting  their  senates  into  one 
body,  which  met  at  the  capital ;  and  by  establishing  a  common  religious 
festival  ( Panathencea )  in  honour  of  Minerva.  The  court  of  Areopagus, 
although  it  has  been  attributed  to  Cecrops,  w*as  only  now  instituted  ;  a 
body  not  more  celebrated  for  its  antiquity,  than  for  the  justice  of  its 
decisions.  The  number  of  its  members,  vrho  wrere  selected  on  account 
of  their  age,  merit,  and  birth,  appears  to  have  varied  from  31  to  51,  and 
even  to  500. 

Thebes  was  built  by  the  Phoenician  Cadmus,  1493  b.  c.  He  intro¬ 
duced  the  fifteen  letters  of  the  Grecian  alphabet,  which  go  under  his 
name  ;  they  wTere  probably  the  same  as  those  used  in  Syria-  The 
oracle  of  Delphi  was  the  work  of  his  countrymen ;  and  its  temple, 
causing  the  neglect  of  the  prophetic  oak  of  Dodona,  became  a  central 
point  of  union  for  the  different  tribes. 

History  of  the  Greek  Language . 

The  ultimate  root  of  the  Greek  language  is  Pelasgic,  or  a  dialect  closely 
allied  to  the  Sanscrit,  modified  by  time  and  the  exigencies  of  society.  The 
descendants  of  Hellen,  the  son  of  Deucalion,  having  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  country,  introduced  their  language,  which  differed  from  the  old  tongue 
only  by  its  inflections,  and  which  became  the  common  speech  of  Greece.  This 
Hellenic  dialect  was  probably  a  stronger,  as  it  was  also  a  later,  mixture  of  the 
Japetic  or  Western,  as  the  Pelasgic  appears  to  be  purer  Semitic  or  Eastern. 

The  inland  inhabitants  of  Greece  spoke  the  rough  and  broad  old  Doric,  from 
which  the  language  of  the  JEolians  in  Bceotia  and  Peloponnesus  did  not  greatly 
differ.  The  progress  of  civilisation  and  commerce  softened  these  dialects.  The 
Doric  was  gradually  refined  into  the  beautiful  language  of  Theocritus.  The 
Ionians  from  Attica  settled  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  where,  by  a  close 
intercourse  with  their  Asiatic  neighbours,  their  language  was  softened  into  the 
harmonious  sweetness  we  admire  in  Herodotus.  The  Attic  passed  through 
many  gradations  until  it  became  the  polished  and  elegant  medium  of  com¬ 
munication  adopted  by  all  literary  men  throughout  Greece. 

The  following  genealogical  table  of  languages  will  serve  at  once  to  assist  the 
memory,  and  to  explain  the  history  which  the  Greeks  themselves  credited. 

Deucalion. 


Hellen. 

r 

Dortjs. 

Xuthus. 

.  J 

“*1 

CEolus. 

r 

AcHiEUS. 

-  — ^ 

Ion. 

FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


29 


Dialects . 

y  rOld. — Thucydides;  the  Tragic  poets. 

‘fj  -j  Middle. — Aristophanes,  Lycias,  Fiato,  Xenophon. 

<  (.New. — iEschines,  Demosthenes,  Isocrates,  Menander. 

•  2  Cold. — Epicharmus,  Sophron. 

^"^New. — Bion,  Moschus,  Callimachus,  Pindar,  Theocritus. 

.2  S  Old.— Homer,  Hesiod. 

Jo  New. — Anacreon,  Herodotus,  Hippocrates. 

iEolic. — Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Corinna. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

J udjsa. — 1285,  Deborah  judges  Israel — Sisera — 1312,  Ruth. 

Greece. — Minos. 

JUD  JEA. 

Judges,  1443. — After  the  death  of  Joshua,  a  council  of  judges  ( sho - 
phetim ,)  with  nearly  the  same  authority  as  the  consuls  at  Rome,  the 
kings  at  Sparta,  and  the  Carthaginian  suffetes ,  was  established  to  govern 
the  people  of  Israel.  Each  city  had  its  peculiar  magistrates  ( shoterim ) 
and  ministers  of  justice,  to  the  number  of  twenty-three.  Their  place 
of  audience  w^as  at  the  gates  of  the  cities,  as  being  the  most  frequented 
spots.  On  Joshua’s  death  the  weak  tribes  became  jealous  of  the  stronger, 
and,  as  the  high-priests  had  little  political  influence,  the  dread  of  foreign 
power  alone  kept  them  together. 

The  history  of  Judaea,  under  its  new  government,  presents  a  long 
catalogue  of  wars  and  captivities,  brought  on  the  nation  by  its  wicked¬ 
ness  and  idolatry.  Seven  periods  of  servitude  to  the  Philistines  and 
others  are  recorded  between  the  death  of  Joshua  and  the  election  of 
Saul,  1095  b.  c.  When  Deborah  judged  Israel,  dwelling  under  a  palm- 
tree  on  Mount  Ephraim,  Sisera,  the  Canaanitish  general,  was  put  to 
death  by  a  woman  in  whose  tent  he  had  sought  refuge,  1285  b.  c. 
This  signal  deliverance  from  a  powerful  enemy  called  forth  the  fine 
specimen  of  lyric  poetry  which  is  inserted  in  the  Book  of  Judges. 

Ruth,  1312. — To  this  period  belongs  the  pastoral  narrative  of  Ruth. 
A  famine  dbliged  Elimelech  to  quit  Bethlehem,  with  his  wife  Naomi; 
wTho,  becoming  a  widow  in  the  country  of  Moab,  eagerly  desired  to 
return  to  her  native  land.  Ruth,  one  of  her  daughters-in-law,  who  loved 
her  most  affectionately,  followed  her  home  ;  when  want  compelling  her 
to  glean  in  the  fields  of  Boaz,  he,  attracted  by  the  charms  and  modesty 
of  the  fair  stranger,  married  her,  and  became  the  father  of  Obed,  from 
whom  descended  Jesse,  the  father  of  David,  the  royal  progenitor  of  the 
Messiah. 

GREECE. 

Crete. — Minos,  who,  according  to  the  Parian  chronicle,  began  to 
reign  1431  b.  c.,  about  a  century  after  Amphictyon,  is  regarded  as  the 
first  legislator  of  the  Cretans,  and  his  laws  are  supposed  to  have  been 
adopted  by  Lycurgus,  in  framing  the  Spartan  constitution.  All  freemen 
3  * 


30 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


were  equal ;  the  land  was  to  be  cultivated  by  slaves ;  and  individual 
rights  were  merged  in  those  of  the  community.  Minos  raised  a  power¬ 
ful  navy,  and  cleared  the  sea  of  pirates.  The  ancient  mythology  makes 
him  and  Rhadamanthus,  also  a  native  of  Crete,  judges  in  the  Infernal 
Regions.  rIhe  formation  of  this  kingdom  may  be  regarded  as  areal 
event;  and  the  great  similarity  between  its  constitution  and  that  of 
Judaea,  may  have  arisen  from  the  common  intercourse  of  the  respective 
people  with  Egypt,  the  source  of  most  of  the  earlier  civilisation  of  Eu¬ 
rope.  Both  have  the  same  leading  principle  for  the  preservation  of 
internal  tranquillity.  As  in  Lacedaemon,  so  also  here,  a  people  were 
formed  with  military  habits  for  defence  rather  than  aggression ;  they 
kept  themselves  apart  from  other  nations ;  their  religious  ordinances 
were  founded  on  divine  order ;  and  the  property  in  land  was  inalienable. 

Minos  II.,  grandson  of  the  first  of  that  name,  w7as  the  contemporary 
of  Theseus,  and  in  his  reign  the  celebrated  architect  Dedalus  constructed 
the  labyrinth  of  Crete.  This  extraordinary  wrork  was  used  as  a  prison 
for  the  Athenian  hostages,  and  for  the  Minotaur,  a  fabulous  monster, 
half-man  half-bull.  This  kino-  who  is  often  confounded  w*ith  his 
ancestor,  the  lawgiver,  died  in  Sicily  (1320  b.  c.,)  being  suffocated  in 
a  bath. 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Jt;d.£a. — 1249,  Gideon  Judge. — JL235,  Jotham’s  Parable. 

Greece. — Pelopidse. — 126?  Argonauts — Theseus. — 1230,  Ninus  founds  the 

Assyrian  Empire  (Herodotus.) 

JUDiEA. 

This  country  was  again  under  the  iron  rod  of  the  oppressor,  when 
Gideon,  writh  a  chosen  band  of  300  men,  defeated  a  numerous  army  of 
Midianites  by  a  most  remarkable  stratagem,  1245  b.  c.  During  forty 
years  he  judged  Israel,  and  at  his  death  was  succeeded  by  a  natural  son, 
Abimelech,  who  murdered  his  legitimate  brothers,  1235.  Jotham  alone 
of  seventy  escaped,  and  he  indignantly  upbraided  the  ungrateful  She- 
chemites  by  the  beautiful  apologue  of  the  trees  choosing  a  king — the  most 
ancient  parable  extant. 

GREECE. 

Pelopid.e. — Corinth  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Sisyphus,  “  the 
most  crafty  of  men,”  1404  b.  c.,  whose  descendants  wTere  driven  from 
the  throne  by  the  Pelopidae.  These  usurpers  w7ere  the  family  of  Pelops , 
son  of  Tantalus,  w7ho  had  quitted  Asia,  and  settled  in  Southern  Greece, 
which  afterwards  bore  his  name.  His  sons  Atreus  and  Thyestes  were 
noted  for  their  cruelties  and  the  misfortunes  of  their  children. 

Argonauts,  1263  b.  c. — These  w7ere  a  company  of  knight-errants 
(for  this  w~as  the  age  of  Chivalry  in  Greece,)  wrho,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Thessalian  Jason,  braved  the  dangers  of  the  Symplegades  and 
the  tempests  of  the  inhospitable  Euxine  in  search  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 
Castor,  Pollux,  Orpheus,  Hercules,  Peleus,  and  Laertes,  wTere  among 
the  number  of  these  daring  adventurers.  Divested  of  the  fictitious 


TWELFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


31 


colouring  of  the  poets,  this  expedition  was  probably  a  commercial 
enterprise  to  the  shores  of  Colchis  for  the  purpose  of  turning  the  profits 
of  its  woollen  trade  to  their  native  country.* 

The  conquests  of  Hercules,  and  the  travels  of  Theseus  and  Perseus, 
belong  to  this  period ;  whence  also  may  be  dated  the  close  connexion 
in  language,  religion,  manners  and  consanguinity,  which  appears  to 
have  existed  betweeen  the  heroes  engaged  in  the  Trojan  war,  whether 
of  Asiatic  or  of  European  descent. 

Theseus  was  one  of  the  greatest  kings  of  the  heroic  age,  and  the 
national  champion  of  Athens.  With  his  reign  the  history  of  Attica 
begins  to  lose  much  of  its  mythic  character.  He  was  considered  the 
founder  of  the  Athenian  constitution,  and  the  introducer  of  the  democratic 
form  of  government ;  but  the  satisfaction  given  by  the  measures  which 
he  pursued  for  establishing  a  popular  constitution,  was  not  very  perma¬ 
nent.  A  strong  party,  headed  by  Menestheus,  was  formed  against  him 
on  the  pretext  that  he  did  not  go  far  enough,  when  he  was  driven  into 
exile  by  the  fickle  people,  as  were  many  of  his  successors,  who  became 
eminent  for  virtue  or  talent. f  His  policy  was  to  destroy  the  magistrates 
and  courts  of  justice  of  the  separate  Attic  towns,  and  centralize  them  in 
the  capital.  Menestheus,  of  the  royal  race,  proposed  to  take  away  the 
administration  of  justice  from  the  nobles  and  to  confer  it  on  the  popu¬ 
lace,  making  it  in  their  hands  a  stipendiary  duty. — Theseus  is  said  to 
have  given  shelter  to  the  descendants  of  Hercules,  who  had  been 
expelled  from  the  Peloponnesus ;  and  about  the  same  period  the  crimes 
of  (E  dipus  led  to  the  celebrated  war  of  the  Seven  Chiefs  against  Thebes , 
and  also  to  that  of  the  Epigoni ,  or  Descendants ,  about  1225  b.  c. 

Consult:  Bulwer’s  Athens,  book  i.  chap.  iii.  Plutarch’s  Life  of  Theseus. 


TWELFTH  CENTURY. 

Judjea. — 1188,  Jephtha’s  Vow. — 1117,  Death  of  Samson. 

Greece. — 1184,  Siege  of  Troy — Grecian  Mythology — Greek  Colonies. 
Inventions,  &c. — Mariner’s  Compass  in  China — Buodhism  Introduced  in 

India. 

JUDAEA. 

Jephtha. — Judaea,  in  1188,  b.  c.,  was  called  to  witness  a  remarkable 
sacrifice.  Jephtha,  who  had  been  driven  from  Gilead  by  the  violence 


*  M.  Rabaut  de  St.  Etienne  ingeniously  endeavours  to  explain  these  heroic  allegories 
by  showing  that  they  were  intended  to  represent  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
Thus  the  Argonautic  expedition  exhibits  the  course  of  the  constellation  Aries 'through 
the  sky.  Jason  is  Serpentarius.  Scarcely  has  the  Ship  Argo  begun  her  ethereal  voyage, 
when  Hylas,  Aquarius ,  disappears,  and  Hercules  follows  him.  All  the  crew  of  Jason 
claim  their  share  in  this  astronomical  voyage. 

f  Theseus  died  and  was  buried  in  the  island  of  Scyros.  At  a  later  period  his  supposed 
remains  were  transported  with  great  pomp  to  Athens,  in  the  galley  of  Cirnon,  and  wel¬ 
comed  “  as  if  the  living  Theseus  were  come  again.”  Games  were  instituted  in  honour 
of  the  event,  469,  at  which  took  place  those  poetical  contests,  in  the  first  of  which 
Sophocles  carried  off  the  prize  from  Aeschylus.  Mr.  Fynes  Clinton  places  the  Argonautic 
expedition  in  1225,  sixteen  years  before  the  death  of  Hercules.  This  remarkable  voyage 
has  been  sung  by  two  Greek  poets:  Apollodorus  of  Rhodes,  and  another  of  uncertain 
name  and  age,  who  brings  the  heroes  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  British  Isles. 


32 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


of  his  relatives,  and  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  robbers,  vowed 
that  if  he  returned  successful  from  a  certain  expedition  against  the 
Ammonites,  he  would  offer  up,  as  a  burnt-sacrifice,  the  first  living  being 
that  met  him  on  his  return.  This  was  his  daughter,  his  only  child,  who 
came  out  to  congratulate  her  parent  on  his  safety.  After  a  short  respite 
she  resolutely  yielden  herself  a  victim  to  her  father’s  rashness.  This 
event  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  Grecian  story.  The  resemblance 
between  Iphigenia  and  Jephthagenia  (Jephtha’s  daughter)  is  very 
striking. 

Samson. — During  the  period  of  the  seventh  servitude,  which  lasted 
forty  years,  a  new  deliverer  appeared  in  the  son  of  Manoah,  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan.  By  the  command  of  the  angel  who  foretold  his  birth,  he  was 
specially  consecrated  to  the  Lord.  As  he  grew7  in  years,  he  increased 
in  strength ;  and  in  various  encounters  he  slew  an  immense  number  of 
Philistines,  but  fell  at  last  by  the  artifices  of  Delilah.  During  his  sleep, 
the  locks  on  which  his  strength  depended  were  shorn,  and  he  awoke 
weak  as  another  man.  He  again  recovered  vigour  upon  the  growth  of 
his  hair,  and  proved  his  renewed  powers  by  tearing  down  the  two 
pillars  which  supported  the  roof  of  a  temple,  and  burying  3000  Philis¬ 
tines,  with  himself,  in  one  undistinguished  ruin,  1117  b.c. 

The  accounts  of  Hercules,  Rustam  in  Persia,  and  Antar  in  Arabia,  seem 
based  on  that  of  Samson.  Ancient  traditions  furnish  us  with  many  curious 
coincidences  with  the  history  of  Samson’s  locks. 

Read  :  Milton’s  Samson  Agonistes. 

GREECE. 

Trojan  War.  — The  history  of  Troy,  a  name  rendered  familiar  to  all 
by  the  genius  of  Homer,  is  so  intermingled  with  fable,  and  its  heroes 
are  so  confounded  with  gods  and  demigods,  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
arrive  at  historical  truth.  Mount  Ida  was  the  scene  of  the  Judgment  of 
Paris ;  the  loves  of  Hero  and  Leander  consecrated  the  promontories  of 
Sestos  and  Abydos ;  the  little  streams  of  Simois  and  Scamander  would 
have  been  unknown  but  for  the  combats  of  the  Greeks.  Teucer  was  the 
first  king ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Dardanus,  who  brought  the  palladium 
from  Samothrace.  The  last  monarch  was  Priam,  the  richest  and  greatest 
potentate  of  Western  Asia,  his  rule  extending  over  several  contiguous 
nations,  as  well  as  the  coast  of  Thrace,  and  the  confines  of  Thessaly. 
Prodigies  attended  the  birth  of  his  youngest  son,  Paris ;  his  youth  and 
manhood  were  equally  eventful.  During  his  travels  he  eloped  with 
Helen,  the  most  beautiful  woman  of  the  age.  Her  husband,  Menelaus, 
roused  all  Greece  in  arms  to  avenge  the  violated  rites  of  hospitality,  and 
a  fleet  of  1200  ships  set  out  for  Troy.  This  town,  seated  on  a  gentle 
eminence  at  the  foot  of  Ida,  overlooking  the  Hellespont,  resisted  the 
efforts  of  the  numerous  besiegers  during  the  long  period  of  ten  years. 
At  length  when  the  bravest  warriors  on  both  sides  had  fallen,  and  most 
of  the  Trojan  allies  had  been  reduced,  the  place  was  taken,  according  to 
the  poets,  by  the  stratagem  of  a  wooden  horse.*  It  was  plundered  and 
burnt,  and  its  inhabitants  led  away  captive,  1184  b.  c.  A  few  doubtfu' 
ruins  are  now  all  that  mark  the  site  of  this  ancient  and  celebrated  city. 

*Arrestan,  in  Syria,  was  taken  by  a  similar  stratagem.  See  below,  Seventh  Cen 
tury  a.  d. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


33 


Results  — The  ten  years’  war  was  not  confined  to  unproductive  battles 
iefore  the  walls  of  Troy.  The  towns  along  the  Hellespont  were  reduced  by 
Vjax ;  Achilles  extended  his  conquests  along  the  Euxine  ;  and  Menelaus  sub¬ 
jected  several  states  in  Phoenicia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Cyprus.  Thus  the  Greeks 
lot  only  proved  their  superiority  in  arms,  but  brought  back  with  them  a  better 
knowledge  of  countries  which  they  had  previously  been  made  acquainted  with 
by  the  reports  of  a  few  adventurers.  On  their  return  home,  however,  they 
found  a  new  race  grown  up,  some  occupying  the  vacant  thrones  of  the  absent 
kings,  others  attempting  to  usurp  them.  In  Attica,  the  children  of  Theseus 
and  the  faction  of  Menestheus  were  engaged  in  sanguinary  hostilities.  “  The 
great  part,”  says  Plato,  *4  of  those  who  had  escaped  the  sword  of  the  enemy, 
perished  either  by  the  weapon  of  the  assassin,  or  by  the  hardships  of  a  distant 
exile.”  Menestheus  died  in  the  isle  of  Melos;  Ulysses  had  scarcely  reached 
home,  after  his  ten  years’  wandering,  when  he  fell  in  a  riot ;  Agamemnon  was 
murdered  by  his  wife  and  her  paramour,  who  were  both  put  to  death  by  the 
hand  of  his  son  Orestes.  This  triumph  was  of  little  political  advantage  to 
Greece  ;  but.  its  civilisation  advanced  greatly  after  the  long  residence  of  its 
warriors  on  the  luxurious  shore  of  Asia.  The  communication  between  the  two 
countries  became  more  frequent  and  easy  ;  commerce  was  extended  ;  and  the 
colonies  founded  by  Nestor,  Teucer,  Idomeneus,  Diomede,  and  other  Greek 
princes  banished  from  their  paternal  homes,  introduced  intimate  relations 
between  these  distant  regions. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY. 

Judjea. — 1116,  Samuel — Kings. — 1093,  Saul. — 1055,  David. — 1015,  Solomon. 

— 1004,  Dedication  of  the  Temple. 

Greece. — 1104,  Return  of  the  Heraclidae — Death  of  Codrus—  Archons. 

JUDiEA. 

Samuel. — The  Jewish  republic  w7as  next  governed  by  the  hicrh-priest 
Eli,  whose  successor,  after  an  administration  of  twenty  years,  was 
Samuel,  1116  b.  c.  He  had,  by  his  mother,  been  consecrated  to  God  in 
his  infancy,  and  while  yet  a  child,  was  made  the  interpreter  of  the  divine 
will.  He  is  the  first  of  the  prophets  properly  so  called,  the  chain  being 
preserved  in  unbroken  succession  until  the  death  of  Malachi,  420  b.  c. 
He  was  the  last  of  the  fifteen  judges,  and  with  him,  according  to  some 
authors,  terminates  the  Jewish  theocracy.  He  died  at  the  age  of  98, 
b.  c.  1057. 

Kings. — It  was  the  earnest  desire  of  Moses  that  the  government  he 
established  should  be  perpetual ;  but,  like  a  wTse  legislator,  he  also 
made  provisions  in  the  event  of  any  change  to  the  regal  form,  by  layincr 
dowrn  the  principles  on  which  it  should  take  place  (Deut.  xvii.). 
Jehovah  was  still  to  be  the  supreme  monarch,  the  king  merely  his 
viceroy.  Accordingly,  wThen  the  Israelites  grew  tired  of  the  ancient 
constitution,  alleging  the  bad  government  of  Samuel’s  sons  as  their  pre¬ 
text,  they  did  not  select  a  ruler  for  themselves,  but  applied  directly  to 
the  prophet.  Saul  was  appointed  by  lot  to  be  the  first  king;  David, 
the  second,  was  selected  by  the  Almighty ;  and  in  his  son  Solomon,  the 
throne  was  declared  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Jesse. 

Saul,  1095  b.  c.  The  beginning  of  Saul’s  reign  was  marked  by  pru¬ 
dence  and  equity;  he  defeated  the  Amalekites,  and  was  continually  at 
war  with  the  Philistines.  But  his  pride  and  anger  led  him  into  sin; 


34 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


he  disobeyed  the  commands  of  God  ;  and  although  his  external  penitence 
was  great,  he  did  not  escape  the  judgments  of  the  Almighty.  He 
perished  with  his  three  sons  in  battle  against  the  national  enemv  on 
M  ount  Gilboa,  and  David,  the  young  shepherd  of  Bethlehem,  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him,  1055  b.  c.  Saul  was  little  more  than  a 
military  leader  under  the  direction  of  Jehovah,  having  neither  court  nor 
fixed  residence.  His  subjects  were  still  only  an  agricultural  and  pas¬ 
toral  race,  without  wealth  or  luxury ;  but  in  his  reign  they  gradually 
assumed  a  warlike  character. 


David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  was  anointed  king  by 
Samuel  at  an  early  age.  He  first  signalized  himself  by  his  victory  over 
Goliath,  and  the  defeat  of  the  Philistines,  1063.  His  renown  excited 
the  jealousy  of  Saul,  and  even  endangered  his  life,  but  he  fortunately 
escaped  the  javelin  which  the  king  threw"  at  him.  Xor  did  he  succeed 
to  the  throne  without  opposition ;  for  eleven  tribes  declared  in  favour  of 
Ishbosheth,  Saul’s  only  surviving  son,  and  Judah  alone  acknowledged 
David.  Seven  years  of  civil  strife  intervened  before  he  was  generally 
recognised  as  sovereign  in  1048.  He  entirely  freed  Israel  from  the 
power  of  her  ancient  enemies,  and  extended  the  limits  of  the  kingdom 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  Phoenicia  to  the  Red 
Sea.  By  the  conquest  of  Idumea,  he  became  master  of  Elath  and 
Eziongeber,  on  the  shores  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  by  means  of  which  ports 
he  extended  his  commerce  into  the  Southern  Ocean.  But  domestic  o-uilt 
stained  all  his  former  glories ;  although  he  yielded  with  humility  to  the 
reproof  of  Nathan,  he  was  destined  to  reap  the  bitter  fruits  of  his  crimes. 
Enemies  from  without  began  to  harass  the  country  ;  his  own  family 
rebelled  against  him  ;  and  at  length,  he  died  in  the  40th  year  of  his 
reign,  and  the  70th  of  his  age,  1015  b.  c.  About  twenty  years  before 
his  death  he  defeated  the  kings  of  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  who  had 
carried  to  Babylon  a  great  number  of  colonists,  whom  he  established 
near  the  Euphrates.  To  these  captives  the  Psalmist  makes  frequent 
allusion,  particularly  in  the  137th  Psalm, — an  elegy  intended  to  arouse 
the  Israelites  to  the  recovery  of  their  unfortunate  brethren.* 


In  this  reign,  the  Jewish  government  and  nation  were  completely  formed. 
The  worship  of  Jehovah  became  the  exclusive  religion  of  the  people,  and 
Jerusalem  w7as  made  the  chief  sanctuary  and  the  seat  of  power.  David  was 
probably  the  first  who  maintained  a  standing  army,  twelve  corps  of  24,000  men 
each  being  kept  in  their  turn  on  monthly  service. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  many  learned  divines,  that,  in  the  various  events  of  his 
life,  this  monarch  was  a  type  of  the  Messiah,  and  predicted  his  coming,  in  the 
Psalms,  whose  only  object  is  Jesus  Christ  and  his  mysteries.  Of  the  whole 
book  which  passes  under  his  name,  not  more  than  seventy  or  eighty  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  his  composition,  many  being  certainly  of  an  earlier,  others  of  a 
more  recent  date.  These  divine  songs  form  a  most  perfect  specimen  of  lyric 
poetry,  and  breathe  all  the  sentiments  which  the  tenderest  piety  can  inspire. 
It  should  not  be  forgotten,  that  early  in  the  eleventh  century,  before  Homer 
sang,  these  religious  strains  were  first  heard  in  Palestine  ;  and  that  they  have 
ever  since  been  used  by  the  true  church  to  express  all  the  emotions  which  the 
changing  situations  of  life  bring  into  action. 


*  For  this  discovery  of  a  Jewish  captivity,  anterior  to  that  which  took  place  under 
Nebuchadnezzar,  we  are  indebted  to  the  learned  researches  of  M.  Viguier,  who,  in  his 
work  entitled  De  la  Distinction  primitive  des  Psaumes ,  has  fixed  the  principal  epochs  of 
the  life  of  David. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


35 


Solomon  succeeded  his  father  in  the  year  1015.  His  reign  began 
with  favourable  prospects,  and  by  banishing-  all  infidels;  and  in  seven 
years  and  a  half  he  built  the  celebrated  temple,  which  attests  the  per¬ 
fection  of  the  arts  and  sciences  at  so  remote  a  period,  1004  b.  c.  It  is 
estimated  to  have  been  raised  at  an  expense  of  not  less  than  *230  millions 
of  pounds  sterling — a  sum  so  enormous  as  to  give  rise  to  suspicion  of  in¬ 
correctness  in  the  account  transmitted  to  us.  Unfortunately  for  himself, 
Solomon  married  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  wiio  did  not 
abandon  the  worship  of  her  countrymen.  Before  his  death,  he  lapsed  into 
idolatrous  practices,  and  his  last  moments  were  embittered  by  the  gloomy 
prospects  which  overhung  his  kingdom.  He  died  in  the  60th  year  of 
his  age,  and  the  40th  of  his  reign.  This  monarch  was  not  insensible  to 
the  advantages  of  commerce;  and  under  his  direction,  Tadmor  in  the 
Wilderness  (Palmyra)  was  built,  on  the  caravan  route,  in  order  to  pro¬ 
mote  the  trade  writh  the  East  (34°  24'  N.,  38°  20'  E.). 

Solomon  inherited  the  poetical  talents  of  his  father.  He  is  the  author  of  three 
works  still  extant ;  and  the  loss  of  his  writings  on  Natural  History  is  a  matter 
of  serious  regret.  The  Book  of  Proverbs  is  a  treasure  of  moral  and  political 
instruction  ;  in  Ecclesiastes  (the  Preacher),  while  he  laments  his  own  vices  and 
errors,  he  gives  the  most  earnest  exhortation  to  his  son  Rehohoam,  and  after 
examining  the  various  systems  of  happiness,  declares  that  it  can  only  be  found 
in  the  love  of  God.  and  the  observance  of  his  commandments;  the  Song  of 
Songs  is  a  kind  of  Epithalamium ,  composed  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  in  which  profound  work,  under  the 
semblance  of  conjugal  love,  he  represents  the  union  of  our  Saviour  with  the 
Church. 

The  first  temple  was  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  588 
b.  c.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Zerubbabel,  515  b.  c.  ;  plundered  and  burnt  by  Antio- 
chus,  167,  and  purified,  164  b.  c.  This  temple  was  restored  by  Herod  the 
Great,  and  finished  8  b.  c. ;  it  was  burnt  by  Titus  a.  d.  70. 


GREECE. 

Return  of  the  Heraclid.se. — The  disasters  which  hefell  the  Gre¬ 
cian  princes  on  their  return  from  Troy  having  loosened  the  bonds  of  the 
general  confederation,  which  had  been  formed  to  carry  on  the  war,  the 
sons  of  Hercules  thought  the  Peloponnesus  fitted  for  the  re-establishment 
of  their  power.  They  had  taken  refuge  in  Attica  from  the  persecutions 
of  Eurystheus  of  Argos  ;  and,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians,  were 
restored,  but  only  to  retire  again  on  the  visitation  of  an  avenging  pesti¬ 
lence.  Misled  by  an  oracle,  three  unsuccessful  attempts  were  afterwards 
made  to  return;  hut  it  was  not  till  the  third  generation,  1104  b.  c.  that, 
aided  by  the  Dorians,  TCtolians,  and  Locrians,  they  crossed  the  Corin¬ 
thian  Gulf  and  established  themselves  in  Peloponnesus.  The  iEolians, 
at  this  time  the  most  powerful  tribe  of  Southern  Greece,  yielded  to  their 
irresistible  progress.  The  Achaeans,  on  their  expulsion,  deprived  in 
turn  the  Ionians  of  their  lands.  The  barren  soil  of  Attica  offered  few 
temptations  to  military  adventurers ;  but  it  was  an  asylum  for  these 
unfortunate  exiles,  by  whom  the  population  was  so  much  increased,  that 
change  of  residence  was  resorted  to  as  a  necessary  means  of  finding 
support.  This  was  the  remote  cause  of  the  Ionian  emigration,  the  most 
celebrated  and  important  of  all  which  issued  from  Greece.  Aristodemus, 
fifth  in  descent  from  Hercules,  who  died  during  the  expedition,  trans- 


36 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


mitted  his  right  to  the  Spartan  throne  to  his  twin  sons,  Procles  and 
Eurysthenes. 

Codrus. — Before  the  Dorian  immigration,  the  government  of  Athens 
was  monarchical;  and  Codrus,  the  son  of  a  Messenian  exile,  named 
Melanthus,  was  its  last  king.  When  the  Dorians,  jealous  of  his  increas¬ 
ing  power,  had  invaded  his  territories,  an  oracle  promised  them  success, 
if  they  spared  the  sovereign’s  life.  On  hearing  this,  though  he  was  far 
advanced  in  years,  he  resolved,  with  all  the  enthusiasm  of  youth,  to 
sacrifice  himself  for  his  beloved  country.  Disguised  as  a  wood-cutter, 
he  entered  the  hostile  camp,  where,  engaging  in  a  quarrel,  he  fell  by 
the  hands  of  a  private  soldier,  1095.  In  the  excess  of  their  gratitude, 
the  people  would  appoint  no  successor  to  the  regal  title,  but  elected 
certain  responsible  governors,  named  JIrchons ,  of  whom  Medon,  Codrus’ 
son,  was  the  first.  The  office  was  held  for  life ;  but  by  slow  degrees 
the  election  became  annual,  and  nine  were  ultimately  chosen  instead  of 
one.  This  rapid  succession  of  governors,  the  private  interests  upon 
which  they  acted,  and  the  instability  of  the  popular  temper,  were  a 
cause  of  internal  dissensions  which  lasted  until  the  sixth  century. 

On  the  death  of  Codrus,  the  kingly  power  was  not  immediately  abolished ; 
but  the  first  step  was  taken  towards  it,  by  withdrawing  the  splendour  of  regal 
state  and  title  from  his  successor.  Then  the  sovereignty  was  diminished  to  ten 
years,  754,  on  the  death  of  Alcmaeon ;  next,  the  archonship  was  made  annual, 
684,  when  the  direct  line  of  Codrus  became  extinct  in  Eryxias ;  it  was  then 
thrown  open  to  the  other  houses,  then  to  the  rich  Eupatridce,  and  finally  to 
every  wealthy  free  citizen.  In  a  similar  manner,  in  the  other  Greek  cities,  and 
afterwards  in  Rome,  the  superior  power  descended  from  the  king  upon  prytanes, 
ephori  or  consuls  of  the  family  to  which  the  sovereign  had  belonged.  The  office 
of  archon  was  one  of  great  influence,  and  when  the  Pisistratidse  assumed  it  as 
a  stay  of  their  dominion,  it  included  the  right  of  presiding  and  propounding  all 
measures  in  the  senate. 

GRECIAN  COLONIES. 

Before  the  invasion  of  the  Dorians  and  the  return  of  the  Heraclidae,  the 
colonization  of  Greece  is  inextricably  involved  in  the  fictions  of  mythology  ;  but 
after  that  period  it  is  more  distinct,  and  its  course,  offering  so  many  points  of 
connexion  with  modern  times,  maybe  curious  and  profitable  to  follow.  “  Greek 
towns,”  says  Seneca,  “have  risen  in  the  bosom  of  the  most  barbarous  coun¬ 
tries,  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  in  Persia.  Achaean  cities  rule  along  the 
coast  of  the  Euxine  Sea.  Asia  was  filled  with  Athenian  colonies.  All  the  coast 
of  Italy  washed  by  the  Tuscan  Sea  bore  the  name  of  Magna  Grecia,  and  this 
people  found  their  way  even  into  Gaul.” 

The  first,  or  iEolian  colonization,  occurred  about  1088  b.  c.,  when  the  Hera¬ 
clidae  and  their  followers  deprived  the  conquered  Pelopidae  and  their  subjects  of 
their  lands,  and  compelled  them  to  seek  an  asylum  in  a  foreign  country.  In 
consequence  of  the  share  which  the  Hellenic  tribes  took  in  this  invasion,  Greece 
shortly  after  assumed  the  general  name  of  Hellas.  The  exiles,  for  the  most 
part,  crossed  to  Asia  Minor,  and  built  towns,  which,  from  their  favourable 
situation,  soon  acquired  wealth  and  fame.  The  most  celebrated  were  Smyrna 
and  Mitylene. 

The  great  Ionian  emigration,  about  1068  b.  c.,  was  led  by  Neleus,  and  other 
sons  of  Codrus,  the  ranks  of  whose  followers  were  swelled  by  all  whom  enter¬ 
prise,  affection  for  the  leaders,  or  a  love  of  novelty  inspired.  The  Carians, 
Mygdonians,  and  Leleges,  inhabiting  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  were  driven  to 
the  mountains  ;  wealthy  and  populous  cities  were  soon  raised,  of  which  Miletus 
and  Ephesus  were  the  chief.  These  in  turn  gave  birth  to  others,  until  their 
colonies  extended  over  the  southern  parts  of  modern  Russia,  and  even  as  far  as 
Bactria.  The  Ionians  maintained  their  independence  against  all  the  efforts  o* 


TENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


37 


the  four  first  kings  of  Lydia,  of  the  race  of  the  Mermnadae  ;  but  they  weie  at 
last  subjugated  by  Crcesus,  the  last  prince  of  that  family.  They  still,  however, 
preserved  their  internal  government,  and  enjoyed  the  same  advantages  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Persians. — The  Dorian  migration  occurred  a  little  later 
than  the  others,  but  its  history  is  the  same. 

To  secure  themselves  against  the  barbarians  that  surrounded  them,  the 
Ionians  entered  into  a  federative  union  for  their  common  defence  ;  and  the 
general  congress  of  their  Twelve  Cities  was  held  in  the  temple  of  the  Heli¬ 
conian  Neptune,  near  the  promontory  of  Mycale.  These  annual  assemblies 
regulated  all  matters  relative  to  the  public  interests,  and  passed  such  measures 
as  the  common  benefit  required.  The  colonies  were  independent  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  except  perhaps  in  a  religious  subjection  to  the 
gods  of  the  parent  state.  To  these  Greece  owes  a  great  portion  of  her  glory 
and  unperishing  fame.  Homer,  Alcseus,  and  Sappho  adorned  her  with  their 
muse ;  Archytas,  Pythagoras,  and  Anaximenes  improved  her  with  their 
philosophy ;  and  Pittacus  and  Thales  strengthened  her  liberties  by  their 
legislative  wisdom. 

TABLE  OF  GRECIAN  COLONIES. 

EUROPE. 

Thracian  Chersonese. — Sestos  and  Cardia. — Abdera,  Amphipolis,  Olynthus, 
&c.,  by  Athenians  and  Corinthians. — On  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  Byzantium. 
— On  the  Propontis,  Perinthus  or  Heraclea. 

Italy. — Tarentum  (707)  and  Brundusium  ;  Sybaris  and  Crotona  (709);  Rhe- 
gium,  Cumae,  and  Neapolis  (Naples). 

Islands.  —  In  Sicily ,  Messana  and  Syracuse,  by  Corinthians ;  Gela  and 
Agrigentum.  by  Bhodians.  In  Sardinia ,  Caralis  and  Olbia;  —  In  Corsica , 
Aleria.  by  Phoceans;  Samos  and  Chios. 

Gaul. — Massilia  (Marseilles)  by  Phoceans. 

Spain. — Saguntum  by  Zantiotes. 

ASIA. 

Asia  Minor. — Pollans  built  12  cities,  Cyme,  Smyrna,  Mitylene,  &c. 

Ionians  founded  Colophon,  Ephesus,  Miletus,  &c. 

Dorians  built  Cnidus,  Halicarnassus,  &,c. 

Black  Sea,  Hellespont,  &c. — The  principal  colonies  were  Lampsacus,  Cyzi- 
cus,  Trapezus,  and  Chalcedon. 

AFRICA. 

Cyrene,  one  of  the  great  African  marts,  founded  by  Thereans. 

N.B.  Prepare  a  Map  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas,  marking  the 
site  o''  all  the  colonies  mentioned  above. 


TENTH  CENTURY. 

J\mjjea. — 975,  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes. — 971,  Shishak  plunders  Jerusalem — 

Elijah  and  Elisha. — 918,  Ahab. 

Greece. — Homer  and  Hesiod  flourished. 

Syria. — 940  Benhadad,  king  of  Damascus. 

JUDaEA. 

% 

Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes. — The  expenses  of  Solomon’s  govern¬ 
ment  required  a  very  large  revenue,  which  was  raised  by  a  regular 
system  of  taxation,  imposed  directly  upon  the  produce  of  the  cattle  and 
of  the  land.  The  accession  of  Rehoboam  (975)  afforded  some  hopes  of 


38 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


ameliorating  the  condition  of  his  subjects,  instead  of  which,  their  bur¬ 
dens  were  increased  :  my  father  chastised  you  with  whips ,  I  will  chastise 
you  with  scorpions .  This  insolent  answer  of  the  prince  drove  the  nation 
to  revolt.  The  kingdom  was  divided,  ten  tribes  electing  Jeroboam,  the 
son  of  Nebat,  who  had  been  recalled  from  Egypt;  Judah  and  Benjamin 
alone  remained  faithful  to  the  lineal  heir.  The  former,  together  with 
the  tributary  nations  eastward  to  the  Euphrates,  formed  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  of  which  the  capital  was  Samaria ;  while  the  two  remaining 
tribes,  with  Philistia  and  Edom,  composed  that  of  Judah,  975  b.  c. 

From  the  epoch  of  the  schism  of  the  ten  tribes,  we  shall  find  the  Hebrew 
people  continually  suffering  from  foreign  or  intestine  war.  The  two  nations, 
during  the  short  space  of  387  years,  were  governed  by  39  monarchs — 20  in 
Judah;  the  rest  in  Israel.  Although  the  latter  kingdom  was  more  extensive 
and  populous,  the  former  was  richer  and  more  important,  as  well  from  the 
possession  of  the  capital  and  Temple,  as  from  the  ancient  pre-eminence  assigned 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  But  these  reciprocal  advantages  served  only  to  render 
their  struggles  more  obstinate.  In  Israel  the  true  religion  was  maintained 
under  severe  persecution  ;  the  number  of  the  prophets  increased  in  proportion 
as  the  necessity  was  felt  in  times  of  difficulty  of  recurring  to  the  oracles  of  God  ; 
and  the  hope  of  a  more  fortunate  era  under  a  mighty  king,  the  expectation  of 
the  Messiah  and  of  his  temporal  reign  on  earth,  became  more  consistent,  as  the 
recollection  of  the  glorious  reign  of  David  was  an  object  of  continual  and  fresh 
regret  to  the  whole  nation.  Unfortunately  the  influence  of  the  true  prophets, 
often  opposed  by  the  false,  could  never  extinguish  the  dissensions  which 
separated  the  two  kingdoms. 

Prepare  Map  of  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 

Judah. — In  this  kingdom  the  succession  continued  hereditary,  with 
only  two  interruptions, — the  usurpation  of  Athaliah  and  foreign  conquest. 
Rehoboam  governed  well  during  three  years,  and  the  true  religion  was 
maintained  by  the  priests  and  Levites ;  but  he  afterwards  sank  into 
idolatry  when  he  was  punished  by  the  invasion  of  his  kingdom  and  the 
plunder  of  his  capital  by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  971  b.  c.*  Abijah 
succeeded  (958),  and  perpetuated  the  evil  ways  of  his  father.  He 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  Jeroboam,  and  recovered  many  of  the  towns 
of  Judah  which  the  Israelites  had  taken.  Asa  was  a  minor  when  he 
ascended  the  throne  in  955  ;  but  under  the  able  regency  of  Maachah, 
the  country  enjoyed  a  peace  of  ten  years.  This  princess  abused  her 
authority  by  establishing  the  most  abominable  superstition  of  idolatry ; 
but  Asa,  as  soon  as  he  was  admitted  to  the  exercise  of  power,  restored 
the  worship  of  the  true  God.  He  defeated  Zerah  the  Ethiopian,  who 
advanced  against  him  at  the  head  of  a  million  of  men,  941  b.  c.  His 
confidence  in  the  Almighty  was  not  equally  firm  on  another  occasion, 
when  war  was  declared  ao-ainst  him  bv  Baasha,  king  of  Israel  ;  for  he 
sought  the  aid  of  Benhadad  king  of  Syria,  and  imprisoned  the  prophet 
Hanani  for  denouncing  his  want  of  faith.  Jehoshaphat,  914,  endeavoured 
to  expel  ignorance,  and  to  change  the  idolatrous  habits  of  his  people; 
and  with  this  view,  judges  were  appointed  according  to  the  Mosaic 
regulations,  and  a  long  peace  was  the  fruit  of  his  zeal,  wisdom,  and 


*  Some  chronologers  identify  Shishak  with  Sesostris,  but  Dr.  Hales  thinks  he  is  rather 
Cephrenes,  brother  of  that  Cheops  by  whom  the  great  pyramid  is  said  to  have  been  built. 
A  sculpture  has  been  found  at  Karnac,  in  which  the  chiefs  of  thirty  nations  are  led 
before  the  triumphant  Sheshonk ,  among  whom  appears  in  legible  characters,  Joudahn 
Melek ,  the  king  of  the  Jews. 


TENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


39 


piety.  He  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  revive  the  trade  to  Ophir 
from  the  ports  of  the  Red  Sea.  He  formed  a  league  with  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  and  confirmed  it  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Jehoram  to  Atha- 
liah  the  daughter  of  Ahab,  —  a  union  fraught  with  mournful  con- 
sequences. 

Israel. — During  his  exile  at  the  Egyptian  court,  Jeroboam  had  con¬ 
tracted  many  infidel  ideas;  and,  on  the  separation  of  the  kingdom,  he 
erected  two  golden  calves  in  opposite  parts  of  his  territor)r,  to  prevent 
his  subjects  from  weakening  their  allegiance  by  going  three  times  a-year 
to  worship  in  Jerusalem,  as  the  law  required.  Priests  were  selected 
from  the  lowest  of  the  people,  for  none  of  the  Levites  were  so  hold  or  so 
bad  as  to  assume  the  office.  Shechem  became  the  place  of  royal  resi¬ 
dence.  Baasha  seized  upon  the  throne,  951,  after  having  murdered 
Nadab,  Jeroboam’s  son  ;  and  adopting  the  wicked  policy  of  the  sovereign 
now  named,  he  erected  a  fortress  at  Ramah  to  intercept  those  who  went 
to  worship  on  Mount  Sion.  After  his  death,  the  right  to  the  crown  was 
contested  in  civil  strife;  but  Omri,  who  had  been  elected  by  the  army, 
929,  destroyed  his  rivals,  and  removed  the  seat  of  government  from 
Tirzah  to  Samaria.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ahab,  his  son,  918,  who 
surpassed  his  ancestors  in  impiety  and  vice.  His  wife,  Jezebel,  put  to 
death  all  the  prophets  of  the  true  God  whom  she  could  find  ;  Elijah  and 
a  hundred  others  were  alone  miraculously  preserved.  He  twice  defeated 
the  armies  of  Benhadad,  but  fell  at  last  at  Ramoth-Gilead,  897.  He 
was  a  brave  prince,  not  wicked  of  himself,  hut  from  the  ascendency 
w’hich  his  impious  queen  had  over  his  mind.  This  Sidonian  woman, 
brought  up  in  the  worship  of  the  Phoenician  divinities,  established  the 
rites  of  Baal  so  firmly  in  Israel,  that  the  successors  of  Ahab  were  never 
able  to  eradicate  them. 

GREECE. 

Homer  and  Hesiod  flourished  about  this  period.  The  former  is  the 
most  ancient  Greek  poet  whose  waitings  have  come  down  to  us,  and 
seven  cities  contended  for  the  honour  of  his  birth.  The  Iliad,  an  epic 
on  the  siege  of  Troy,  composed  about  150  years  after  that  event,  and  the 
Odyssey ,  containing  the  adventures  of  Ulysses  on  his  return,  are  the 
noblest  of  all  poems.  The  lines  of  Homer  were  as  familiar  in  the 
mouths  of  the  people,  as  those  of  Tasso  are  said  to  have  been  to  the 
Venetian  gondoliers.  Modern  scepticism  has  thrown  doubts  upon  his 
existence  and  personality,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  reasonable  ground 
for  such  incredulity.  Lycurgus  first  brought  his  poems  into  Greece 
from  Asia ;  and  two  centuries  and  a  half  later,  Pisistratus  is  supposed 
to  have  given  to  them  their  present  form.  His  son,  Hipparchus,  first 
caused  portions  of  them  to  be  recited  at  the  Panathenean  Games :  but 
our  modern  editions  are  taken  from  the  more  complete  one  prepared  by 
Aristotle  for  the  use  of  his  pupil  Alexander. 

Ascra,  in  Bceotia,  was  the  birthplace  of  Hesiod.  He  wrote  the  earliest 
didactic  poem,  The  Works  cmd  Bays ,  in  which,  with  directions  for  cul¬ 
tivating  the  fields  and  watching  the  seasons,  he  has  mingled  sage 
counsels  and  moral  reflections.  Virgil  frequently  imitates  him  in  his 
Georgies.  The  Theogony  is  a  precious  relic  of  the  mythology  of  the 
ancients,  treating  of  the  origin  of  the  world,  and  of  its  mortal  and  im¬ 
mortal  inhabitants.  His  poems  were  committed  to  meror"—  ’• 


40 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


young,  and  were  engraved  and  hung  up  in  the  temple  of  the  Muses.— 
While  some  critics  mention  him  as  a  contemporary  with  the  author  of 
the  Iliad,  others  would  rank  him  a  century  later.  The  Parian  chronicle 
places  Homer  907,  and  Hesiod  944  b.  c. 

Consult:  Coleridge,  Introduction  to  Classic  Poets.  —  Bulwer’s  Athens, 
Book  I.  ch.  viii. 

GRECIAN  MYTHOLOGY. 

The  religion  of  the  Greeks  deified  nature,  and  the  poems  of  Homer  and 
Hesiod  embodied  their  faith.  According  to  this  ancient  belief,  an  infinite  power 
drew  the  universe  out  of  chaos  and  created  gods  and  men.  The  empire  was 
disputed ;  Earth  fought  against  Heaven  ;  the  Titans  against  the  Gods.  The 
race  of  immortals  increased  and  multiplied.  Saturn  ( Chronos ),  born  of  the  Earth 
and  Heaven,  had  three  sons  who  divided  the  universe  among  them.  Jupiter 
{Zeus)  governed  Heaven  ;  Neptune  ( Poseidon )  reigned  over  the  Sea,  and  Pluto 
in  the  Lower  Regions.  By  all  the  other  gods  were  their  orders  executed. 
Vulcan  ( Hephaistos )  presided  over  fire  ;  Mars  {Ares)  led  the  warrior  to  battle  ; 
Venus  {Aphrodite)  and  Love  inspired  the  tender  passions,  or  allured  to  pleasure  ; 
Minerva  {Athene)  gave  wisdom  ;  Mercury  {Hermes)  conducted  the  orator  to 
the  tribunal,  and  the  shades  to  Tartarus;  Themis  held  the  balance  of  justice  ; 
Jupiter  hurled  his  thunderbolts  to  frighten  crime,  and  by  his  oracles  announced 
the  future ;  his  court,  the  centre  of  eternal  light,  was  the  abode  of  happiness. 
Each  river  had  its  divinity;  the  Naiad  refreshed  the  wearied  traveller  at  her 
limpid  fountain;  and  the  Dryad  cooled  him  with  the  shade  of  her  groves. 
Bacchus  {Dionysus)  animated  the  festivity  of  the  vintager  ;  the  Graces  {Charites) 
spread  their  charms  at  once  over  the  external  form  and  the  effusions  of  the 
mind;  Apollo  and  the  Muses  inspired  with  talent ;  Vulcan  forged  the  celestial 
arms  of  Jove  ;  and  Gayety  was  protected  by  Momus.  Diana  {Artemis)  guided 
the  dogs  in  the  ardent  chase,  and  by  her  rays  dispelled  the  obscurity  of  the 
night ;  while,  soothed  by  the  poppies  of  Morpheus,  wearied  mortals  forgot 
their  labours,  their  fatigues,  and  all  their  pains,  save  those  of  remorse.  Heaven 
had  its  festivals  and  banquets ;  youth,  embodied  in  the  charming  Hebe,  dis¬ 
tributed  ambrosia  and  poured  out  the  nectar  for  the  gods;  and  the  Olympian 
vaults  resounded  with  the  lyre  of  Apollo.  In  the  morning,  the  rosy-fingered 
Aurora  {Eous)  opened  the  gates  of  heaven,  and  spread  over  earth  and  air  the 
double  perfume  of  Flora,  the  goddess  of  flowers,  and  of  Pomona,  who  presided 
over  the  fruits.  Phoebus  mounting  the  chariot  of  the  sun,  poured  floods  of  light 
upon  the  earth ;  and  when  iEolus,  the  god  of  winds,  had  again  collected  the 
furious  storms  in  their  mountain  cave  and  rocky  isle,  the  brilliant  messenger 
of  Juno,  light-footed  Iris,  by  the  traces  of  her  many-coloured  steps,  announced 
to  the  world  the  return  of  a  season  of  calm  weather.  Other  deities  were  more 
immediately  connected  with  man.  Hymen  guarded  the  sanctity  of  the  mar¬ 
riage  vows;  Lucina  presided  over  births,  while  Libitina  had  the  charge  of 
funerals.  Death  and  the  Fates  (Parcae),  one  with  his  inexorable  scythe,  and 
the  others,  with  their  merciless  scissors,  cut  the  thread  of  his  destiny.  The 
bark  of  Charon  bore  him  across  the  Styx,  and  placed  him  on  the  gloomy  shores 
of  Pluto;  Minos,  gEacus,  and  Rhadamanthus,  judged  him  at  their  inflexible 
tribunal ;  and  he  was  led  away  to  the  groves  of  Elysium  or  committed  to  the 
power  of  the  avenging  Nemesis;  the  black  Furies  lashed  him  with  their 
scourges,  tore  him  with  their  serpents,  dragged  him  to  the  caverns  of  Avernus, 
and  there  delivered  him  to  the  most  cruel  torture 

Consult :  Keightley’s  Mythology  ;  or  Lempriere’s  Dictionary. 

SYRIA. 

This  country,  like  Phoenicia,  did  not  form  a  single  state,  but  consisted 
of  several  cities,  such  as  Damascus  and  Hamath,  each  possessing  a 
separate  territory,  and  having  its  own  chief.  Tne  first  of  these  was  an 


NINTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


41 


important  place  in  the  time  of  Abraham  ;  but  it  was  Rehob,  first  king  ot 
Zobah,  and  contemporary  of  Saul,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  its  great 
ness.  His  son  Hadarezer,  who  endeavoured  to  subject  the  whole  ot 
Syria  to  his  power,  was  fortunate  in  all  his  enterprises,  till  he  turned  his 
arms  against  David,  when  he  was  defeated  in  two  battles  and  slain. 
The  Hebrew  monarch  became  master  of  the  country  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates ;  but  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  Rezon,  who  had  formerly  been 
a  slave,  made  himself  independent,  and  united  to  his  dominion  the 
ancient  monarchies  of  Hamath  and  Geshur.  Its  boundaries  were  after¬ 
wards  increased  at  the  expense  of  the  divided  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judah.  Benhadad  I.  who  was  sovereign  about  940,  formed  a  league 
with  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  against  the  King  of  Judah  ;  but  Asa,  by  his 
numerous  and  valuable  presents,  was  so  fortunate  as  to  detach  him  from 
the  alliance,  and  to  persuade  him  to  attack  his  former  confederate.  In  a 
short  space  of  time,  the  Syrian  monarch  had  overrun  and  reduced  Dan, 
Abion,  Abela,  and  all  the  country  bordering  on  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth. 
Hazael  ascended  the  throne  in  885,  after  the  murder  of  his  predecessor, 
Benhadad  II.  He  ravaged  Israel  in  retaliation  of  the  attack  which 
Jehoram  had  made  on  his  territories,  and  shortly  after  captured  Jeru¬ 
salem,  putting  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword.  By  the  cruelties  he 
exercised  on  the  people  of  God,  he  appears  to  have  accomplished  the 
mournful  predictions  of  the  prophets,  who  had  announced  him  as  the 
scourge  of  the  Almighty.  At  his  death  he  was  decreed  divine  honours 
by  his  subjects.  Under  Rezin,  in  740  h.  c.,  the  kingdom  was  over¬ 
thrown  by  Tiglath-Pileser. 


NINTH  CENTURY. 

Judjea.—  889,  Translation  of  Elijah. —  884,  Jehu — Athaliah  —  Jonah,  Hosea, 

and  Amos  flourished. 

Greece. — 884,  Lycurgus — Iphitus  in  Elis. 

Macedonia. —  813,  Caranus,  First  King. 

Carthage. —  890,  Dido  emigrates  from  Phoenicia. 

JUDiEA. 

Judah. — Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  his  kingdom 
was  invaded  by  an  army  of  Moabites,  Edomites,  and  Arabians  from 
Mount  Seir.  They  pitched  their  camp  at  Engaddi,  about  forty  miles 
from  Jerusalem.  In  this  pressing  danger  the  king  ordered  a  public  fast 
and  solemn  prayers.  The  vows  he  addressed  to  Heaven  were  heard  : 
dissension  spread  among  the  hostile  forces,  and  they  turned  their  arms 
against  each  other,  895  b.  c.  The  scene  of  this  deliverance  was  after¬ 
wards  known  as  the  Valley  of  Blessing.  Jehoshaphat,  now  become 
the  terror  of  his  enemies,  enjoyed  the  profoundest  peace  until  his  death. 
Tehoram  succeeded  at  the  age  of  thirty-five,  889.  During  the  four  pre¬ 
ceding  years  he  had  been  associated  with  his  father  on  the  throne, —  a 
circumstance  by  no  means  rare  in  the  East,  particularly  in  Persia. 
When  a  monarch  went  on  any  dangerous  or  distant  expedition,  he 
generally  took  the  precaution  of  naming  his  successor,  and  giving  him 
4  * 


42 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


the  title  of  king  before  his  departure.  He  murdered  his  six  brothers, 
and  their  fate  was  shared  by  many  of  the  princes  of  Judah  whom  his 
predecessor  had  honoured.  Being  influenced  by  his  wife  Athaliah,  the 
daughter  of  Ahab,  a  princess  as  nearly  allied  to  the  infamous  Jezebel  in 
character  as  in  blood,  he  imitated  the  impiety  of  the  kings  of  Israel. 
To  punish  this  apostasy,  the  Ammonites  and  Philistines  invading  his 
dominions  plundered  his  capital ;  and  he  was  struck  with  an  incurable 
malady,  which  at  last  deprived  him  of  life,  after  two  years  of  most 
dreadful  sufferings,  885  b.  c.  Idumea  was  entirely  separated  from 
Judah  in  this  reign,  and  thus  was  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  Isaac  in 
favour  of  his  eldest  son :  ‘  when  thou  shalt  have  the  dominion,  thou 
shalt  break  his  yoke  from  off  thy  neck.’  Ahaziah  perished  by  the 
hands  of  Jehu,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign ;  after  which,  his  mother 
Athaliah  put  to  death  all  the  royal  family,  and  seized  upon  the  throne. 
Joash,  who  alone  was  saved  from  the  carnage,  was  secretly  educated  in 
the  temple;  and  when  six  years  had  expired,  Jehoiada,  the  high-priest, 
bringing  him  before  the  people,  he  was  placed  upon  the  throne,  the 
queen  having  been  killed  by  the  populace,  878  b.  c.  Joash,  guided  by 
the  advice  of  his  protector,  was  a  model  of  piety  and  justice.  He 
restored  the  worship  of  God  ;  but  when  Jehoiada  was  dead,  he  listened 
to  evil  counsellors,  persecuted  the  prophets,  who  denounced  his  aban¬ 
donment  of  the  true  religion,  and  saw,  in  consequence,  his  capital 
twice  besieged  and  plundered  by  the  Syrians.  He  was  slain  in  838, 
and  buried  in  the  city  of  David,  but  not  in  the  tomb  of  the  kings.  Nor 
was  this  the  only  occasion  in  which  the  honour  of  royal  sepulture  was 
refused  to  those  monarchs  who  had  shown  themselves  unworthy  of  that 
mark  of  posthumous  respect.  Amaziah  put  to  death  the  murderers  of 
his  parent,  and  signalized  the  course  of  his  reign  by  acts  of  piety  and 
justice.  He  defeated  the  Idumeans  and  took  Petra,  but  was  not  equally 
successful  against  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  by  whom  Jerusalem  itself 
was  sacked,  826  b.  c. 

Israel. — Ahaziah,  897,  not  less  wicked  than  the  impious  Ahab,  main¬ 
tained  the  idolatrous  worship  of  Baal  and  of  the  goddess  Astarte, 
established  by  his  mother, —  but  the  divine  vengeance  soon  overtook 
him  :  he  was  killed  by  falling  from  a  window  of  his  palace.  Jehoram, 
the  brother  of  Ahaziah,  began  his  reign  (896)  by  destroying  the  statues 
of  Baal  erected  by  his  father;  but  his  subsequent  conduct  belied  this 
first  act  of  fidelity.  He  was  soon  compelled  to  march  against  the  King 
of  Moab  to  enforce  his  tribute;  and  forming  an  alliance  with  Jehosha- 
phat  and  the  sovereign  of  Idumea,  he  advanced  into  the  desert,  where, 
as  the  combined  armies  were  nigh  perishing  with  thirst,  Elisha  obtained 
a  miraculous  supply  of  water.  The  Moabites  were  defeated,  their 
country  laid  waste,  and  the  capital  invested,  when  the  despairing 
monarch  brought  his  son  on  the  walls,  and,  in  sight  of  his  enemies, 
offered  him  a  living  sacrifice  to  Moloch.  Upon  this  the  siege  was 
broken  up  in  horror.  Jehoram’s  reign  was  signalized  by  the  long 
blockade  of  Samaria  by  Benhadad,  when  severe  famine  drove  mothers 
to  devour  their  own  children.  The  miraculous  disappearance  of  the 
army  soon  afterwards  verified  Elisha’s  prophecy.  Jehu  ascended  the 
throne,  after  murdering  his  predecessor,  884.  He  exterminated  the 
family  of  Ahab  and  the  priests  of  Baal,  although  he  did  not  himself 


NINTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


43 


forsake  idolatry ;  and  by  retaining  the  golden  calves  erected  by  Jero¬ 
boam,  he  showed  that  his  former  religious  zeal  was  principally  directed 
by  selfish  motives.  This  culpable  toleration  did  not  escape  unpunished, 
for  the  lands  beyond  Jordan  were  wrested  from  his  dominion  by  Hazael 
king  of  Syria.  Jehoahaz,  his  son,  who  succeeded  him  in  856,  could 
not  be  induced  by  the  misfortunes  which  both  he  and  his  subjects 
experienced  from  the  Syrians,  to  resign  his  foolish  idolatry.  Jehoash 
(839)  imitated  the  impiety  of  his  father;  but  being  more  successful 
against  his  enemies,  he  repaired,  in  great  measure,  the  losses  which  his 
kingdom  had  suffered  during  the  reign  of  his  two  immediate  predeces¬ 
sors.  The  aged  prophet  Elisha,  on  his  death-bed,  promised  the  king 
three  successive  victories  over  Benhadad ;  he  therefore  declared  war 
against  him,  defeated  his  forces  in  three  battles,  and  retook  several 
cities.  He  died  825  e.  c.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jeroboam  II., 
a  valiant  prince,  who  restored  the  dominions  of  Israel  to  their  ancient 
limits.  The  prophets  Jonah,  Hosea,  and  Amos,  flourished  in  this 
reign. 

GREECE. 

Lycurgus,  884  b.  c.* — From  the  epoch  of  the  Dorian  migration, 
Sparta  had  been  governed  by  two  kings  at  one  time.  Lycurgus,  who 
was  regent  during  the  minority  of  his  nephew  Charilaus,  feeling  the 
necessity  of  some  code  of  legislation  to  regulate  the  disorders  of  the 
state,  travelled  to  Crete,  where  he  had  family  connexions,  to  study  the 
laws  of  Minos.  He  next  visited  Lesser  Asia  and  Egypt,  when,  being 
suddenly  recalled  after  an  absence  of  eighteen  years,  he  entirely  changed 
the  government,  and  bound  the  nation  by  an  oath  to  observe  his  regula¬ 
tions  until  he  should  return  from  his  travels.  He  left  with  the  intention 
of  never  visiting  Sparta  again.  His  institutions  were  not  committed  to 
writing  until  130  years  after  his  death,  but  conveyed  in  apophthegms, 
which  were  confirmed  by  the  oracle  at  Delphi.  It  may  be  remarked, 
that  a  great  part  of  the  regulations  which  he  comprised  in  his  laws  were 
not  new,  but  derived  from  the  usages  of  the  Dorians,  or  Cretans  who 
were  themselves  of  Doric  race.  This  great  man  had  without  doubt 
reflected  deeply  on  the  tragical  fate  of  the  royal  lines  sprung  from  Cad¬ 
mus,  Danaus,  and  Pelops,  and  on  the  calamities  which,  on  several  occa¬ 
sions,  had  ravaged  their  country.  He  wished  to  save  the  Heraclidae 
from  a  similar  catastrophe,  and  to  protect  the  fertile  plains  of  Laconia 
from  the  inroads  of  some  adventurous  or  warlike  race.  He  ensured  this 
twofold  design,  by  confirming  the  hereditary  honours  of  the  kings,  with 
a  limited  but  acknowledged  power ;  and  by  forming  a  nation  of  brave 
and  incorruptible  men,  in  whom  patriotism  and  the  warlike  virtues 
should  be  the  predominant  passions. 

C onstitution . — Lycurgus  wrought  no  change  in  the  religious  system 
of  Sparta,  except  that  all  the  gods  and  goddesses  were  clad  in  armour. 
No  splendid  monument  was  raised  over  those  who  fell  in  battle;  and 
all  murmurs  for  their  loss  were  forbidden.  Two  kings  governed  con¬ 
jointly,  while  twenty-eight  senators  held  the  balance  between  them  and 
the  people.  All  the  lands  were  divided  into  equal  portions  :  9000  shares 

*  Mr.  Fynes  Clinton,  the  most  laborious  and  profound  of  modern  ehronologers,  makes 
Lycurgus  contemporary  with  Homer,  and  places  both  after  the  Return  of  the  Hera* 
clidrp 


44 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


were  assigned  to  the  Spartans,  30,000  to  the  Laconians,  the  whole  being 
cultivated  by  Helots.  The  only  coins  were  of  iron.  The  Spartans  fed 
at  a  common  table;  the  children  were  the  property  of  the  state;  those 
who  were  born  deformed  were  not  permitted  to  live.  The  training  of 
the  boys  was  such  as  to  excite  in  their  hearts  a  taste  for  war,  contempt 
of  death,  obedience,  and  the  practice  of  the  austerer  virtues.  They 
went  barefooted,  and  throughout  the  year  wore  only  a  single  garment. 
Theft  was  encouraged,  that  the  youths  might  become  fitted  for  the 
stratagems  of  war;  and  when  detected,  they  were  severely  punished 
for  their  clumsiness.  Their  education,  strictly  so  called,  finished  at  the 
age  of  twenty;  in  literature,  they  committed  to  memory  a  few  patriotic 
songs,  and  learned  to  express  themselves  laconically ,  that  is,  with 
brevity  and  precision. 

Read  :  Laws  of  Lycurgus,  in  Anacharsis,  vol.  iv.  ch.  48. 

The  great  defect  of  all  Dorian  legislation  was  its  tendency  to  maintain  a 
warlike  character — to  oppress  the  slave  population — -and  to  render  war  a  more 
natural  state  than  peace.  In  Laconia  there  were  three  classes:  Lords ,  or  Spar¬ 
tans  ;  Perioeci,  or  Lacedemonians,  inhabitants  of  the  country,  who  paid  tribute 
and  gave  military  service  ;  and  Helots.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  fell  to  the 
last  alone.  The  Spartans  of  the  capital  were  the  ruling  lords  ;  the  Periceci 
were  probably  the  fh  ingle  d  offspring  of  Dorian  marriages,  or  native  Acheans. 
The  third  class  were  the  inhabitants  of  Helos,  reduced  to  slavery  as  a  punish¬ 
ment  for  their  continual  insurrections.  The  chief  authority  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  two  kings,  the  five  ephori ,  and  the  senate  of  twenty-eight ;  the  popular 
assembly  had  no  other  privilege  than  that  of  electing  the  senators,  who  held 
their  places  for  life.  The  government  was  therefore  far  from  being  a  demo¬ 
cracy.  The  power  of  the  king  was  supreme  in  war,  but  inferior  to  that  of  the 
ephori  in  peace.  These  magistrates,  originally  created  as  a  check  alike  upon 
the  sovereign  and  the  senate,  gradually  usurped  excessive  power.  The  dread¬ 
ful  massacre  of  their  slaves  ( crypteia ),  and  the  dissolute  manners  arising  from 
certain  regulations  concerning  the  intercourse  of  the  sexes,  are  well  known. 
The  Spartan  women  were  reckoned  a  disgrace  to  their  sex,  and  Aristotle 
imputes  the  disorders  which  ruined  the  nation  to  their  want  of  modesty.  The 
Germans,  with  their  habitual  love  of  paradox,  have  lately  started  and  as  ably 
defended  a  theory  that  the* Dorian  states,  including  Sparta,  were  the  first  in 
arts,  literature,  and  arms.  But  in  this  community  there  were  no  authors  ;  the 
arts,  which  form  the  charm  and  ornament  of  life  were  unknown  ;  and  for  all 
memorials  of  the  virtue  of  the  republic  we  are  indebted  to  the  Athenians. 

Consult :  Mitford’s  History  of  Greece  ;  Bulwer’s  Athens,  Book  I.  ch.  vi. 
$  5,  &c. 

CARTHAGE. 

Dido,  890*  b.  c. —  Carthage  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  was 
founded  by  Elisa  or  Dido,  sister  of  Pygmalion  king  of  Tyre,  though 
others  place  its  foundation  so  early  as  1223  b.  c.  It  would  be  wrong 
to  take  the  account  transmitted  to  us  in  its  literal  sense.  It  is  probable 
that  political  commotions  in  the  mother  city  induced  a  party  of  the  dis¬ 
affected  to  emigrate,  who  proceeded  to  Africa,  along  whose  northern 
coast  Utica  and  other  Phoenician  colonies  had  already  been  settled. 
After  the  decease  of  Dido  there  is  a  void  in  the  history  of  more  than 
three  centuries.  In  the  time  of  Cyrus,  Camhyses,  and  Darius,  the 
republic  was  formidable  by  land  and  sea  (550-480).  About  the  same 
period  they  defeated  a  fleet  of  the  Phoceans,  then  the  most  powerful 


*  Petav.  Ration.  Temp.  1.  ii.  c.  13. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


45 


maritime  state.  To  the  same  epoch  must  be  referred  their  great  vic¬ 
tories  over  their  African  neighbours,  and  the  first  treaty  with  Rome, 
509  b.  c. 

The  constitution  of  Carthage  was  aristocratic,  administered  by  two  judges 
(, suffeles ),  a  senate  of  100  members,  and  an  assembly  of  the  people.  The 
judges  were  annually  chosen  from  the  oldest  and  most  opulent  families ;  and 
the  popular  assembly  was  appealed  to  only  when  the  opinions  of  the  senate 
and  the  council  of  five  (the  assistants  of  the  suffetes)  were  divided.  Aristotle 
ranks  this  republic  among  those  most  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  The  Cartha¬ 
ginian  religion  was  of  the  mother-country :  the  heavenly  bodies  were  wor¬ 
shipped,  and  the  blood-stained  rites  of  Moloch  held  in  great  honour.  In  times 
of  public  distress,  300  noble  youths  were  placed  alive  in  his  blazing  arms. 
Carthage  was  pre-eminently  a  commercial  city  ;  all  its  power  and  consequence 
were  derived  from  trade ;  its  fleets  covered  the  seas  ;  and  its  colonies  or  fac¬ 
tories  were  on  every  shore.  The  mines  of  Old  Spain  were  worked,  and  with 
the  gold  thence  procured,  Spanish,  Ligurian,  and  Italian  soldiers  were  hired  to 
form  its  armies.  The  Carthaginians  held  Sicily,  Malta,  the  Balearic  Isles, 
Sardinia,  and  Corsica  ;  they  frequented  the  west  of  Africa  as  far  as  the  Guinea 
coast,  and  visited  Britain ;  but  the  passage  to  the  Canaries  was  forbidden. 
Their  caravans  travelled  eastward  to  Egypt,  and  southward  to  Fe^zan,  or 
even  further. 

MACEDONIA. 

Towards  the  end  of  this  century,  a  Hellenic  colony  from  Argos,  under 
Caranus(813,)  settled  in  Emathia,  and  laid  the  feeble  foundations  of  the 
Macedonian  empire.  Its  early  history,  however,  is  obscure,  and  little 
more  is  known  than  that  its  princes  gradually  extended  their  territory 
by  subjecting  or  expelling  the  neighbouring  tribes.  They  were  deli¬ 
vered  from  the  Persian  yoke,  imposed  in  510,  by  the  victories  of  the 
Greeks ;  and  their  independence  was  restored  by  the  battle  of  Plataea, 
479,  although  it  was  not  distinctly  acknowledged  by  their  former  masters. 
It  was  scarcely  considered  a  Grecian  state  until  the  reign  of  Philip,  the 
father  of  Alexander. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY. 

Judjea. — 721,  Captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes — Isaiah,  Habakkuk,  Nahum  fl. 

Greece. — 776,  First  Olympiad. — 743,  First  Messenian  War. 

Assyria. — 759,  Sardanapalus,  d. — 747,  iEra  of  Nabonassar. — 714, 

Sennacherib. 

Rome. — 753.  Foundation  of  Rome — Senate. 

Lydia. — 727,  Gyges. 

JUDAEA. 

Judah. — In  810  b.c.,  Amaziah  was  succeeded  by  Uzziah,  also  called 
Azariah,  who  served  the  Lord  so  long  as  the  prophet  Zechariah  lived, 
and  all  his  enterprises  therefore  succeeded.  The  Arabians,  Ammonites, 
and  Philistines,  became  his  tributaries ;  and  having  formed  an  alliance 
with  Jeroboam  II.  of  Israel,  he  overcame  the  Syrians,  and  recovered  the 
cities  of  Hamath  and  Damascus.  He  retook  Elath  from  the  Idumeans, 
and  re-established  the  ancient  commerce  of  the  Jews  on  the  Red  Sea  ; 
but  intoxicated  with  success,  he  forgot  what  he  owed  to  the  God  of 


46 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Jacob.  On  a  day  of  solemn  festival,  he  presumed,  in  defiance  of  the 
high-priest,  to  offer  incense  in  the  temple,  when  he  was  immediately 
struck  with  leprosy,  of  which  he  died  753  b.  c.  Jotham,  who  had  been 
appointed  regent  during  the  life  of  his  father,  received  the  reward  of  his 
piety  in  great  successes  over  his  enemies ;  though  from  the  portrait  of 
this  age  left  us  by  Isaiah,  we  learn  that  the  manners  of  the  people  were 
very  corrupted.  Micah,  who  began  to  prophesy  about  this  time,  pre¬ 
dicted  the  misfortunes  of  Samaria,  the  birth  of  the  Messiah  at  Bethlehem, 
the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews.  The 
righteous  Jotham  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ahaz,  742,  who  restored 
the  worship  of  Baal,  offered  sacrifice  to  the  idols  of  the  neighbouring 
nations,  and  burnt  incense  on  all  the  high  places.  The  instruments 
chosen  by  the  Almighty  to  punish  this  impiety  were  Rezin  king  of 
Syria,  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel,  whose  united  forces,  after  devastating 
the  country,  blockaded  Ahaz  in  Jerusalem,  with  the  design  of  extermi¬ 
nating  the  house  of  David  and  changing  the  order  of  succession.  In 
this  pressing  danger  the  prophet  Isaiah  restored  the  waning  confidence 
of  the  monarch  ;  the  siege  was  raised,  and  the  two  kino-s  retired  without 
any  important  conquest.  Ahaz,  far  from  being  touched  by  so  marked 
an  interposition  of  Heaven,  passed  his  own  son  through  the  fire  to 
Moloch.*  In  the  next  year,  being  defeated  by  the  King  of  Israel,  he 
purchased  the  assistance  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  with  all 
the  gold  and  silver  found  in  the  temple,  or  in  the  royal  treasury,  740 
b.  c.  Elath  became  .the  prize  of  his  ally,  and  the  great  commerce  of 
the  East  was  for  ever  taken  away  from  Jerusalem.  When  Ahaz  was 
threatened  by  the  Assyrians,  he  indulged  in  the  greatest  excess  of 
idolatry,  in  the  hope  of  propitiating  the  divinities  of  his  enemies,  to 
whom  he  attributed  all  the  misfortunes  which  had  befallen  him. 
Hezekiah,  one  of  the  mo§t  righteous  kings  that  ever  filled  the  throne 
of  Judah,  consecrated  the  beginning  of  his  reign  to  the  destruction  of 
idols,  and  the  restoration  of  the  true  worship,  726  b.  c.  He  celebrated 
the  Passover  with  great  solemnity ;  repaired  many  of  the  losses  which 
his  people  had  suffered  in  preceding  reigns  ;  and  even  ventured  to  shake 
off  the  Assyrian  yoke.  Shalmaneser  was  diverted  from  attacking  his 
kingdom,  after  the  subjugation  of  Israel,  by  an  anxiety  to  reduce  the 
Phoenician  states ;  but  Sennacherib,  his  successor,  renewing  the  claim, 
shortly  after  entered  Judsea  with  a  powerful  army ;  nor  did  he  retire 
until  Hezekiah  had  submitted,  and  consented  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
of  300  talents  of  silver,  and  30  of  gold,  713  b.  c.  In  an  expedition  des¬ 
tined  against  Egypt,  the  Assyrian  monarch  again  appeared  before 


*  Moloch  was  a  Phoenician  god,  whose  statue  and  temple  were  in  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sion.  The  place  derived  its  name  of  Tophet  from  the  musical 
instruments  ( tuph )  used  to  drown  the  cries  of  the  children  who  were  sacrificed.  Hence 
also  the  names  of  Tophet,  Gehinnom  or  Ge-henna,  given  to  the  place  of  eternal 
torments. 

“  Mdioch,  horrid  king,  besmeared  with  blood 
Of  human  sacrifice,  and  parents’  tears; 

Though  for  the  noise  of  drums  and  timbrels  loud 
Their  children’s  cries  unheard,  that  passed  through  fire, 

To  his  grim  idol.” — Milton. 

t 

The  high  places  mentioned  above  were  those  in  which  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob 
had  sacrificed  to  the  true  God,  and  for  which  the  people  always  preserved  a  great 
respect.  Here  they  persisted  in  offering  sacrifices  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  whic 
confined  such  religious  service  to  the  temple  alone. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


4 


Jerusalem,  in  which  was  the  prophet  Isaiah.  But  during  the  night  a 
pestilence  sent  from  heaven  destroyed  the  principal  officers  of  his  army 
with  185,000  men,  710  b.  c ;  upon  which  he  returned  in  haste  to  Nine¬ 
veh,  where  he  was  assassinated  by  his  own  sons.  Shortly  before,  the 
King  of  Judah  had  been  attacked  with  a  mortal  disease;  but  on  his 
humble  prayer,  Isaiah  was  commanded  to  predict  his  recovery  as  well 
as  the  prolongation  of  his  life ;  and  to  confirm  this  prophecy  the  shadow 
of  the  sun  went  back  ten  degrees  upon  the  dial  of  Ahaz.  Hezekiah 
passed  the  rest  of  his  days  in  tranquillity ;  and  having  embellished 
Jerusalem,  built  aqueducts,  and  other  public  works,  he  died  698  b.  c. 

Israel. — A  turbulent  interregnum  of  twelve  years  followed  the  death 
of  Jeroboam  II. ;  and  his  son  Zechariah,  who  was  murdered  in  the  first 
year  of  his  reign,  772,  was  the  last  of  the  house  of  Jehu,  which  had 
given  five  kings  to  Israel.  The  regicide  Shallum,  after  a  reign  of  one 
month,  was,  in  his  turn,  assassinated  by  Menahem,  who  governed  ten 
years,  to  761  b.  c.,  and  under  him  took  place  the  first  invasion  of  the 
Assyrians  led  by  Pul.  Little  is  recorded  of  Pekahiah  who  was  slain 
by  Pekah,  one  of  his  generals,  and  his  successor  (759.)  This  monarch, 
being  joined  by  Rezin^king  of  Damascus,  invaded  Judah,  and  carried 
awray  200,000  prisoners,  whom,  in  obedience  to  the  remonstrances  of  the 
prophet  Obed,  he  restored  to  their  country.  An  interregnum  of  nine 
years  followed  his  assassination  (739,)  during  which  period  of  confu¬ 
sion  Tiglath-Pileser  ravaged  the  districts  beyond  the  Jordan.  The 
cup  of  iniquity  was  now  full,  and  God  resolved  to  execute  his  judgments. 
By  an  alliance  with  the  Egytian  Sahacus  or  So,  Hoshea  endeavoured  to 
shake  off  the  Assyrian  yoke ;  but  Shalmaneser  invaded  his  territories 
with  an  overwhelming  force,  conquered  Samaria,  and,  in  721  b.  c.,  put 
an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  254  years  after  the  defection  from 
Judah.  The  inhabitants  were  transported  into  Media,  to  provinces 
which  had  lately  been  depopulated  in  consequence  of  the  fall  of  the  first 
Assyrian  empire,  and  to  Babylon.  The  Israelites  were  replaced  by 
Medians  and  Assyrians,  who  forsook  their  idolatry,  erected  a  temple  on 
Mount  Gerizim,  and  instituted  ceremonies  similar  to  those  of  Jerusalem. 
These  new  colonists  were  afterwards  termed  Samaritans,  and  differed 
from  the  Jews  only  in  their  schism. 

Prepare  :  Table  of  contemporaneous  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah. 

GREECE. 

Olympiads,  776  b.  c. — With  the  establishment  of  Olympiads  Grecian 
history  begins  to  assume  a  less  fabulous  appearance.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Games ,  held  every  four  years,  near  the  city  of  Olympia, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  and  their  commencement  is  placed  as  high 
as  1354  b.  c.  They  were  re-established  by  Iphitus  of  Elis  in  conjunc 
tion  with  Lycurgus,  and  Oleosthenes  of  Pisa,  about  884;  but  a  centur 
elapsed  before  the  names  of  the  victors  were  inscribed  in  the  gymnasium. 
The  first  year  of  the  First  Olympiad  begins  with  July,  776  b.  c.* 


*  To  reduce  the  Olympiads  to  the  common  era,  multiply  the  Olympiad  immediately 
preceding  the  one  in  question  by  4,  and  add  the  number  of  years  to  the  ?iven  Olympiad 
If  b.  c.  subtract  the  amount  from  777  ;  if  a.  d.  subtract  776  from  the  amount.  Thus  146 
01.  2  is  95  b.  c.  and  222  01  2.  is  110  a.  d.  The  Olympic  year  commenced  with  the  new 
moon  nearest  to  the  summer  solstice, 


45 


anciejnIt  history. 


The  four  most  celebrated  of  the  public  games  of  Greece  were  the  Nemean, 
held  in  Argolis ;  the  Isthmian,  in  Corinth;  the  Pythian,  at  Delphi;  and  the 
Olympic  ;  in  which  a  simple  wreath  of  laurel  or  of  olive  was  given  to  the  suc¬ 
cessful  competitors.  The  value  of  the  prize  was  enhanced  by  its  being  awarded 
in  the  presence  of  the  whole  Greek  nation,  and  by  the  honours  which  his 
native  city  paid  to  the  victor  who  had  contributed  to  its  glory.  If  an  Athenian, 
he  was  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  Prytaneum ;  if  a  Spartan,  to  the  chief  post  in 
battle. 

The  Eleans  were  the  sole  managers  of  the  Olympic  games,  and  during  their 
celebration  a  kind  of  sacred  truce  was  preserved.  The  first  contentions  were 
in  the  foot-race  alone  ;  afterwards  were  added  wrestling,  leaping,  throwing  the 
quoit  and  javelin,  boxing,  with  horse  and  chariot  racing.  In  the  Pentathlon 
five  gymnastic  exercises  were  combined.  At  Olympia  were  read  fragments  of 
the  history  of  Herodotus,  and  while  listening  to  his  enchanting  legends,  Thu¬ 
cydides  caught  that  inspiration  which  led  him  not  only  to  excel  his  master,  but 
to  attain  a  point  of  great  excellence.  Here  also  Lysias  recited  his  harangue  on 
the  fall  of  the  tyrant  Dionysius.  Such  exhibitions  had  the  effect  of  transform¬ 
ing  social  pleasures  into  intellectual  enjoyments. 

ASSYRIA. 

The  annals  of  the  first  Assyrian  empire  are  involved  in  obscurity  not 
less  difficult  to  remove  than  that  of  Egypt ;  for  the  notices  respecting 
the  origin  of  the  latter  power  as  well  as  of  Babylon,  which  are  furnished 
in  the  Bible,  are  not  sufficient  to  complete  a  continuous  history.  At  the 
epoch  of  the  Dispersion,  Ashur  wTas  established  in  Shinar  ( Babylonia )  , 
but  soon  after,  advancing  northward,  he  founded  the  cities  of  Nineveh, 
Rehoboth,  Calah,  and  Resen.  About  the  same  time,  or  perhaps  a  little 
earlier,  Nimrod  settled  in  Babylonia,  from  which  he  is  supposed  by 
many  historians  to  have  expelled  Ashur.  He  converted  the  tower  of 
Babel  into  a  fortress,  by  surrounding  it  with  strong  walls,  from  whence 
he  kept  the  neighbouring  country  in  subjection.  He  next  passed  into 
Assyria,  and  confined  Ashur  within  a  narrower  territory.  In  the  rab¬ 
binical  books  Nimrod  is  represented  as  the  inventor  of  fire-worships, 
and  the  first  persecutor  of  the  religion  of  the  true  God. 

After  this  conqueror  we  have  no  certain  information  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  Assyrians ;  and  the  period  intervening  between  him  and 
Ninus  is  filled  by  some  writers  with  a  list  of  thirteen  kings,  divided  into 
two  dynasties.  Of  these,  Evechous,  the  son  and  successor  of  Nimrod, 
is  the  first;  Chomas-Bel,  the  next,  is  perhaps  the  same  as  Bel-chamas, 
the  second  of  the  Babylonian  divinities ;  Por  or  Pong  is  considered  to 
be  Baal-Peor  or  Belphegor.  The  name  of  Chinzir,  the  seventh  king, 
closes  the  first  series.  After  a  reign  of  forty-five  years  he  wTas  dethroned 
by  the  Arabs,  and  his  monarchy  being  dismembered,  was  formed  into 
the  kingdoms  of  Shinar,  Elam,  Ellasar,  and  some  others  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis,  in  connexion  with  the  history  of  Abraham. — The 
second  dynasty,  composed  of  six  Arabian  kings,  occupied  the  throne  215 
years;  and  the  last  sovereign  of  this  race  was  Nabonadius,  dethrored 
by  Belus,  who  had  already  governed  part  of  Assyria  during  thirty  years. 
He  reigned  twenty-five  years  longer  over  the  united  kingdom,  and 
dying,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ninus,  1968  b.  c.  (PJlrl  de  verifier  le* 
Dates'). 

The  first  conquests  of  Ninus  were  over  the  Babylonians,  whose  cities 
he  easily  reduced.  After  Media  and  Armenia  had  submitted  to  his 
arms,  he  experienced  little  opposition  in  the  rest  of  Asia,  except 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


49 


the  Bactrians,  who  were  at  last  subdued  in  consequence  of  the  wise 
suggestions  of  his  wife  Semiramis.  The  history  of  the  early  life  of  this 
remarkable  woman  is  mingled  with  fable;  and  her  elevation  to  the 
imperial  throne  can  only  be  compared  to  that  of  Catherine  I.  of  Russia. 
She  had  no  sooner  succeeded  her  husband  than  she  endeavoured  to 
eclipse  his  glory ;  and  as  he  had  rebuilt  in  a  very  magnificent  manner, 
the  ancient  city  of  Nineveh  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  she  determined 
that  Babylon  should  surpass  it  in  splendour.  In  the  execution  of  her 
great  project,  two  millions  of  workmen  were  employed,  and  the  city, 
finished  in  the  space  of  two  years,  was  ever  after  considered  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Nor  did  she  limit  her  cares  to  this  city  alone; 
many  others  were  built  or  improved  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  In  all  parts  of  her  dominions  she  formed  aqueducts,  so 
valuable  in  hot  countries,  pierced  or  levelled  mountains,  filled  up  valleys, 
and  opened  highways  in  every  direction.  Even  at  the  present  day  the 
communication  between  Bagdad  and  Hamadan  is  maintained  through 
one  of  the  roads  constructed  by  this  celebrated  queen.  After  a  reig.*  ri 
forty-two  years,  and  at  the  age  of  sixty -two,  Semiramis  resigned  rhe 
sceptre  to  her  son  Ninyas,  who,  it  is  said,  spent  his  life  in  indolence 
and  retirement, — a  course  imitated  by  all  his  successors  till  the  reign  of 
Sardanapalus.  One  circumstance  alone  breaks  through  the  silence  of 
this  long  interval.  Tentamus,  the  twentieth  successor  of  Ninyas,  sent 
assistance  to  Priam;  and  Plato,  from  whom  we  learn  this  fact,  adds 
that  Troy  was  a*  dependency  of  Assyria.  The  conquests  of  Sesostris 
king  of  Egypt,  occurred  probably  under  the  government  of  these  de¬ 
scendants  of  Ninyas  ;  he  contented  himself  with  levying  heavy  tributes, 
leaving  the  sovereign  power  as  he  found  it. 

Sardanapalus,  with  whom  the  first  Assyrian  empire  terminated,  sur¬ 
passed  all  his  predecessors  in  luxury  and  voluptuousness.  His  excesses 
rendered  him  contemptible  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects,  and  inspired 
thoughts  of  revolt  in  the  mind  of  Belesis,  a  priest  of  Babylon,  who 
associated  with  him  in  his  plot  Arbaces,  the  governor  of  Media.  At  the 
first  news  of  the  projected  insurrection,  the  king  concealed  himself  in 
the  most  retired  chambers  of  his  palace;  but  soon  regaining  courage,  he 
collected  an  army  of  faithful  soldiers,  and  defeated  the  insurgents  in 
three  desperate  battles.  He  was  at  last  compelled  to  return  to  Nineveh, 
which  held  out  during  two  years;  when  the  Tigris,  swollen  by  unusual 
rains,  overflowed  its  banks  and  destroyed  great  part  of  the  walls.  To 
prevent  his  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  to  efface  the  memory 
of  a  shameful  life  by  a  vainglorious  death,  he  caused  a  vast  pile  to  be 
raised,  on  which  he  burnt  himself,  together  with  his  wives  and  treasures, 
759  b.  c. 

Three  empires  shared  the  vast  dominions  of  the  successors  of  Ninus  : 
— 1,  The  Assyrian  monarchy  of  Babylon  founded  by  Belesis,  which, 
after  lasting  about  220  years,  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  538  b.  c.  ; — 2, 
The  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Ninevite  Assyrians,  perpetuated  by  Pul, 
and  which,  in  little  more  than  130  years,  was  reunited  to  Babylon; — 
3,  The  state  of  the  Medes,  indebted  for  its  independence  to  Arbaces,  and 
which,  becoming  monarchical  under  Deioces,  continued  about  220  years, 
and  was  at  last  united  to  the  vast  empire  of  Persia. 

5 


50 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


It  has  been  thought,  and  not  without  sufficient  reason,  that  the  enterprise  of 
Belesis  and  Arbaces  has  been  confounded  with  that  of  Nabopolassar  and 
Cyaxares  against  Chynaladan  king  of  Assyria,  and  which  will  be  treated  of  in 
the  seventh  century.  It  is  certain  that  the  revolution  which  destroyed  Sarda- 
napalus,  called  also  Empacmes  or  Eupalis,  did  not  entirely  destroy  the  Assyrian 
empire  ;  and  that  it  scarcely  did  more  than  cause  the  dismemberment  of  several 
provinces,  the  chief  of  which  were  Babylon  and  Media.  It  would  be  useless  to 
endeavour  to  reconcile  the  contradictory  accounts  which  the  ancients  have 
transmitted  to  us  of  the  last  days  of  Sardanapalus.  It  seems,  however,  to  be 
established  by  modern  critics,*  that  there  were  two  persons  of  that  name  ; 
that  Nineveh  was  not  destroyed ;  and  even  that  Sardanapalus,  surviving  his 
degradation,  resigned  the  government  to  the  hands  of  his  son  Pul,  and  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  luxurious  retirement. 

Second  Empire  of  Nineveh. — Pul,  the  first  king  of  the  new  empire 
of  Assyria,  was  the  son  of  Sardanapalus,  and  is  known  to  have  inter¬ 
fered  in  the  civil  dissensions  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  His  successors 
were  steady  in  his  course  of  policy,  which  was  destined  at  no  distant 
period  to  open  the  road  to  Egypt.  He  has  been  thought  to  be  the  Eel  us 
cf  profane  history,  and  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy.  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  his  son  and  successor,  747  b.  c.,  a  warlike  prince,  endeavoured 
to  repair  the  losses  which  his  territories  had  suffered  during  the  last 
revolution;  and,  with  this  view,  he  invaded  Palestine,  destroyed  the 
kingdom  of  Damascus,  and  transported  the  unfortunate  inhabitants  of 
that  city  into  his  own  states,  740.  Ahaz  also,  king  of  Judah,  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  pay  him  tribute.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  nineteen  years,  and 
was  succeeded  oy  Shalmaneser  (728)  who  surpassed  the  exploits  of  his 
father.  Having  completed  the  conquest  of  Israel,  he  led  Hoshea  into 
captivity,  the  ",ast  sovereign  of  that  schismatical  kingdom ;  and  after 
reducing  the  various  states  of  Phoenicia,  he  compelled  their  inhabitants 
to  pay  tribute.  He  died  in  714,  and  was  followed  on  the  throne  by  his 
son  Sennacherib,  the  Sargon  of  Isaiah.  He  began  his  reign  by  the 
invasion  of  Judea;  but,  while  threatening  Jerusalem,  his  army  was 
smitten  with  pestilence  or  by  the  simoom  (“  the  angel  of  death,”  as  it  is 
called  by  the  Arabs),  and  185,000  men  perished  in  a  single  night. 
Rendered  ferocious  by  his  disgrace,  he  exercised  the  cruelest  tyranny 
on  his  subjects.  The  Jews  were  particularly  exposed  to  his  anger.  He 
daily  massacred  great  numbers  of  them,  and  left  their  bodies  in  the 
fields  without  sepulture.  Becoming  odious  to  his  family  his  two  elder 
sons  conspired  and  slew  him,  707  b.  c.  ;  but  fleeing  into  Armenia,  they 
left  the  throne  to  the  youngest,  Esarhaddon. 

Second  Empire  of  Babylon.  —  Nothing  is  more  obscure  than  the 
beginning  of  this  empire,  which,  until  the  year  721,  had  no  communica¬ 
tion  with  the  Jewish  people.  Belesis,  generally  considered  as  the  first 
king  of  this  new  monarchy,  was,  according  to  Diodorus,  merely  governor 
of  Babylon  under  Arbaces  the  Median.  It  is  contended  by  many  mo 
dern  historians  that  he  and  his  successor  Nabonassar  are  one  and  the 
same  person ;  an  opinion  which  is  scarcely  tenable.  The  name  of 
Belesis  is  not  found  in  the  list  of  Babylonian  kings  given  by  Ptolemy. 
Some  writers  believe  that  he  formed  the  province  into  a  sort  of  republic, 
with  himself  at  its  head,  but  dependent  on  the  King  of  Nineveh.  The 
actions  of  Nabonassar  are  entirely  unknown,  except  that  he  is  reported 


*  See  vol.  xxi.  of  the  Memoires  de  V Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


51 


,0  have  destroyed  the  monuments  of  his  predecessors  in  the  foolish  hope 
of  passing-  for  the  first  king  of  the  Babylonian  nation.  The  epoch  which 
bears  his  name,  and  which  was  adopted  on  the  introduction  of  the 
Egyptian  year,  begins  with  747  b.  c.*  Beyond  their  names  we  know 
but  little  of  the  next  four  kings,  Nadius,  Chinzirus,  Porus,  and  Jugeus. 
These  were  succeeded  in  721  by  Merodach-Baladan,  who  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  king  of  Judah.  After  the  disasters  of  Sennacherib, 
Merodach  endeavoured  to  rescue  his  kingdom  from  its  state  of  depend¬ 
ence  on  Assyria;  but  in  this  he  was  unsuccessful,  if  we  may  judge  by 
the  weakness  and  disorder  of  the  monarchy  during  the  reigns  of  his  five 
successors  in  the  short  space  of  seventeen  years. 

LYDIA. 

The  Lydians  were  a  Pelasgian  race,  originally  called  Maeonians, 
from  their  first  monarch  Maeon,  the  epoch  of  whose  reign  has  been  fixed 
at  1545  b.  c.  Three  dynasties  occupied  in  succession  the  throne  of 
Lydia:  the  Atyades,  the  Heraclidee,  and  the  Mermnadae.  The  traditions 
of  mythology  had  placed  a  portion  of  the  adventures  of  Hercules  in  that 
country  ;  and  assigned  it  as  the  birthplace  of  Marsyas,  Tantalus,  Pelops, 
Niobe,  Arachne,  and  Omphale.  A  branch  of  the  Heraclidae  succeeded 
the  Atyades  in  1232,  and  about  727  b.  c.  they  were  followed  by  the 
Mermnadae,  of  whom  Gyges,  grandson  of  Mermnas,  was  the  first,  who 
dethroned  and  murdered  Candaules.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  now 
began  to  separate  from  fable,  as  it  gradually  increased  in  riches  and 
importance ;  and  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Scythians,  who  in  the  7th 
century  had  invaded  and  temporarily  possessed  it,  Alyattes  ruled  over 
the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor.  A  war  soon  afterwards  arose  between 
Media  and  Lydia,  during  which  Babylon  remained  neuter,  and  acted  as 
mediator  in  the  contest.  A  memorable  battle  between  the  two  nations 
was  interrupted  by  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  30th  September  601  b.  c. 
Croesus,  before  ascending  the  throne,  had  been  associated  with  his  father 
in  the  government.  Wise  but  ambitious,  he  greatly  extended  the  power 
of  the  kingdom,  and  reduced  all  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia.  Solon  the 
philosopher,  about  575,  and  the  fabulist  A3sop,  were  entertained  at  his 
court. |  He  declared  -war  against  the  celebrated  Cyrus,  who  had  united 
the  Median  and  Persian  monarchies,  559  b.  c.  ;  but  although  assisted 
by  Egypt  and  Babylon,  he  wras  unsuccessful ;  his  capital,  Sardis,  wras 
taken,  and  himself  made  prisoner,  546  b.c.  The  wdiole  of  the  Lydian 
dominions  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  and  the  nation  never 
recovered  its  independence. 

Tradition  ascribes  to  the  Lydians  the  invention  of  coined  money,  formed 
from  the  gold  dust  of  the  river  Pactolus.  They  were  celebrated  for  their  purple 
garments,  their  skill  in  working  metal,  and  their  slave  markets. 


*The  reign  of  Nabonassar  forms  an  important  era  in  chronology.  It  was,  according 
to  Ptolemy,  the  beginning  of  the  astronomical  observations  of  the  Chaldeans.  Hence, 
it  fixes  the  date  of  what  is  commonly  called  Ptolemy’s  Astronomical  Canon.  The 
method  of  reducing  the  years  of  this  era  to  that  employed  by  Christian  nations,  will  be 
found  in  the  Companion  to  the  Almanac,  1830. 

fThe  chronological  objections  to  the  celebrated  interview  between  Croesus  and  Solon 
may  be  removed,  if  we  suppose  with  Mr.  Fynes  Clinton,  that  Croesus  reigned  jointly 
with  his  father  Alyattes.  See  also  Larcher’s  Note  73,  lib.  i.  of  his  translation  of 
Hex  )dotus. 


52 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


# 


ROME. 

Origin  of  the  Roman  people. 

At  the  period  when  history  begins  to  throw  a  few  rays  of  light  upon  the  con 
dition  of  Italy,  we  find  it  occupied  by  various  tribes,  speaking  different  lan¬ 
guages,  and  in  different  degrees  of  civilisation.  The  Umbrians ,  who  are 
supposed  to  have  come  from  Illyria,  had  penetrated  to  the  Tiber,  and  occupied 
both  its  banks  at  a  very  remote  era.  Between  them  and  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  lay  the  Sicilians;  while  in  the  Apennine  chain,  near  Mount  Velino,  and 
at  the  Lake  Fucino,  dwelt  a  rude  and  barbarous  people,  known  by  the  name 
of  Casci  or  Aborigines  (primitive  inhabitants).  To  the  east  of  these  were  the 
Sabines ,  whose  original  abode  was  the  Abruzzi,  on  the  summits  of  the  Apen¬ 
nines.  These  people  seized  on  the  Umbrian  territory,  and,  in  lapse  of  time, 
extended  their  frontiers  as  far  as  Rome.  At  this  epoch,  long  before  the  date 
of  the  fall  of  Troy,  the  Aborigines  settled  on  the  south  of  Umbria,  and  there 
built  cities  and  towns.  The  Siculans  and  these  mountaineers  were  continually 
at  war ;  and  after  long  and  terrible  combats,  the  Aborigines,  assisted  by  some 
Pelasgian  colonists  under  Evander,  vanquished  the  Sieulans,  and  compelled 
them  to  take  refuge  in  Trinacria,  which  afterwards  bore  the  name  of  Sicily. 
The  Pelasgians  received  their  share  of  the  conquered  lands ;  but  were  in  their 
turn  subdued  and  nearly  exterminated  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century 
B.  c.  The  Aborigines  remained  sole  masters  of  the  country,  and  were  the 
primitive  source  of  the  Latin  people.  They  were  called  Latins ,  from  their  king 
Latinus.  The  poetical  traditions  relate  that  JEneas,  who  had  escaped  the  flames 
of  Troy,  married  Lavinia,  the  daughter  of  Latinus,  and  founded  Lavinium. 
His  son  Ascanius  is  said  to  have  built  Alba  Longa.  Twelve  princes  reigned 
after  him  :  Procas  was  the  last.  His  sons  Numitor  and  Amulius  made  war 
upon  each  other,  and  the  latter  triumphed ;  but  he  was  driven  from  the  throne 
by  the  two  grandsons  of  Numitor.  Romulus  and  Remus,  whom  the  Romans 
supposed  to  be  the  offspring  of  Mars  and  the  vestal  Rhea  Sylvia. 

The  researches  of  Beaufort  and  Niebuhr  have  shaken  the  credibility  of  the 
early  annals  of  Rome.  But  critical  scepticism  may  be  carried  too  far ;  for  the 
science  of  history  consists  not  only  in  the  knowledge  of  truths,  but  in  familiarity 
with  all  that  has  been  related  of  the  various  nations  which  have  figured  in  the 
world.  An  acquaintance  with  what  the  Romans  themselves  believed  of  the 
origin  of  the  city  is  necessary  to  enable  us  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  their 
character. 

Consult :  Arnold’s  History  of  Rome. 

Romulus,  753. — The  founder  of  Rome  had  been  a  shepherd  in  his 
youth.  After  having  restored  his  grandfather  Numitor  to  the  throne,  he 
settled,  with  some  of  his  early  companions,  at  a  little  distance  from 
Alba,  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  and  probably  on  the  ruins  of  a  more  ancient 
city.  By  making  the  new  city  an  asylum  for  murderers  and  runaway 
slaves,  the  population  increased.  He  established  laws,  divided  the 
people  into  two  classes — Patricians  and  Plebeians ,  and  appointed  a  senate. 
At  the  close  of  a  disastrous  war  with  the  Sabines,  he  was  compelled  to 
share  his  crown  with  Tatius,  their  king,  though  he  soon  became  sole 
monarch  again.  After  a  reign  of  thirt)T-seven  years  he  was  murdered  by 
the  senators,  who,  fearful  of  the  revenge  of  the  populace,  gave  origin  to 
the  report  that  he  had  been  carried  up  to  heaven,  and  a  temple  was 
erected  to  him  on  the  Quirinal  hill.  Romulus  had  the  good  sense  to 
adopt  many  Sabine  customs.  The  Romans  always  imitated  this  example 
with  respect  to  the  nations  they  conquered,  and  it  was  not  the  least  cause 
of  their  renown.  No  people  indeed  ever  rose  to  pre-eminent  greatness 
with  smaller  pretensions  to  originality.  They  were  indebted  to  the 
Greeks  for  every  thing  except  their  martial  and  republican  spirit;  whi. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  53 

many  of  their  laws,  customs,  and  religious  ceremonies,  together  with 
their  system  of  notation,  were  borrowed  from  the  Etruscans. 

Numa. — An  interregnum  of  a  year  followed  the  death  of  Romulus, 
after  which  the  senate,  fearing  to  hold  the  supreme  authority  any  longer, 
chose  a  Sabine,  named  Numa  Pompilius,  for  their  king.  As  the  former 
had  made  his  people  warriors,  the  latter  taught  them  the  arts  of  peace, 
framed  a  code  of  laws  modelled  on  that  of  Lycurgus,  and  regulated  the 
ceremonies  of  religious  worship.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  forty-three 
years,  672  b.  c. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY. 

J  udjea. — 698,  Manasseh. — 641,  Josiah. — 611,  Egyptian  War. — 606,  The  Cap 
tivity. 

Assyria.  —  667,  Nabuchodonosor. — 656,  Holofernes  slain. — 607,  Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar’s  Campaigns. 

Media  and  Persia. — 733,  Deioces. — 655,  Phraortes  defeated  at  Ragau. — 
648,  Scythian  Invasion.  Zoroaster. 

Egypt.  —  671,  Dodecarchy.  —  656,  Psammetichus. — 617,  Necho — Africa  cir¬ 
cumnavigated. 

Greece. — 685,  Second  Messenian  War. — 624,  Draco — Ephori. 

Rome.  —  667,  Horatii  and  Curiatii. — 640,  Ancus  Martius. — 616,  Tarquin  the 
Elder. 

Literature. — Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel. — 680,  Tyrtaeus. — 600,  Archilochus, 
Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Epimenides. 


JUDiEA. 

End  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah.  —  Manasseh  (698),  a  youth  of 
twelve  years  of  age,  subverted  all  the  wise  institutions  of  his  father 
Hezekiah  ;  he  adored  Baal  and  Moloch,  and  by  his  orders  Isaiah  was 
sawn  asunder.  During  his  long  reign  the  Mosaic  Law  and  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  fell  into  contempt;  and  he  thereby  brought  the  heaviest  mis¬ 
fortunes  on  himself  and  his  people.  Many  prophets  appeared,  and 
vainly  warned  the  nation  of  its  impending  ruin.  Esarhaddon  at  length 
dragged  him  a  prisoner  to  Babylon,  676,  as  Hoshea  king  of  Israel, 
forty-five  years  before,  had  been  led  to  Nineveh.  After  a  captivity  of 
one  year  (or  of  seven  years,  according  to  some  critics),  he  was  restored 
to  his  throne,  to  become  the  perfect  model  of  a  penitent  king ;  for  he 
purified  the  temple,  destroyed  all  idols,  and  re-established  the  worship 
of  the  true  God.  In  656  Nebuchadnezzar  I.  gave  Holofernes  the  com¬ 
mand  of  a  numerous  army,  destined  to  punish  the  Jews  for  refusing 
their  assistance  against  the  Medes.  But  his  conquests  were  arrested  by 
the  hand  of  a  woman ;  for  while  blockading  the  small  hill-fortress  of 
Bethulia,  he  was  slain  by  the  enthusiastic  Judith.  Amon,  the  wicked 
son  of  Manasseh,  perished  by  assassination,  641,  after  a  reign  of  two 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Josiah  at  the  age  of  eight.  Even  in  child¬ 
hood  this  monarch  was  an  example  of  piety,  and  he  had  scarcely  com¬ 
pleted  his  sixteenth  year,  when  he  assumed  the  government  which  had 
been  administered  by  his  mother  Idida.  In  his  time  the  high-priest 
5* 


54 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Hilkiah  discovered  the  original  manuscript  of  the  Law,  written  by  the 
hand  of  the  great  legislator  himself.  To  fulfil  the  engagements  he  made 
with  his  people  at  the  public  reading  of  this  book,  he  destroyed  every 
vestige  of  idolatry  both  in  Israel  and  Judah ;  and  when  he  had  thus 
purified  his  land,  he  celebrated  the  Passover  with  great  solemnity,  6*23 
b.  c.  The  misfortunes  of  the  country  recommenced  with  the  death  of 
Josiah,  who  was  killed  in  battle  at  Megiddo  while  opposing  Necho  king 
of  Egypt,  who  being  at  war  with  the  Assyrians,  resolved  to  pass  through 
Palestine.  The  prophet  Jeremiah  composed  a  funeral  elegy  on  his 
death,  which  continued  long  afterwards  to  be  sung  by  the  choir  in 
certain  religious  ceremonies.  With  this  prince  terminated  the  glory 
and  happiness  of  the  Jewish  nation.  The  people  raised  Jehoahaz,  one 
of  his  younger  sons,  to  the  throne  ;  but  he  was  deposed  by  the  victorious 
Necho,  and  led  prisoner  into  Egypt.  Eliakim,  who  was  appointed  in 
his  stead,  under  the  name  of  Jehoiakim,  610,  was  a  weak  and  irreligious 
ruler ;  his  only  virtue  being  the  fidelity  with  which  he  paid  a  heavy 
tribute  to  the  sovereign  from  whom  he  had  received  the  crown.  Deaf 
to  the  warnings  of  Jeremiah  and  Habakkuk,  who  announced  to  Judaea 
the  coming  danger,  he  threw  the  prophecy  of  the  former  into  the  fire, 
and  condemned  both  to  die.  They  escaped  his  fury  by  taking  refuge  in 
a  cavern.  In  606  Nebuchadnezzar  II.  took  Jerusalem  for  the  first  time, 
and  imprisoned,  but  afterwards  released,  its  monarch.  He  plundered 
the  temple  of  great  part  of  its  sacred  vessels,  and  among  his  captives 
we  read  the  names  of  Daniel,  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego.  This 
year,  606,  is  the  first  of  the  Seventy  Years'  Captivity  announced  by 
Jeremiah. 


ASSYRIA. 

Second  Empire  of  Nineveh. — Esarhaddon,  the  third  son  of  Senna¬ 
cherib,  ascended  the  throne  on  the  murder  of  his  father,  707  b.  c. ;  and 
he  restored  to  the  Assyrian  monarchy  the  strength  and  glory  which  it 
had  lost  during  the  misfortunes  of  the  previous  reigns.  Taking  advan¬ 
tage  of  the  civil  troubles  which  divided  the  Babylonians,  he  reunited 
them  to  his  empire  in  680,  and  until  647  they  were  governed  by  Nine- 
vite  viceroys.  He  reduced  Judaea,  and  led  Manasseh  into  captivity ; 
but,  as  already  mentioned,  after  twelve  months  he  restored  him  to  liberty 
and  to  a  kingdom  now  nearly  depopulated.  After  a  reign  of  forty-two 
years,  marked  by  glorious  conquests  over  Palestine,  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Ethiopia,  he  left  the  sceptre  to  his  son  Saosduchin,  the  Nebuchadnezzar 
or  Nabuchodonosor  of  the  book  of  Judith.  In  the  twelfth  year  of  his 
reign  he  was  attacked  by  Phraortes,  king  of  the  Medes,  whom  he 
defeated  and  slew  with  his  own  hand,  655.  He  sent  an  army  of  130,000 
men  into  Judaea,  under  the  command  of  Holofernes,  who,  we  have  seen, 
perished  by  the  hand  of  Judith.  From  this  time  Saosduchin  experienced 
nothing  but  reverses,  and  the  year  preceding  his  death,  he  was  besieged 
in  Nineveh  by  Cyaxares.  He  died  in  the  twenty-second  year  of  his 
reign,  leaving  a  tottering  throne  to  his  son  and  successor. 

The  vices  and  cowardice  of  Saracus  (Chynaladanus)  produced  greater 
trouble  and  confusion  in  his  dominions.  Nabopolassar  made  himself 
independent  at  Babylon,  where  he  reigned  twenty-one  years,  and  to  pre¬ 
serve  his  power  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Medes.  The  united 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  55 

armies  besieged  Nineveh,  and  completely  destroyed  it,  upon  which 
Babylon  became  the  sole  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  6*25  b.  c. 

Second  Empire  of  Babylon. —  On  the  death  of  Mesessi  Mordacus, 
the  last  of  the  live  obscure  successors  of  Merodach  Baladan,  the  metro¬ 
polis  was,  for  eight  years,  a  prey  to  all  the  evils  of  anarchy.  This 
opportunity  was  not  neglected  by  the  victorious  Esarhaddon,  and  in  680 
he  reunited  the  Babylonian  monarchy  to  that  of  Nineveh,  which  had 
now  become  the  most  formidable  in  all  Asia.  But  this  preponderance, 
founded  on  the  humiliation  of  Babylon,  was  not  of  long  duration;  for 
thirty-three  years  after,  Nabopolassar  the  Chaldean,  aided  by  Cyaxares 
the  Mede,  vindicated  the  honour  of  his  country  on  the  smoking  ruins  of 
Nineveh,  and  his  empire  became  in  its  turn  the  queen  of  the  east.  The 
conqueror  (625),  after  the  death  of  Saracus,  reunited  under  his  govern¬ 
ment  all  the  provinces  with  most  of  the  satrapies  that  had  been  depend¬ 
ent  on  Nineveh.  Such  prosperity  excited  the  jealousy  of  Necho,  who 
marched  toward  the  Euphrates  with  the  design  of  wresting  from  the 
Assyrian  monarch  all  the  country  situated  on  the  western  bank  of  that 
river.  He  was  particularly  successful,  and  took  the  important  city  of 
Carchemish,  with  several  other  strong  places.  This  encouraged  the 
Syrians  and  the  Jews  in  their  attempts  to  throw  off  the  Babylonian 
yoke ;  when  Nabopolassar,  too  far  advanced  in  years  to  take  the  field  in 
person  against  the  rebels,  committed  the  important  charge  to  his  son 
Nebuchadnezzar  the  Great,  whom  he  had  already  associated  with  him 
in  the  government.  This  young  prince,  who  had  received  from  nature 
all  the  qualities  of  a  conqueror,  justified  the  confidence  of  his  father. 
Proceeding  against  the  Egyptian  king,  he  gained  a  complete  victory, 
and  recovered  all  that  the  other  had  reduced  in  the  preceding  years. 
While  laying  siege  to  Jerusalem,  which  he  was  destined  to  capture 
thrice  in  the  course  of  his  reign,  he  was  informed  of  his  parent’s  death. 
He  returned  to  Babylon  to  assume  the  crown,  carrying  with  him  a 
numerous  train  of  Jewish  captives. 

MEDIA. 

Deioces,  733  b.  c. —  Media  is  a  fertile  though  mountainous  country, 
lying  between  Persia,  the  Caspian  Sea,  Assyria,  Parthia,  and  Armenia. 
Its  capital  was  Ecbatana  (now  Hamadan).  Powerful  monarchies 
appear  to  have  existed  in  those  parts,  but,  owing  to  an  inconsistent  and 
arbitrary  chronology,  they  can  scarcely  enter  into  general  history. 
Bactria,  by  its  geographical  position,  appears  marked  out  for  the  great 
emporium  of  south-eastern  Asia,  and  in  proportion  as  we  penetrate  into 
ancient  times,  w~e  become  convinced  that,  like  Babylon,  it  was  one  of 
the  earliest  seats  of  international  commerce,  and  one  of  the  cradles  of 
civilisation.  The  term  Media  comprehended  this  country  as  it  was 
applied  generally  to  the  nations  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Indus. 

From  the  earliest  period  the  Medes  had  been  subject  to  Assyria,  when, 
in  759,  under  the  command  of  Arbaces,  they  revolted  against  Sardana- 
palus,  and  recovered  their  independence.  But  their  liberty  degenerated 
into  anarchy,  until  a  sense  of  the  necessity  of  public  order  induced 
them,  in  the  year  733,  to  place  Deioces  on  the  throne.  During  his 

tlorious  reign  of  fifty-three  years,  he  united  the  six  tribes,  of  which  the 
lagi  were  the  chief,  and  founded  an  independent  sovereignty.  Phraortes 


56 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


(probably  the  Arphaxad  of  the  book  of  Judith),  who  succeeded  him  in 
680,  reduced  Persia,  and  conquered  all  the  country  north  of  the  Taurus 
as  far  as  the  river  Halys.  He  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar  I.  (Saosduchin)  in  his  war  against  Assyria,  655.  Cyaxares  I. 
undertook  to  avenge  his  father’s  death,  and  w^as  on  the  point  of  captur¬ 
ing  Nineveh,  when  he  was  obliged  to  turn  his  arms  against  a  more 
terrible  enemy,  the  Scythians,  who,  having  overrun  Asia,  had  reached 
the  borders  of  Egypt,  648.  It  took  twenty-eight  years  to  expel  them, 
after  which  he  declared  war  against  the  Lydian  Alyattes,  for  having 
received  and  protected  some  of  the  chiefs  who  had  escaped  from  the 
general  massacre  of  their  comrades.  A  battle  fought  on  the  banks  of 
the  Halys,  was  terminated  by  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  601  b.  c.*  The 
Medes  had  now  regained  their  importance,  for,  united  with  the  Baby¬ 
lonian  Nabopolassar,  they  had  destroyed  Nineveh,  625,  and  reduced  the 
Persians  to  subjection.  Cyaxares  I.  died  in  595,  in  the  sixty-first  year 
of  his  reign,  leaving  to  his  son  Astyages  the  greatest  and  most  powerful 
monarchy  in  Asia.  In  his  time  the  history  of  Media  becomes  confused 
with  that  of  Persia  and  of  Cyrus. 

We  may  here  observe  that  the  frequent  revolutions  in  Asia,  both  of  ancient 
and  modern  times,  were  never  beneficial  to  the  people.  Governments  often 
changed  hands,  but  the  form  was  always  the  same ;  and  all  except  that  effected 
by  Alexander  were  the  work  of  powerful  nomad  tribes.  Impelled  by  fortui¬ 
tous  circumstances  or  by  necessity,  they  quitted  their  wild  abodes  to  subjugate 
the  fertile  plains  of  Southern  Asia,  until,  enervated  by  the  luxury  and  effe¬ 
minacy  of  their  new  subjects,  they  were  themselves  conquered  in  the  same 
manner.  This  consideration  on  the  common  origin  of  the  great  empires  of  the 
East,  accounts  for  their  vast  extent,  their  rapid  increase,  and  brief  duration. 
The  internal  constitution  of  these  states  was  everywhere  the  same :  an 
unlimited  despotism  which,  springing  from  the  rights  of  conquest,  was  per¬ 
petuated,  because  the  very  extent  of  the  empire  required,  for  the  interests  of 
the  prince  at  least,  a  similar  government  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  state. 

PERSIA. 

Persia,  called  Elam  in  the  Scriptures,  received  its  name  from  the 
eldest  son  of  Shem.  Its  history  is  a  blank  down  to  the  reign  of  Che- 
dorlaomer,  who,  about  a  century  before  the  presumed  time  in  which 
Ninus  laid  the  foundations  of  Assyrian  greatness,  had  already  carried 
his  victorious  arms  towards  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  western  provinces 
of  Asia.  The  power  of  the  Elamites  yielded  to  that  of  Ninus  and 
Semiramis,  and  the  country  became  a  province  of  the  vast  empire  of 
Assyria.  They  aided  the  Medians  and  Babylonians  in  their  attempts 
to  overthrow  the  government  of  Sardanapalus,  but  were  still  dependent 
on  the  two  newly-formed  monarchies.  The  ten  tribes  of  Israel  were 
distributed  amon^  the  Persians  and  Medes ;  and  although  the  extensive 
dominion  of  Nebuchadnezzar  II.  embraced  the  former  people  within  its 
limits,  the  bonds  of  subjection  do  not  appear  to  have  been  very  oppres¬ 
sive.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Medes  the  condition  of  Persia  was  very 
little  changed.  Eastern  writers  have  endeavoured  to  fill  up  the  void  in 

*  The  period  of  this  eclipse  is  by  no  means  a  settled  point,  and  the  compiler  had  to 
select  from  six  different  dates:  607;  603;  601,  the  date  assigned  by  Usher;  597,  very 
often  given  ;  585,  total  over  the  whole  Hellespont,  and  not  improbably  that  mentioned 
by  Herodotus-  and  531  b.  c. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


57 


its  earlv  history  ;  but  their  works,  composed  in  the  twelfth  and  thir¬ 
teenth  centuries  a.  d.,  are  little  more  than  a  web  of  fabulous  traditions. 
Their  testimony  can  have  no  weight  in  the  balance  of  historical  criti¬ 
cism,  and  in  all  their  annals  the  only  personage  who  appears  to  be 
really  historical  is  Jemsheed  or  Giamschid,  probably  the  Achaemenes 
whom  the  Greeks  counted  among  the  ancestors  #of  Cyrus. 

At  the  epoch  of  their  subjection  to  the  Medes,  the  Persians  were  a 
mountain  race,  divided  into  ten  castes  or  tribes.  The  most  considerable 
were  the  Pasargadae,  the  Maraphiaris,  and  Maspians,  all  composed  of 
nobles  and  warriors;  and  the  first,  of  whom  the  Achaemenidae  were  a 
branch,  were  always  in  possession  of  the  government.  Of  the  other 
tribes,  three  were  composed  of  labourers  and  four  of  shepherds. 

Being  descended  from  Shem,  the  Elamites  preserved  longer  their 
ancient  religion.  They  built  no  temples,  but  worshipped,  in  the  open 
air  and  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  the  sun  (. Miihras )  or  fire,  as  an 
emblem  of  the  Supreme  Being.  They  also  venerated  the  stars  and 
planets.  The  adoration  of  the  heavenly  bodies  ( Sabaism )  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  corruption  of  the  Magian  doctrines  :  both  however  appear 
to  have  been  known  to  Job.  The  former  is  perpetuated  in  Asia  by  the 
Parsees  and  Ghebers. 

The  Magian  doctrine  endeavoured  to  account  for  the  existence  of  evil, 
by  the  notion  (afterwards  adopted  by  the  Manichees)  of  two  first  causes, 
principles  or  gods,  of  Good  and  Evil.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Magi,  a  sacerdotal  caste  of  the  Medes,  who  introduced  their  peculiar 
opinions  into  Persia.  This  doctrine  was  reformed  by  Zoroaster  or  Zer- 
dusht.  Four  persons  of  this  name  are  mentioned  in  ancient  authors ; 
but  the  best  known,  and  perhaps  the  only  one  who  ever  existed,  was 
born  in  Media  about  the  same  time  as  Cyrus.  Sent  in  early  life  to 
Judaea,  he  studied  the  books  of  Moses  and  Solomon,  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  prophecies  concerning  Cyrus.  Returning  to  his 
own  country,  he  retired  to  a  lonely  cavern,  in  which  he  wrote  the  Jivesta, 
or  as  it  is  generally  called,  the  Zendavesta,  from  being  written  in  the 
Zend  language,  the  sacred  dialect  of  the  Parsees.  In  this  work,  which 
contains  tenets  of  the  highest  wisdom  and  the  p.urest  morals,  the  Two 
Principles  are  reduced  to  the  rank  of  subordinate  angels,  and  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  one  independent  and  self-existing  deity  is  acknowledged,  as  also 
the  salvation  of  man  by  faith  from  the  power  of  Arimanes  or  Satan. 
These  doctrines  appear  to  have  been  adopted  in  Persia  by  the  nobler 
tribes  alone.  The  magi  preserved  the  sacred  fire  which  Zoroaster 
brought  to  Media,  and  which  he  is  said  to  have  received  from  heaven. 
His  favourite  maxim  was,  that  evil  followed  good,  as  the  shadow  the 
substance. 

EGYPT. 

Psammetichus. — The  period  between  the  sixteenth  and  tenth  centu¬ 
ries,  although  disturbed  by  anarchy,  was  the  most  prosperous  in  the 
history  of  this  kingdom.  In  the  Holy  Scriptures  we  find  a  few  scattered 
notices  of  Egyptian  atfairs,  such  as  the  marriage  of  Solomon  with  the 
king’s  daughter,  and  the  invasion  of  Judaea  by  Shishak  in  971,  b.  c. 
The  tide  of  conquest  now  rolled  down  the  Nile,  the  Ethiopians  under 
Sabacus  "ose  to  great  power,  770,  and  a  dynasty  of  three  kings  reigned 
if  succession  on  the  united  throne  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.  Yarioua 


58 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


revolutions  followed,  until  Psammetichus  of  Sais  obtained  the  supreme 
power,  about  656  b.  c.  He  had  been  a  member  of  the  dodecarcfiy ,  or 
government  of  twelve  sovereign  princes,  among  whom  the  country  had 
been  divided,  671.  Quarrels  springing  up  among  them,  they  expelled 
him,  but  he  soon  after  returned,  and,  aided  by  Greek  mercenaries,  put 
his  rivals  to  flight.  In  consideration  of  the  fidelity  and  military  services 
of  the  strangers  who  had  helped  him  to  his  throne,  he  kept  many  of 
them  about  him  as  a  standing  army,  and  honoured  them  with  his  confi¬ 
dence.  At  this  the  warrior-caste  took  umbrage,  and,  to  the  number  of 
200,000,  retired  into  Ethiopia.  In  his  reign  commerce  flourished,  and 
strangers  were  allowed  freely  to  visit  the  Egyptian  ports. 

The  accession  of  Psammetichus  to  the  sole  sovereignty  of  Egypt  is  an  im¬ 
portant  epoch,  and  the  termination  of  historical  uncertainty.  Greek  writers 
now  furnish  us  with  a  detailed  history  of  the  country,  no  longer  founded  on 
figurative  inscriptions  or  allegorical  traditions;  and  henceforward  the  Scrip- ures 
also  give  us  the  names  and  characters  of  the  Egyptian  princes,  whom  we  easily 
recognise  in  the  Greek  narratives.  In  this  reign  the  interpreters  became  a 
distinct  class,  alphabetical  writing  came  into  general  use,  and  the  science  of 
hieroglyphics  was  gradually  forgotten.  Egypt  now  became  and  continued  a 
single  empire,  with  its  seat  of  government  at  Memphis.  Down  to  this  time, 
no  Egyptian  king,  with  the  exception  of  Sesostris,  had  appeared  animated  with 
a  military  spirit;  but  after  Psammetichus,  the  various  princes  felt  the  necessity 
of  becoming  warriors  and  creating  a  maritime  power.  The  enlightened 
administration  of  Psammetichus  made  Egypt  flourish  without  overloading  the 
people  with  taxes.  He  was  partial  to  the  Greeks,  and  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Athenians.  Although  his  subjects,  blinded  by  prejudice,  did  not  second 
his  extended  views,  he  is  not  the  less  one  of  the  most  estimable  sovereigns  that 
ever  governed  the  nation. 

Pharaoh-Necho,  617-601. — The  son  and  successor  of  Psammetichus 
would  have  been  an  extraordinary  ruler  in  any  age.  He  formed  exten¬ 
sive  plans  of  conquest;  subdued  all  Asia,  as  far  as  the  Euphrates;  took 
Catchemish  ( Circesium ,)  the  key  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  placed  in 
it  a  strong  garrison  (610.)  His  march  through  Judah  was  opposed  by 
Josiah,  who  wras  slain  in  battle,  and  his  kingdom  treated  as  a  subject 
country.  He  attempted  to  join  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea  by  a  canal, 
ninety-six  miles  in  length  ;  in  which  unsuccessful  labour  120,000  work¬ 
men  are  said  to  have  perished.*  At  his  command  a  Phoenician  fleet 
sailed  from  the  Arabian  Gulf,  circumnavigated  Africa,  and  returned  in 
three  years  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  twenty-one  centuries  before 
Vasco  de  Gama  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1497  a.  d.)  In  606 
Nebuchadnezzar  II.  defeated  and  pursued  the  Egyptian  monarch,  when 
all  his  conquests  beyond  the  frontiers  were  lost.  Necho  died  after  a 
reign  of  sixteen  years,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Psammis,  601  b.c 

GREECE. 

Draco. — The  example  of  Sparta,  and  their  own  internal  dissensions 
inspired  the  Athenians  with  a  desire  for  a  regular  constitution,  the 
framing  of  which  was  committed  to  the  hands  of  Draco,  chief  archon 

*This  work  was  completed  by  the  Persians,  but  turned  out  to  be  of  little  practical 
benefit.  Many  learned  men  have  doubted  the  existence  of  a  communication  by  water 
between  the  two  seas;  but  the  testimony  of  ancient  writers  is  too  positive  against 
them.  Attempts  have  been  made,  at  various  times,  down  to  the  present  day,  to  cleac 
out  the  bed  of  the  canal,  which  is  still  visible. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


59 


that  year  (6*24,)  a  man  as  rigidly  severe  as  he  was  inflexibly  just.  The 
code  he  drew  up  was  said  to  be  written  in  blood,  death  being  the  penalty 
of  the  lowest  as  well  as  of  the  highest  crimes.  It  naturally  fell  into 
contempt  and  desuetude,  when  at  length  the  contests  of  the  aristocratic 
parties,  and  the  better  regulation  of  the  religious  worship  hy  the  Cretan 
Epimenides,  prepared  the  way  for  Solon,  f'rom  the  three  classes,  which 
existed  in  the  time  of  Theseus,  the  nobles,  labourers,  and  artizans, 
appear  to  have  been  derived  the  same  number  of  political  factions  which 
now  divided  Athens.  The  mountaineers  or  Diacrians  advocated  an 
absolute  democracy ;  the  rich  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  or  Pedians, 
desired  an  aristocracy ;  while  the  Paralians,  who  dwelt  along  the  shores, 
favoured  a  mixed  government,  in  which  the  people  had  the  right  of 
suffrage,  and  the  executive  power  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
individuals.  The  intolerable  abuses  of  the  magistracy,  and  the  rapacity 
of  their  own  creditors,  drove  the  people  at  last  into  insurrection.  They 
elected  a  chief,  threw  open  the  prisons,  and  with  arms  in  their  hands 
demanded  a  partition  of  the  land,  the  abolition  of  all  debts,  and  a  new 
order  of  government.  Civil  war  was  on  the  point  of  breaking  out, 
when  Solon  was  chosen  archon,  and  appointed  supreme  arbiter  and 
legislator  of  the  republic,  594  b.  c. 

Messenian  Wars.  —  A  trifling  quarrel  between  the  Spartans  and 
Messenians,  who  had  been  long  at  variance  with  each  other,  gave  rise 
in  743  to  the  First  War  of  twenty  years,  which  ended  to  the  disadvan¬ 
tage  of  the  latter.  Messenia,  lying  in  the  south-west  of  the  Pelopon¬ 
nesus,  was  a  fertile  country  with  great  maritime  advantages.  The 
wise  Nestor  is  supposed  to  have  ruled  in  one  of  its  cities ;  and  his 
descendants  were  driven  from  the  throne  by  the  Dorian  followers  of  the 
Heraclidae.  The  people  were  a  simple,  agricultural  race,  but  not  defi¬ 
cient  in  warlike  virtues.  In  the  year  773,  an  insult  offered  to  a  band 
of  Spartan  virgins  by  some  Messenian  youths,  led  to  the  first  serious 
misunderstanding  between  the  respective  states.  Hostilities  did  not 
break  out  until  thirty  years  after,  when  Polychares,  indignant  that 
punishment  had  not  been  inflicted  on  the  murderer  of  his  son,  in  a  wild 
spirit  of  retaliation  killed  several  Lacedaemonians,  743.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  war,  fortune  was  on  the  side  of  Messenia,  Aristodemus  hav¬ 
ing  restored  Jhe  fainting  spirits  of  his  countrymen  by  the  sacrifice  of  his 
daughter.  Shortly  after  the  battle  of  Ithome,  730,  he  was  elected  to 
the  vacant  throne,  and  made  frequent  and  destructive  incursions  into  the 
Laconian  territory.  In  725,  the  Spartans  prepared  for  a  decisive  strug¬ 
gle,  but  it  was  prolonged  until  723,  when  Aristodemus  had  fallen  by 
his  own  hand  on  the  tomb  of  his  immolated  child.  Ithome  was  taken 
and  rased  to  the  ground ;  the  Messenians  were  condemned  to  a  yearly 
tribute  of  half  their  crops,  and  to  be  present  in  deep  mourning  at  the 
interment  of  the  Spartan  kings.  For  thirty-nine  years  they  remained  in 
subjection,  when  the  Second  W"ar  broke  out,  685,  under  the  conduct  of 
the  famous  Aristomenes,  whose  adventures  are  so  romantic  as  to  throw 
doubt  upon  the  whole  history  of  his  campaigns.  The  Spartans,  headed 
by  the  lame  Athenian  schoolmaster  Tyrtaeus,  and  cheered  by  his  songs 
were  eventually  successful,  after  besieging  the  stronghold  of  Ira  during 
eleven  years  ;  and  the  Messenians  who  did  not  abandon  their  country, 
made  a  numerous  addition  to  the  Helots  or  Laconian  slaves.  Aristo¬ 
menes  escaped,  and  died  at  Rhodes.  He  was  the  worthy  precursor  of 


60 


ANCIENT  HISTORI. 


Epaminondas,  and  we  can  scarcely  find  in  history  two  nobler  and  purer 
characters  than  these  two  great  men.  The  Third  Messenian  war 
occurred  in  the  fifth  century  b.  c.,  and  was  terminated  by  the  surrender 
of  Ithome. 

Read :  Bulwer’s  Athens,  book  I.  chap.  vi.  §  16  ;  and  Travels  of  Anacharsis, 
ch.  xi. 

The  colony  of  Tarentum  in  Italy  was  founded  shortly  after  the  first  Mes¬ 
senian  war,  by  the  Partheni<z  from  Sparta,  707,  a  mixed  race  of  Spartan  and 
Lacedaemonian  blood,  who  had  revolted  because  their  legal  illegitimacy 
excluded  them  from  citizenship. 

In  Lacedaemon,  during  these  wars,  the  Ephori  had  been  created  as 
vicegerents  of  the  kings,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note,  that  while  the  sove¬ 
reignties  of  Judah  and  Israel  were  falling  into  ruin,  the  states  of  Greece 
were  gradually  preparing  for  their  glorious  course  of  mental  and  physi¬ 
cal  greatness.  At  this  time  Massilia  (Marseilles),  Byzantium,  and 
Cyrene,  were  founded ;  and  the  Gauls  established  themselves  in  Northern 
Italy. 

ROME. 

Horatii  and  Curiatii,  b.  c.  667. — Numa  was  succeeded  by  Tullus 
Hostilius  (67*2),  who  sought  to  rival  the  military  glory  of  Romulus. 
In  a  war  against  the  Albans  took  place  the  celebrated  combat  between 
the  champions  of  Rome  and  those  of  Alba,  the  three  Horatii  and  the 
three  Curiatii.  The  former  were  victorious,  the  city  of  Alba  was  laid 
waste,  and  the  population  transferred  to  Rome,  which  thus  became  the 
capital  of  the  united  nations.  On  the  death  of  Hostilius,  which  was 
occasioned  by  lightning,  Ancus  Martius  was  elected  king,  640  b.  c. 
He  was  the  grandson  of  Numa,  whose  religious  institutions  he  attempted 
to  revive ;  and  although  not  unsuccessful  in  war,  he  derived  the  title  of 

the  Good ”  from  his  works  of  peace.  He  raised  temples,  instituted  the 
fetial  law,  fortified  the  city,  enlarged  its  territorial  possessions,  dug 
quarries,  formed  salt-works,  built  the  port  of  Ostia  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Roman  commerce  and  maritime 
power. 

Tarquin  the  Elder,  or  Prisons ,  616  b.  c.,  was  an  Etrurian  of  Greek 
extraction;  and  his  genius,  education,  and  wealth,  were  the  cause  of  his 
election  to  the  throne  of  Ancus.  He  defeated  the  Latins  and  Sabines, 
the  inveterate  enemies  of  early  Rome,  and  first  assumed  the  regal  fasces 
and  purple  robe.  He  also  increased  the  number  of  the  senate  to  300. 
Among  his  public  works  are  the  vast  sewers,  which  exist  uninjured  to 
the  present  day.  He  laid  out  the  Circus  and  the  Forum,  and  began  to 
surround  the  city  with  a  wall  of  massy  stones.  He  died  a  violent  death, 
578  b.  c. 

Observation. —  Although  the  personal  existence  of  Romulus  may  be 
rejected,  and  the  history  of  Numa  doubted,  there  are  some  things  in  that  of 
Tullus  Hostilius  which  bear  the  mark  of  truth,  however  disguised  by  their 
legendary  form.  Alba  was  destroyed  by  the  Latins,  with  whom  the  Romans, 
as  living  in  the  Latin  territory,  may  have  been  allied.  The  tribe  Luceres  was 
added  to  the  patrician  body,  as  distinct  from  the  plebeian  estate.  With  Ancus, 
a  new  order  of  citizens,  the  Plebs.  appears  —  a  class  of  men  personally  inde¬ 
pendent,  but  not  sharing  in  the  government. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


6i 


SIXTH  CENTURY. 


Judjea. — 536,  End  of  the  Captivity. — 515,  Second  Temple  built. 

Assyria  f^04,  Nebuchadnezzar. — 570,  Loses  his  Reason. — 538,  Belshazzar— 
an£j  j  End  of  the  kingdom  of  Babylon. 

Persia  ^  561,  Cyrus  elected  King. — 559,  Aids  Cyaxares.— 538,  Babylon 
taken. — 529,  Cambyses. — 521,  Darius. 

Egypt. — 594,  Apries. — 569,  Amasis. — 525,  Psammenitus,  last  native  king. 

Greece. —  594,  Solon,  archon. —  560,  Pisistratus. —  514,  Harmodius  and  Aris- 
togiton. 

Rome. — 578,  Servius  Tullius. — 534,  Tarquin  II. — 509,  Consuls — Constitution 
of  Rome. 

China. — 550,  Confucius  born. 

Literature. — The  Seven  Wise  Men  ;  Mimnermus,  Thespis,  iEsop,  Theog- 
nis,  Pythagoras,  Anacreon. 

Discoveries. — Geographical  Maps  ;  Terrestrial  Globes ,  by  Anaximander. — 
560,  Marble  employed  ( at  Athens )  for  Statues. — 540,  Monochord ,  Terrestrial 
Revolution,  by  Pythagoras. —  552,  Corinthian  Capital,  by  Callimachus. — 
520,  Sun-dials,  by  Anaximenes  of  Miletus. 


JUDAEA. 

In  603,  Jehoiakim,  relying  upon  the  support  of  the  Egyptian  monarch, 
revolted  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  immediately  sent  an  army  into 
Judaea.  He  followed  in  person  in  599,  when  die  killed  the  king  as  a 
rebel,  and  threw  his  body  into  the  fields  unburied  ;  thus  fulfilling  the 
prediction  of  Jeremiah,  xxii.  19.  Jehoiachin  was  then  placed  on  the 
throne,  from  which  he  was  dragged  at  the  end  of  three  months,  and  led 
captive  to  Babylon,  together  with  more  than  10,000  companions  in  mis¬ 
fortune,  the  strength  and  the  hope  of  the  nation.  Ezekiel  was  now  a 
second  time  carried  away  into  bondage ;  Jeremiah  remained  behind  to 
console,  but  in  vain,  the  remnant  of  the  people.  Zedekiah,  the  uncle 
of  the  deposed  prince,  was  chosen  to  fill  his  place,  but  he  proved  more 
wicked  than  his  predecessors.  In  590,  being  the  ninth  year  of  his 
reign,  he  revolted  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  refused  to  pay  the 
tribute  imposed  by  this  conqueror.  His  alliance  with  Pharaoh-Hophra 
proved  of  no  avail :  the  Egyptian  ruler  retired  before  the  Assyrian  army, 
which  immediately  blockaded  Jerusalem.  The  denunciations  of  Jere¬ 
miah,  which  had  filled  the  city  with  consternation,  could  not  ward  off 
the  impending  fate;  and  after  the  city  had  endured  the  worst  calamities 
of  hunger,  it  was  taken  in  a  night-attack,  and  given  up  to  fire  and  sword, 
588  b.  c.  The  degraded  king,  having  seen  his  wives  and  children  slain 
before  his  face,  had  his  eyes  put  out,  and  in  that  miserable  condition 
was  sent  to  a  foreign  prison,  to  be  a  living  testimony  of  the  truth  of 
prophecy.  [Jerem.  xxiv.  8;  xxvii.  12.  Ezekiel,  xii.  13.]  All  the 
Jewish  people  were  transported  to  Babylon,  the  poorest  class  alone 
being  left  to  cultivate  the  land.  During  fifty-two  years,  the  sacred 
metropolis  remained  in  the  state  in  which  Nebuzar-adan  had  left  it; 
that  is,  until  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Jews,  who  were  allowed  to  return 
under  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  536. 

6 


62 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Second  Temple. — In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  the  Persian  con¬ 
queror  allowed  a  colony  of  Jews,  under  Zerubbabel,  of  the  family  of 
David,  to  return  to  the  land  of  their  forefathers,  536  b.  c.  They  did  not 
exceed  50,000,  the  more  wealthy  portion  preferring  to  remain  in  tran¬ 
quillity  and  ease  in  Babylon,  where  they  had  become  very  numerous. 
The  building  of  the  temple,  which  occupied  many  years,  was  violently 
opposed  by  the  Samaritans,  to  whom  the  colony  was  a  source  of 
expense.  But  it  was  completed  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes, 
515. 

The  Babylonian  captivity  entirely  cured  the  descendants  of  Jacob  of 
their  idolatrous  propensities,  and  they  never  after  swerved  from  the 
worship  of  the  true  God.  From  this  period  Hebrew  ceased  to  be  the 
spoken  language  of  the  Jews,  having  been  displaced  by  the  Chaldee , 
varying  little  from  it,  and  in  which  part  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  is 
written.  This  gradually  changed  into  the  Syro-Chaldaic,  the  Jewish 
tongue  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 

Remarks. — In  examining  the  conduct  of  God  towards  his  chosen  people,  we 
shall  find  continually  fresh  subjects  of  admiration.  After  having  renewed  to 
Abraham  the  promise  which  he  had  made  to  our  general  father  Adam  ;  after 
having  announced  to  the  holy  patriarch,  as  the  recompense  of  his  faith  and 
virtue,  that  from  him  and  his  son  Isaac  should  one  day  be  born  that  holy  Being 
— the  expectation  of  his  posterity  and  the  Saviour  of  the  World  ;  after  having 
multiplied  the  race  of  Israel,  God  selected  from  the  tribe  of  Judah  the  house 
of  Jesse,  the  father  of  David,  as  that  from  which  the  Messiah  was  to  spring. 
In  spite  of  the  deplorable  revolution  which  separated  the  ten  rebel  tribes  from 
that  of  Judah  ;  in  spite  of  the  backslidings  of  most  of  the  kings  who  succeeded 
Rehoboam  ;  in  spite  of  the  calamities  which  God  inflicted  upon  them,  and 
which  seemed  to  threaten  the  complete  extinction  of  their  house,  the  family  of 
David  still  survived  on  the  throne,  while  that  of  Israel  was  continually  occu¬ 
pied  by  new  families.  A  still  more  admirable  sight  is  that  alternation  of  glory 
and  humiliation,  of  rewards  and  punishments,  the  almost  invariable  accompani¬ 
ments  of  the  good  or  bad  conduct  of  the  monarch  and  people  of  Judah.  Thus 
the  proceedings  of  that  Providence  which,  often  with  profound  and  secret 
views,  is  hidden  from  our  eyes,  are  made  a  continual  proof  of  the  watchfulness 
of  God  over  his  people,  an  ever-visible  manifestation  of  his  designs  toward 
them  and  the  surrounding  nations,  and  the  most  striking  demonstration  of  his 
sovereign  power,  wisdom,  and  justice. 

Mordecai  and  Esther. — Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia  (either  Xerxes 
or  Artaxerxes  Longimanus),  divorced  his  wife  Vashti,  and  supplied  her 
place  by  the  pious  and  amiable  Esther,  niece  of  Mordecai  the  Jew.  As 
the  fortune  and  credit  of  the  uncle  increased,  that  of  Haman  the  favourite 
and  chief  minister  declined.  He  therefore  meditated  the  total  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  Jewish  nation ;  and  their  happy  deliverance,  hy  the  lirmness 
of  Esther,  is  still  yearly  commemorated  by  the  feast  of  Purim.  Haman 
fell  into  the  snare  he  had  laid  for  his  enemies,  and  was  hung  on  the 
gibbet  which  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai. 

ASSYRIA. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  604-561  b.  c. — This  monarch’s  reign  comprehends 
the  most  brilliant  period  of  the  Chaldaeo-Babylonian  empire.  This 
golden  head  of  the  prophetic  image  conquered  Palestine,  Idumea, 
Ammon,  and  Moab,  utterly  destroyed  the  Syrian  power,  and  subjugated 
Persia.  He  had  already  taken  most  of  the  Phoenician  towns,  when  the 
Tyrians  retired  from  their  city  on  the  mainland  to  the  adjoining  islet,  on 


/ 


SIXTH  CENTUKY  B.  C.  63 

which  their  more  modern  capital  was  built.  Among  other  changes,  this 
people  altered  their  form  of  government,  and  appointed  judges  in  the 
place  of  a  king.  Egypt  suffered  next  at  the  hand  of  the  conqueror;  he 
spread  fire  and  sword  from  Palestine  to  the  borders  of  Ethiopia.  Re¬ 
turning  to  Babylon,  he  patronised  the  arts,  commerce,  and  industry; 
and  completed  those  masterpieces  of  gigantic  architecture,  which  may 
with  greater  probability  be  attributed  to  him  than  to  any  of  his  ances¬ 
tors.  During  his  reign,  Daniel  prophesied,  and  acquired  great  renown 
by  the  interpretation  of  the  king’s  dream,  which  the  Chaldean  astrolo¬ 
gers  could  not  explain.  In  accordance  with  the  prediction,  for  seven 
years  he  was  afflicted  with  hypochondriacal  madness  ( iycanthropy )  ; 
fancying  himself  transformed  into  an  ox,  he  fed  on  grass  in  the  manner 
of  cattle.  His  reason  returning  to  him,  563  b.  c.,  he  remounted  the 
throne,  when,  for  a  short  time,  he  became  more  powerful  than  ever;  and 
dying  after  a  reign  of  forty-three  years,  he  was  regarded  by  the  Assy¬ 
rians  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  their  kings.  But  Evil-Merodach,  his 
son,  who  was  weak  and  tyrannical,  soon  rendered  himself  odious  by 
his  cruelty  and  debauchery.  While  regent  during  his  father’s  madness, 
he  committed  so  many  excesses,  that  the  latter,  on  his  recovery,  was 
compelled  to  imprison  him,  although  without  any  hope  of  his  being 
corrected  by  such  chastisement.  He  was  not  without  some  good  quali¬ 
ties,  and  history  records  with  pleasure  one  trait  of  humanity  in  him  — 
he  liberated  Jehoiachin  from  the  prison  in  wfflich  he  had  been  confined 
thirty-seven  years.  Neriglissar  ascended  a  throne  which  he  had  stained 
by  the  murder  of  his  brother-in-law,  559.  This  warlike  prince  infused 
new  vigour  into  the  Assyrian  monarchy.  He  subdued  Hyrcania ; 
carried  his  victorious  arms  into  Syria  and  Arabia ;  and  formed  an  alli¬ 
ance  with  Croesus  against  the  rising  power  of  Media.  He  fell  in  a 
battle  which  he  waged  wTith  Cyrus,  and  w7as  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Laborasoarchad,  555,  who  was  slain  by  his  subjects  after  a  reign  of  nine 
months.  The  royal  line  was  restored  in  the  person  of  Labynetus, 
known  also  as  Nabonadius,  Naboandel,  and  Belshazzar.  While  the 
king  gave  himself  up  to  luxury  and  pleasure,  his  mother,  the  wise 
Nitocris,  the  true  Semiramis,  held  the  reins  of  government  with  a  firm 
nand.  By  her  management,  Babylon  was  fortified  against  the  attacks 
of  the  Medes,  and  an  alliance  renewed  with  the  king  of  Lydia  against 
the  menacing  progress  of  the  Persian  prince.  They  collected  an  army 
of  420,000  men,  which  was  defeated  at  Thymbra,  545.  About  five 
vears  later,  Babylon  was  invested  by  Cyrus,  and  taken  by  a  remarkable 
stratagem,  on  that  fatal  night  when  the  mysterious  writing  on  the  wall 
told  that  the  “  kingdom  was  divided  and  given  to  the  Medes  and  Per¬ 
sians,”  fifty  years  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

The  history  of  the  last  of  the  Babylonian  kings  is  not  without  difficulty. 
The  name  of  Belshazzar  not  occurring  in  profane  history,  it  has  been  applied 
to  many  different  sovereigns.  Evil-Merodach,  and  not  Neriglissar,  is  said  to 
have  fallen  in  battle  against  the  Medes;  and  Belshazzar  was  his  immediate 
successor.  Hales  disputes  the  statement  which  makes  Babylon  to  have  been 
taken  by  the  Medes  and  Persians  on  the  same  night  that  Belshazzar  was  slain, 
and  considers  that  he  fell  in  a  conspiracy  ;  and  that,  on  the  death  of  his  son 
Laborasoarchad,  nine  months  after,  the  dynasty  became  extinct,  and  Darius 
the  Mede  (Cyaxares)  peaceably  succeeded.  Nabonadius  had  been  appointed 
viceroy;  he  revolted  against  Cyrus,  551,  who,  otherwise  occupied,  deferred 
his  attack  on  Babylon  until  536,  which  he  then  took  by  a  remarkable  stratagem. 


64 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


PERSIA. 

Cyrus  the  Great. — After  the  taking  of  Babylon,*  Cyaxares  IT. 
(Darias  the  Mede})  divided  his  vast  states  into  a  hundred  and  twenty 
satrapies,  and  made  them  accountable  to  three  ministers,  of  whom 
Daniel  was  one.  The  Persian  and  Median  nobles,  jealous  of  the  eleva¬ 
tion  of  a  foreigner,  endeavoured  to  destroy  him  by  that  plot  which  ended 
by  his  being  thrown  into  the  lions’  den,  and  his  miraculous  deliverance 
from  the  fury  of  the  hungry  beasts.  This  striking  testimony  of  Al¬ 
mighty  power  was  followed  by  a  decree,  in  which  the  monarch  acknow¬ 
ledged  the  God  of  the  prophet.  This  act  was  the  precursor  of  the  edict 
which  his  successor  published  in  favour  of  the  Jews,  in  the  first  year 
of  his  reign,  Cyaxares  died  in  536,  leaving  all  his  dominions  to  his 
nephew  Cyrus,  who  inherited  about  the  same  time  the  sceptre  of  his 
father  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia. 

The  first  year  of  his  reign  was  marked  by  the  termination  of  the 
Jewish  captivity,  when  Zerubbabel,  as  prince  of  Judah,  returned  to 
Palestine,  accompanied  with  about  50,000  of  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Ben¬ 
jamin,  and  Levi.  Cyrus  reigned  seven  years  over  all  Asia,  and  died 
530  b.  c.  His  military  and  political  career  began  about  560,  when  he 
first  quitted  Persia  with  the  command  of  an  army. — Thus  far  the  testi¬ 
mony  of  Scripture  has  been  followed ;  the  blanks  remain  to  be  filled  up 
from  the  contradictory  accounts  of  the  Greek  historians 

Astyages,  the  son  and  successor  of  Cyaxares  I.,  king  of  the  Medes, 
was  an  indolent,  superstitious,  and  cruel  prince.  His  grandson  Cyrus, 
by  his  daughter  Mandane,  was  ordered  to  be  exposed,  to  prevent  the 
fulfilment  of  an  oracle  ;  but  the  future  monarch  of  Asia  was,  like  another 
Paris  or  CE dipus,  preserved  by  the  humanity  of  a  shepherd.  Arrived  at 
maturity,  he  threw  off  the  Median  yoke  and  defeated  Croesus,  who  had 
taken  up  arms  in  behalf  of  the  dethroned  prince.  He  afterwards  made 
rapid  conquests  in  Upper  Asia,  and  took  Babylon  after  a  siege  of  two 
years,  by  turning  the  current  of  the  river,  and  entering  by  its  exhausted 
channel.}:  Previously  to  his  marching  against  the  Scythians,  he  nomi- 

*  [On  that  fatal  night  in  which  the  mysterious  writing  appeared  on  the  wall,  Belshazzar 
was  killed  according  to  the  general  account,  by  Cyrus,  who  then  succeeded  by  his 
famous  stratagem  in  entering  Babylon.  There  is,  however,  another  account  of  the 
matter  supported  by  the  authority  of  Dr.  Hales,  and  followed  apparently  by  this 
author.  According  to  this  theory,  Belshazzar,  on  that  night,  was  slain  in  a  domestic 
conspiracy,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  His  son  died  after  a  reign  of  nine  months, 
and  with  him  the  dynasty  became  extinct.  Cyaxares  I.,  or  Darius  the  Mede,  suc¬ 
ceeded  peaceably  to  the  throne.  He  was  succeeded  by  Astyages,  and  Astyages  by 
Cyaxares  II.,  also  called  Darius  the  Mede,  under  whose  reign  Daniel  continued  to 
flourish.  This  Cyaxares  II.,  on  his  death,  willed  his  dominions  to  his  nephew  Cyrus, 
but  appointed  a  viceroy  to  administer  affairs  until  Cyrus  should  himself  take  possession 
of  the  throne.  The  viceroy  revolted,  and  it  was  in  reducing  him  to  subjection  that 
Cyrus  executed  his  famous  stratagem  for  entering  Babylon. — Am.  Ed.] 

f  Darius,  in  Hebrew,  Darawesh ,  is  not  a  proper  name,  but,  like  Pharaoh,  a  title  of 
dignity.  It  is  derived  from  Dara,  which  in  Persian  signifies  a  king. 

I  The  walls  of  Babylon  were  87  feet  broad,  350  feet  high,  and  60  miles  in  circumfer 
ence.  To  reconcile  the  accounts  of  sacred  and  profane  history  of  the  foundation  and 
improvement  of  this  wonder  of  the  world,  we  may  suppose  that  it  was  founded  by 
Nimrod  and  enlarged  by  Belus ;  that  Semiramis  improved  and  adorned  it  with  beautiful 
buildings  ;  and  that  Nebuchadnezzar  the  Great  raised  it  to  its  latter  state  of  astonishing 
magnificence. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


65 


nated  his  son  Cambyses  to  succeed  him.  and  admitted  him  to  a  share  of 
the  regal  power.  After  a  few  partial  successes,  he  perished  in  battle, 
and  his  dead  body  was  mutilated  by  order  of  the  Scythian  queen, 
Tomyris. 

Three  Greek  historians  have  furnished  us  with  the  particulars  of  the  life 
of  the  Great  Cyrus,  namely,  Herodotus,  born  about  484  b.  c.  ;  Ctesias,  who 
was,  during  seventeen  years,  the  chief  physician  of  the  mother  of  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon;  and  Xenophon,  who  fought  at  Cunaxa  under  Cyrus  the  younger. 
Next  to  the  Scripture  narration  that  of  Herodotus  has  been  preferred,  from 
the  impossibility  of  combining  their  several  histories  in  one  complete  whole. 
For  instance,  Herodotus  and  Ctesias  entirely  omit  the  reign  of  Cyaxares  II., 
son  of  Astyages,  who  is  spoken  of  in  Xenophon,  and  attested  by  Scripture ; 
C  tesias  makes  no  mention  of  the  taking  of  Babylon,  confirmed  by  Herodotus, 
Xenophon,  and  the  Old  Testament.  The  biography  by  Xenophon  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  a  work  of  fiction,  not  unlike  the  modern  historical  romance,  in 
which  Cyrus  is  made  the  vehicle  of  the  lessons  of  morality  intended  to  be  con¬ 
veyed  by  the  writer.  The  dominions  of  this  remarkable  king  extended  from 
the  Mediterranean  and  Egypt  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  from  Ethiopia  to  the 
Euxine  and  Caspian  Seas  Brerewood  estimates  the  wealth  he  acquired  by 
his  conquests  at  126^  millions  sterling.  The  extraordinary  prophecies  con¬ 
cerning  him  contained  in  the  holy  Scriptures,  and  which  were  not  unknown  to 
him,  may  not  unreasonably  be  supposed  to  have  had  a  powerful  effect  on  his 
mind ;  and  Dr.  Hales  concludes,  that  he  lived  and  died  the  death  of  the 
righteous. 

Cambyses  (529),  the  eldest  son  of  Cyrus,  succeeded  to  his  father’s 
throne ;  Smerdis,  the  younger,  became  governor  of  Bactria.  The  former 
invaded  and  subjugated  Egypt  in  the  space  of  six  months.  He  formed 
the  project  of  subduing  Carthage,  conquering  Ethiopia,  and  seizing 
upon  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon ;  but  his  expeditions  were  unfor¬ 
tunate,  and  his  armies  perished  in  the  sand  of  the  deserts.  These  dis¬ 
asters  irritated  a  character  naturally  impetuous ;  and  hence,  regardless  of 
the  feelings  of  the  Egyptians,  he  killed  with  his  owm  hand  the  bull 
Apis,  scourged  the  priests,  caused  his  brother  to  be  assassinated,  and 
inflicted  a  blow  upon  his  sister,  who  wTas  also  his  wife,  which  proved 
fatal.  The  end  of  his  reign  was  menaced  by  a  singular  conspiracy. 
While  on  his  return  from  Egypt,  he  heard  that  the  Magi  had  elevated 
an  impostor,  Smerdis,  to  the  throne,  as  the  brother  of  Cambyses,  who 
bore  the  same  name.  Leaping  hastily  upon  his  horse  as  the  news  was 
told  him,  the  scabbard  fell  from  his  sword,  whereby  he  received  a  wound 
in  the  thigh,  of  which  he  died,  521  b.  c.  The  imposture  was  speedily 
discovered,  the  pretender  was  put  to  death,  and  an  indiscriminate  mas¬ 
sacre  of  the  Magi  took  place.  We  must  be  careful  how  we  give  credit 
to  all  that  is  related  of  Cambyses,  since  our  information  is  derived 
chiefly  from  his  enemies,  the  Egyptian  priests.  , 

Darius  I.  Hystaspes,  521. — When  this  member  of  the  family  of  the 
Achaemenides  succeeded  to  the  throne,  his  seven  coadjutors,  in  the 
destruction  of  Smerdis,  the  usurping  magian,  received  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  honours.  They  were  allowed  free  access  to  the  king;  they 
wore  distinctive  caps,  and  had  the  priority  of  speeech  in  council. 
Darius,  who  was  a  prince  of  great  political  wisdom,  inferior  to  Cyrus 
alone  of  all  the  Persian  kings,  favoured  the  Jews,  and  allowed  the  Tem¬ 
ple  to  be  completed,  515.  Babylon,  which  had  revolted,  was  recovered 
after  a  long  siege  by  the  devotion  of  Zopyrus.  He  broke  up  the  Ionian 
confederation,  established  his  sovereignty  over  Thrace  and  Macedonia, 
6  * 


66 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


in  Western  India,  and  in  Africa,  but  was  defeated  in  his  Scythian  inva¬ 
sion,  513.  In  Greece,  his  troops  were  overthrown  on  the  celebrated 
field  of  Marathon,  490. 

During  this  reign,  the  Persians  forsook  their  nomad  life,  and  con¬ 
tinued  the  building  of  the  Persepolitan  palace,  which  was  begun  by 
Cyrus  and  completed  by  Xerxes.  Although  Darius  weakened  the 
empire  by  his  foreign  wars,  he  improved  its  internal  organisation  by 
dividing  it  into  twenty  satrapies ,  corresponding  with  the  various  tribu¬ 
tary  races,  and  by  imposing  a  regular  tax  instead  of  the  voluntary  gifts 
which  each  province  had  hitherto  contributed.*  He  expired  485  b.  c., 
after  nominating  for  his  successor,  Xerxes  I.,  grandson  of  Cyrus,  and 
son  of  his  second  wife,  the  celebrated  Atossa. 

EGYPT. 

Psammis,  who  had  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Necho  (601), 
perished  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign,  immediately  after  an  expedition 
into  Ethiopia.  His  successor  Apries,  the  Pharaoh-Hophra  of  Scripture, 
planned  the  conquest  of  Asia,  besieged  Sidon,  fought  a  naval  battle 
with  the  Tyrians,  reduced  nearly  all  Phoenicia  and  Palestine,  but  failed 
in  his  expedition  against  Cyrene.  His  subjects  being  averse  to  foreign 
wars  carried  on  by  mercenary  troops,  revolted  against  him,  and  offered 
the  crown  to  Amasis,  an  officer  alike  popular  with  the  people  and  the 
army.  The  king  retired  to  Upper  Egypt,  where  he  long  maintained  his 
power,  while  the  usurper  was  acknowledged  by  the  rest  of  the  country. 
Availing  himself  of  this  civil  war,  Nebuchadnezzar  II.  invaded  and 
devastated  Egypt,  which  did  not  recover  from  the  effects  of  his  ravages 
during  the  next  forty  years.  Apries  was  at  last  defeated,  and  taken 
prisoner,  when  he  was  strangled  by  order  of  the  conqueror.  With 
him  terminated  the  family  of  Psammetichus,  569  b.  c.  [See  Ezekiel, 
xxix.]  Amasis  contrived  by  conciliating  the  priests  to  strengthen  him¬ 
self  on  the  throne.  He  married  a  Greek  woman,  and  permitted  her 
countrymen  to  establish  a  factory  at  Naucratis,  on  the  Canopic  branch 
of  the  Nile.  _  He  contributed  largely  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
of  Delphi,  and  was  the  only  Egyptian  king  who  subdued  Cyprus. 
Pythagoras,  Solon,  and  Thales,  are  supposed  to  have  visited  the  banks 
of  the  Nile  during  this  reign;  and  assuredly,  that  country  was  never 
more  happy  than  under  his  government.  He  restored  the  division  into 
nomes  revived  many  ancient  regulations,  which  had  fallen  into  neglect 
during  the  preceding  troubles  ;  and  instituted  a  yearly  census  of  all  his 
subjects.  He  reigned  forty-four  years,  and  died  just  as  Cambyses  was 
preparing  to  invade  his  kingdom. 

Six  months  after  Psammenitus  had  ascended  the  throne,  525,  a  Per¬ 
sian  army  invaded  the  districts  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile.  A  single 
battle  before  Pelusium  decided  the  fate  of  Egypt,  and  the  king  shortly 
after  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  was  put  to  death.  With 


*  The  taxes  paid  in  money,  and  collected  by  the  satraps  for  the  king’s  privy-purse, 
amounted  to  nearly  three  millions  and  a  half  of  sterling  money.  Besides  which,  the  pro¬ 
vinces  had  to  pay  the  king’s  household,  maintain  the  troops,  and  all  the  expenses  of  the 
government.  The  royal  treasures  wrere  deposited  in  various  cities,  called  Gaza  ;  such 
were  Persepolis,  Susa,  and  Pasargada.  The  gold  and  silver  amassed  in  the  form  of 
Sngots,  were  coined  as  occasion  required.  The  principal  gold  piece  was  the  Daric 
from  the  name  of  the  first  king,  Darius,  who  had  caused  it  to  be  struck. 


I 


SIXTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


67 


him  perished  the  26th  royal  race  that  had  governed  the  country  since 
Menes.  It  remained  subject  to  Persia,  with  few  exceptions,  until  the 
conquests  of  Alexander,  on  whose  death  a  new  monarchy  arose,  founded 
by  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  323  b.  c.,  which  subsisted  until  the  death 
of  Cleopatra,  30  b.  c.,  when  Egypt  was  made  a  Roman  province.  Thus 
was  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel  fulfilled — there  shall  he  no  more  a  prince  of 
the  land  of  Egypt.  It  has  ever  since  been  governed  by  foreign  rulers, 
— Romans,  Saracens,  Mamelukes,  and  Turks. 

GREECE. 

Solon  of  Salamis,  who  was  elected  archon  of  Athens,  594  b.  c.,  had 
the  difficult,  task  of  reconciling  opposing  factions,  and  of  restoring  tran¬ 
quillity  to  the  state.  He  divided  the  people  into  four  classes,  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  property,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  that  democracy  which 
was  afterwards  the  cause  of  so  much  unmingled  evil.  The  thetes ,  or 
lowest  class,  occupy  a  more  conspicuous  station  in  history  than  the 
higher  ones,  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  state  resided  in  their  assemblies, 
and  they  filled  nearly  every  office  in  the  courts  of  justice.  The  checks 
on  the  mischief  incidental  to  all  popular  meetings  were  the  Senate  of 
400  (afterwards  500),  and  the  court  of  Areopagus;  the  first  consisting 
of  aged,  wealthy,  and  respectable  citizens  ;  the  other  forming  the  true 
aristocracy  of  Athens,  whose  degradation  by  Ephialtes,  in  the  time  of 
Pericles,  was  considered  by  Isocrates  as  the  principal  cause  of  all  th6 
demoralization  which  subsequently  took  place  in  the  state. 

Solon  began  with  the  abolition  of  all  debts,  the  reduction  of  the  rate  of 
interest  to  12  per  cent.,  and  by  enacting  that  the  insolvent  debtor  should  neither 
be  reduced  to  slavery  by  his  creditors,  nor  be  compelled  to  sell  his  children. 
He  next  declared  the  sovereign  power  to  reside  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people, 
which  alone  had  the  power  of  declaring  war  and  making  peace,  of  forming 
alliances,  of  electing  generals  and  magistrates,  and  of  controlling  them  in  the 
execution  of  their  respective  duties.  —  The  citizens  were  divided  into  four 
classes :  the  first  comprehended  those  whose  estates  were  of  the  yearly  value 
of  about  £500  [pentakosiomedimni) ;  the  second  were  the  knights  who  possessed 
a  yearly  revenue  of  £300;  the  zeugita ,  who  had  a  yoke  of  oxen ,  formed  the 
third  class ;  the  fourth,  and  most  numerous,  comprised  all  of  inferior  property. 
The  seventy-four  cantons  (< demi )  were  still  united  into  six  tribes,  and  each  tribe 
into  three  curia,  to  one  of  which  every  Athenian  must  belong.  The  popula¬ 
tion  of  Athens,  though  scarcely  exceeding  60,000,  contained  nearly  10,000 
strangers,  who,  like  the  citizens,  were  called  upon  for  military  service,  and 
paid  an  annual  tribute.  The  slaves  were  better  treated  in  Attica  than  in  any 
other  part  of  Greece,  in  consequence  of  which,  although  their  number  exceeded 
40,000,  they  never  revolted,  as  in  Sparta,  to  recover  their  liberty.  The  hatred 
which  the  lower  classes  of  Greece  and  Rome  bore  to  the  rich,  must,  in  a  great 
measure,  be  attributed  to  the  existence  of  slavery,  which  prevented  these  two 
extremes  in  the  social  scale  from  having  common  interests.  The  wealthy  pos¬ 
sessor  of  slaves  could  dispense  with  the  labour  of  the  poor,  who  derived  no 
advantage  from  the  fortune  of  their  fellow-citizen.  Together  with  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  slavery,  Christianity  has  extinguished  the  hatred  between  the  different 
orders  of  society. 

Consult:  Gillies’s  History  of  Greece; — Travels  of  Anacharsis  ; — Boeckh’s 
Economy  of  Athens. 

Pisj stratus. — When  Solon  returned  to  Athens,  after  an  absence  of 
twenty  years,  he  found  it  still  agitated  by  its  former  dissensions,  which 
did  not  cease  until  Pisistratus,  a  descendant  of  Codrus,  found  himself 


68 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


able  to  seize  upon  the  chief  power,  560  b.  c.  He  had  previously  dis¬ 
tinguished  himself  at  the  taking  of  Salamis  ;*and  hy  his  eloquence  and 
affability  he  gained  all  hearts,  in  despite  of  the  violent  opposition  of  the 
lawgiver.  He  increased  the  body-guard  which  the  confiding  people  had 
granted  him,  got  possession  of  the  citadel,  and  drove  out  his  antagonists. 
After  five  or  six  years,  this  leader  of  the  mountain-faction  was  expelled 
oy  Lycurgus,  the  head  of  the  wealthy  nobles  of  the  plains,  in  union 
with  the  exiled  Alcmaeonidae.  But  he  returned  about  554  b.  c.,  more 
powerful  than  before,  having  fonned  an  alliance  with  Megacles,  the 
chief  of  the  moderate  party  on  the  coast.  His  second  tyranny  lasted 
scarcely  a  year,  when  he  was  again  compelled  to  flee  by  the  insulted 
family  of  his  wife,  553  ;  but  making  a  second  appearance  about  54*2,  he 
strengthened  himself  by  alliances,  money,  and  auxiliary  troops.  He 
was  a  good  ruler,  and  Athens  flourished  under  his  government ;  hence 
Solon  remarked  of  him,  that  he  wa?  the  best  of  tyrants,*  and  without 
a  vice,  save  ambition,  He  ended  his  days  peaceably  in  the  thirty-third 
year  of  his  power,  527,  after  having  patronised  letters,  founded  a  library 
for  the  use  of  the  public,  laid  out  the  gardens  of  the  Lyceum,  and  pub¬ 
lished  the  scattered  poems  of  Homer.  Thespis  first  exhibited  his  rude 
tragedies  in  535. 

Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  -Pisistratus  left  three  sons,  Hippar¬ 
chus,  Hippias,  and  Thessalus.  The  first  was  a  virtuous  ruler  ;  he  pro¬ 
tected  the  arts,  and  entertained  Anacreon  and  Simonides  at  his  court. 
Private  revenge  stimulated  the  political  feelings  of  Harmodius  and 
Aristogiton ;  and  Hipparchus,  who,  as  Plato  said,  recalled  the  days  of 
Saturn,  fell  beneath  their  daggers  at  a  public  festival,  514.  Hippias, 
the  second  brother,  now  reigned  by  terror ;  and  the  Athenians,  applying 
to  the  Spartans  for  assistance,  succeeded  in  restoring  the  exiled  Alc¬ 
maeonidae,  510.  The  tyrant  was  deposed,  and  fled  to  Persia,  which 
event  was  the  proximate  cause  of  a  war  with  that  nation. 

Remarks. — The  Athenians  paid  the  greatest  honours  to  the  memory  of 
Harmodius  and  Aristogiton ;  they  were  revered  as  demigods ;  and  at  all  public 
festivals,  songs  were  sung  in  their  honour.  But  religion  and  morality  unite  in 
condemning  the  exaggerated  eulogiums  which  have  been  passed  on  these  two 
“  victims  of  tyranny  and  martyrs  of  liberty,”  as  they  have  been  called,  for 
neither  of  these  honourable  titles  belongs  to  them.  A  personal  insult,  an 
infamous  jealousy,  armed  these  two  friends  against  Hipparchus;  it  was  in  the 
legitimate  exercise  of  the  right  of  self-defence  that  Harmodius  was  slain  by  the 
guards  of  the  unfortunate  Hipparchus ;  and  it  was  as  an  avenger  of  his  mur 
dered  brother,  and  a  vindicator  of  the  laws  that  Aristogiton  was  put  to  death. 
If  we  descend  to  the  details  of  this  transaction,  we  shall  see  the  sword  of  the 
assassin  perfidiously  concealed  with  wreaths  of  myrtle,  and  Aristogiton  denounc¬ 
ing  innocent  persons.  These  are  acts  which  we  must  in  justice  denominate 
crimes,  in  spite  of  the  eloquent  commendations  of  so  many  ancient  and  modern 
authors.  Thucydides  forms  almost  the  only  exception  to  this  inconsiderate 
enthusiasm. 

Athens  was  now  threatened  with  a  fresh  servitude  from  the  ambition 
of  Clisthenes  and  I^agoras.  The  former  having  prevailed,  508,  the 

*  The  name  of  tyrant  was  applied  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  those  kings  who  had 
usurped  the  throne  or  the  supreme  power,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  legitimate  heir,  or 
contrary  to  the  will  of  the  people.  In  modern  ages  it  is  appropriated  to  cruel  and 
unjust  monarchs,  and  is  become  a  term  of  the  greatest  ignominy  and  detestation. 
Richard  III.  of  England  was  a  tyrant  in  both  the  ancient  and  modern  significations 
of  the  word. 


SIXTH  CENTUKY  B.  C. 


69 


state  was  laid  at  the  mercy  of  an  unprincipled  populace,  by  dividing 
the  original  four  tribes  into  ten,  which  were  again  subdivided  into  100 
(or  170)  demes.  The  number  of  the  Senate  was  also  increased  to  500 ; 
many  new  citizens  were  made ;  aliens  were  admitted ;  and  slaves  were 
freed.  By  Clisthenes,  the  vote  by  ostracism  was  introduced.  Isagoras 
appealed  to  Sparta,  but  without  success,  and  the  Assembly  remained 
triumphant, — a  democracy,  not  composed  of  sober,  simple-minded  hus¬ 
bandmen,  as  Solon  contemplated,  but  of  uninstructed  and  desperate 
masses  of  men,  ready  at  the  beck  of  every  seditious  demagogue  to  indulge  ' 
in  violence  and  tumult. 

In  the  space  of  a  few  years,  Athens,  freed  from  the  yoke  of  its 
tyrants,  humbled  the  pride  of  Thebes,  punished  the  insolence  of  the 
Chalcidians,  contended  not  ingloriously  with  the  people  of  iEgina,  and 
braved  the  jealousy  of  Lacedaemon,  at  the  same  time  that,  enriched  by 
the  spoils  of  its  enemies,  the  city  was  embellished  with  new  monu¬ 
ments,  and  preserved  in  the  northern  parts  of  Greece  the  influence  which 
the  Pisistratidae  had  begun  to  enjoy  there  by  means  of  the  establish¬ 
ments  on  the  Hellespont.  The  family  of  Miltiades  reigned  at  Cardia, 
in  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and  taught  the  barbarians  to  respect  the 
name  of  his  country. 

Lacedaemon  during  this  period  was  far  from  acting  so  great  a  pa#. 
The  brave  but  unscrupulous  Cleomenes,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign, 
515,  conquered  the  Argives  in  a  bloody  battle,  and  set  on  fire  a  sacred 
wood  in  which  the  fugitives  had  taken  refuge.  The  capital  of  Argos 
was  saved  by  the  skilful  defence  of  Telesilla,  not  less  celebrated  for 
her  courage  than  for  her  poetical  talents.  The  different  campaigns 
which  Cleomenes  conducted  in  Attica,  at  one  time  as  the  ally,  at 
another  as  the  enemy  of  the  Pisistratidae,  are  some  years  posterior  to 
the  disgraceful  expedition  against  Argos. 

Seven  Wise  Men. — Solon,  the  legislator,  was  one  of  the  famous  wise  men 
of  Greece.  The  rest  were  Thales  of  Miletus,  586  ;  Bias  of  Priene,  586  • 
Chilo  of  Lacedaemon,  586 ;  Pittacus  of  Mitylene,  569  ;  Cleobulus  of  Rhodes - 
586 ;  Periander  of  Corinth,  585.  The  last  of  these  had  no  claim  to  that 
honourable  title,  except  the  merit  of  having  patronised  men  of  genius  and 
virtue.  The  number  is  sometimes  increased  by  the  addition  of  the  Scythian 
Anacharsis,  and  the  Cretan  Epimenides. 

Read :  Bulwer’s  Athens,  book  I.  ch.  viii. 

ROME. 

Servius  Tullius  (578  b.  c.),  an  Etrurian  captain  of  mercenaries,  was 
successful  in  several  battles  against  his  native  country.  He  was  in 
many  respects  the  most  deserving  of  the  kings,  and  placed  Rome  at  the 
head  of  the  Latin  confederacy,  confirming  her  position  by  common 
religious  ceremonies.  He  extended  and  completed  the  stone  walls  of 
the  city,  divided  the  territory  into  districts,  each  with  its  proper  magis¬ 
trate,  instituted  the  census ,  and  arranged  the  people  into  Jive  great  classes , 
according  to  their  wealth,  which  were  again  subdivided  into  centuries. 
The  necessity  of  this  measure  demonstrates  the  increasing  power  of  the 
citizens,  and  by  it  the  frame-work  of  the  republic  was  completed.  He 
fell  a  victim  to  the  ambition  of  his  daughter,  Tullia,  and  her  husband. 

Tarquin  the  Proud  seized  upon  the  kingdom  without  waiting  for 
the  approbation  of  the  senate,  534  b.  c.  He  enacted  many  oppressive 


70 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


laws  against  the  plebeians,  and,  protected  by  a  strong  body-guard, 
tyrannized  also  over  the  patricians ;  he  nevertheless  upheld  the  dignity 
of  the  Roman  state,  and  all  Latium  acknowledged  its  supremacy.  He 
built  a  temple  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  on  the  summit  of  the 
Capitoline  hill,  in  which  were  deposited  the  sacred  treasures  with  the 
mysterious  books  of  the  Sibyl.  The  unbridled  passions  of  his  son 
Sextus  caused  the  expulsion  of  the  dynasty  and  the  abolition  of  the 
kingly  power,  at  about  the  same  period  in  which  the  Pisistratidae  were 
driven  from  Athens,  509  b.  c. 

Note. — The  history  of  the  last  Tarquin  is  by  no  means  free  from  difficulty. 
The  story  of  Lucretia’s  misfortune,  and  the  consequent  expulsion  of  the  royal 
family,  is  not  confirmed  by  other  facts  in  history,  and  is  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  account  of  the  Treaty  of  the  first  Consuls  with  Carthage.  The  circum- 
stances  attending  the  change  of  government  at  Athens,  on  the  death  of  Codrus, 
may  throw  some  light  on  the  present  events.  The  list  of  Roman  kings  is 
evidently  imperfect.  It  is  not  likely  that  seven  kings,  four  of  whom  met  with 
a  violent  death,  should  reign  on  an  average  more  than  thirty-four  years.  Ro¬ 
mulus  and  Numa  are  probably  mythical;  the  five  others,  the  remnants  of  a 
longer  list,  presenting  the  most  remarkable  names.  The  stupendous  sewers 
still  existing  in  their  pristine  strength,  “  and  the  building  of  the  Capitol,  attest 
with  unquestionable  evidence,  that  the  Rome  of  the  later  kings  was  the  chief 
of  a  great  state.” 

Consult :  Niebuhr’s  Roman  History,  vol.  i. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  ROME. 

The  municipal  constitution  of  Rome  was  doubtless  copied  from  the  mother 
city.  The  senate  was  a  deliberative  body  of  300,  the  heads  of  the  ten  gentes 
(houses)  into  which  each  of  the  thirty  curias,  was  divided.  The  patricians  were 
a  hereditary  nobility,  who  alone  had  the  privilege  of  administering  the  sacred 
affairs,  and  who  formed  a  strong  political  party  in  opposition  to  the  plebeians , 
not  unlike  the  state  of  freemen  and  ordinary  residents  in  a  close  city.  Besides 
the  original  division  into  tribes  and  curiae ,  another,  according  to  property,  was 
subsequently  introduced,  the  classes  and  centuries ,  out  of  which  arose  the  two 
assemblies  ( comitia )  called  acuriata  and  centuriata.  The  religious  institutions 
were  closely  connected  with  the  state,  and  few  important  undertakings  were 
ever  begun  without  first  having  the  sanction  of  the  gods.  The  discipline  and 
subordination  so  remarkable  in  the  Roman  people,  partly  originated  in  the 
mutual  relations  of  patron  and  client ,  a  mitigated  form  of  feudalism  ;  in  the 
regulations  about  marriage  ;  and  in  the  unlimited  authority  of  the  parent.  To 
these  things,  and  to  the  spirit  which  they  generated,  they  were  indebted  for  all 
the  glories  which  they  subsequently  obtained. 

Consult:  Heeren’s  Manual  of  Ancient  History. 

CHINA. 

Confucius  or  Con-fu-tsee  was  born  about  550  b.  c.  ;  and  from  this 
celebrated  man  was  descended  the  only  hereditary  Chinese  nobility. 
He  successively  passed  through  all  the  ranks  and  honours  of  the  state, 
and  was  not  less  celebrated  as  a  reformer  than  as  a  philosopher.  He 
supposed  that  men  were  naturally  good  and  possessed  of  celestial  rea¬ 
son,  but  that  its  place,  when  lost,  was  supplied  by  a  worldly  substitute. 
Pythagoras,  Zoroaster,  and  Confucius,  flourished  at  nearly  the  same 
period. 


FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C 


71 


FIFTH  CENTURY. 

Judjea. — 457,  Ezra. — 445,  Nehemiah. — 420,  Malachi,  d. 

Persia. — 499,  Sardis  burnt. — 401,  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand. 

Greece. — 490,  Marathon. — 480,  Salamis. — 471,  Themistocles  exiled. — 466 
Victory,at  the  Eurymedon. — 449,  Pericles. — 440,  Samian  War;  431,  Pelo¬ 
ponnesian  War. — 429,  The  Plague;  Death  of  Pericles.  —  415,  Sicilian 
Expedition. — 405,  Victory  at  JEgos-Potamos. — 404,  Death  of  Alcibiades.— 
403,  Thrasybulus. 

Rome. — 509,  Consuls. — 498,  Dictator,  Titus  Lartius. — 493,  Tribunes  of  the 
People. — 486,  Agrarian  Law. — 452,  Decemvirs — Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables 
— Volscian  and  Veindne  Wars. 

Carthag-e. — 509,  Treaty  with  Rome.-— 480,  Defeat  at  Himera. — 410,  Sicilian 
Wars. 

Literature. — 490,  Pindar ;  480,  Aeschylus  and  Sophocles  ;  444,  Euripides, 
Herodotus ;  429,  Hippocrates,  Lysias,  Aristophanes,  Thucydides,  Socrates. 
Discoveries.  —  479,  Mnemonics  by  Simonides;  441,  Catapult ,  &c. ;  437, 
Anatomy  and  Medicine  by  Hippocrates. 

JUDiEA. 

Ezra. — The  affairs  of  the  Jews  were  still  in  a  perplexed  state.  The 
rebuilding  of  the  temple  was  completed  under  Darius  Hystaspes,  but 
the  Samaritans  and  others  persevered  in  their  opposition  to  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  the  city  walls,  during  the  reigns  of  Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes.  In 
the  seventh  year  of  the  reign  of  the  latter  prince,  457,  Ezra  was  sent  to 
Jerusalem,  with  full  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers,  and  in  445  Nehe¬ 
miah  was  appointed  governor.  During  his  twelve  years’  administra¬ 
tion,  the  walls  w^ere  completed,  and  the  feast  of  Tabernacles  again 
celebrated.  With  Malachi,  who  died  420  b.  c.,  closes  the  prophetic 
roll  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  canon  of  the  history  terminating  with  the 
death  of  Nehemiah.  Bossuet  says,  that  “  God  owed  it  to  the  majesty 
of  his  Son  to  silence  the  voices  of  the  prophets  during  the  next  400 
years,  that  the  nations  might  hold  themselves  in  expectation  of  him  who 
was  to  be  the  fullfilment  of  all  oracles. 

Judaea  was  governed  by  a  Persian  satrap,  but  by  slow  degrees  the 
high  priests  became  the  virtual  rulers  of  the  nation. 

GREECE. 

Persian  Invasion. — The  revolt  of  the  Ionian  colonies  under  Histiaeus 
was  supported  by  the  Athenians,  and  the  flames  of  Sardis  (499)  gave 
rise  to  the  great  war.  Having  subdued  the  rebellious  colonists,  Darius, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  fugitive  Hippias,  sent  into  Greece  a  powerful 
army  of  120,000  men.  The  invaders  were  met  at  Marathon,  a  small 
town  of  Attica,  immortalized  by  a  battle  in  which  the  Athenians,  almost 
unassisted,  routed  the  Persian  host,  29th  September,  490  b.  c.  A  long 
high  barrow  covers  the  remains  of  those  who  fell,  and  the  peasant  still 
fancies  he  hears  their  spectral  cavalry  sweeping  by  night  across  the 
plain.  Miltiades,  on  whom  his  fellow-generals  had  conferred  the 


72 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


supreme  command,  was  wounded,  and  Hippias  is  by  some  reported  to 
have  perished. 

By  this  victory  the  power  of  Mijtiades  was  raised  to  its  height.  He 
directed  the  Athenian  arms  against  Paros,  having  formed  the  design  of 
rendering  his  country  the  mistress  of  the  sea ;  and  on  the  failure  of  his 
expedition,  he  was  capitally  impeached  by  Xantippus,  the  chief  of  the 
Alcmaeonid  faction.  His  principal  defence  and  answer  were  the  names 
of  Marathon  and  Lemnos;  but  he  was  found  guilty,  and  being  unable 
to  pay  the  fine  of  fifty  talents,  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died. 

Thermopylae  and  Salamis. — The  history  of  Athens  now  becomes, 
in  some  measure,  that  of  individuals.  Themistocles  and  Aristides  took 
the  reins  of  government,  and  were  the  real  authors  of  the  power  and 
glory  of  the  Athenian  republic.  The  former,  connected  with  noble 
families,  united  in  a  remarkable  degree  all  the  most  brilliant  qualities 
of  a  statesman ;  the  latter,  of  distinguished  birth,  was  proverbial  for 
integrity.  During  the  administration  of  these  two  great  men,  a  more 
formidable  invasion  was  headed  by  Xerxes,  the  successor  of  Darius,  in 
person.  This  monarch,  with  his  numerous  host,  which  had  gradually 
swelled  to  two  millions  and  a  half  of  warriors,  met  with  no  check  until 
he  reached  the  celebrated  pass  of  Thermopylae,  where,  about  1*2,000 
men  w*ere  collected  under  the  Spartan  king,  Leonidas.  After  two  days’ 
successful  fighting,  patriotism  was  overcome  by  treason.  A  Greek 
named  Ephialtes  led  the  Persians  across  a  mountain-path,  by  which 
they  got  to  the  rear  of  the  opposing  army.  Dismissing  the  greater  part 
of  his  troops,  that  they  might  not  uselessly  perish,  he  retained  only  300 
Spartans,  400  volunteer  Thespians,  100  Thebans,  and  80  warriors  from 
Mycenae.  These  with  the  Helots,  as  at  Plataea,  raised  the  number  to 
about  2000.  All  this  determined  band,  save  the  Thebans,  were  cut  to 
pieces — non  vidi  sed  vincendo  fatigati — and  the  victor  marched  to  Athens, 
which  he  plundered  and  burnt  (b.  c.  480),  the  inhabitants,  by  advice 
of  Themistocles,  having  taken  refuge  in  the  adjoining  islands.  From 
the  top  of  a  lofty  clilf,  the  Persian  ruler  had  the  mortification  of  behold¬ 
ing  his  numerous  fleet  of  1000  galleys,  each  carrying  230  men,  defeated 
by  the  Greeks  with  only  380  sail,  between  the  mainland  and  Salamis. 
Xerxes  fled  hastily,  leaving  Mardonius  behind  with  an  army  of  300,000 
men,  which  was  routed  the  next  year  at  Plataea,  by  the  allied  Greeks 
under  Pausanias  and  Aristides.  On  the  same  day  (20th  October),  the 
remnant  of  the  Persian  fleet  w*as  utterly  destroyed  off  Mycale,  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  day  of  Thermopylae  (4th  August)  had  also  been  rendered 
doubly  illustrious  by  a  seafight  with  the  same  enemy,  near  Artemisium, 
a  promontory  of  Euboea.  It  is  a  pithy  remark  made  by  the  historian 
Justin,  that  the  troops  of  the  eastern  king  wanted  nothing  but  a  leader. 

The  victory  of  Salamis  operated  an  entire  change  in  the  position  of  the 
Greeks,  both  abroad  and  at  home.  From  being  attacked,  they  became  the 
assailants,  and  the  liberation  of  their  Asiatic  compatriots  was  the  motive  or  the 
pretext  by  which  they  justified  the  continuance  of  an  advantageous  war.  in 
which  Sparta  preserved  the  administration.  But  the  treason  and  fall  of  Pausa- 
nias,  who  died  of  famine  in  the  temple  to  which  he  had  fled  for  refuse,  changed 
the  situation  of  affairs.  The  supreme  influence  passed  from  the  Spartans  to 
the  Athenians,  who  profited  by  it  to  form  a  kind  of  military  confederation  of 
the  inferior  states.  From  this  epoch  dates  the  jealousy  of  the  two  republics, 
previous  to  which  the  numerous  petty  governments  were  incessantly  armed 
against  each  other.  Separated  thus  by  mistaken  interests,  they  could  perform 


FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


73 


nothing  great,  and  external  pressure  was  necessary  to  develop  their  forces  in 
behalf  of  the  common  safety  of  Greece.  The  Persian  wars  laid  the  foundation 
of  Grecian,  and  particularly  of  Athenian  grandeur.  While  Athens  was  rising 
to  an  ascendancy  over  her  neighbours,  she  was  extending  a  silent  but  more 
certain  and  beneficial  influence  by  her  literary  men.  ^Eschylus  fought  at 
Salamis  ;  Euripides  was  born  on  the  very  day  of  the  battle,  and  Sophocles  was 
seventeen  years  old. 

Exile  of  Themistocles. — Themistocles,  vanquisher  of  the  Persians 
at  Salamis,  used  his  influence  to  persuade  the  Athenians  of  the  necessity 
of  maintaining  their  superiority  by  means  of  a  powerful  navy.  In  spite 
of  the  jealous  opposition  of  the  Spartans,  the  walls  of  Athens  were 
raised,  the  Piraeus  was  built,  and  funds  were  voted  for  the  yearly  con¬ 
struction  of  new  vessels.  These  services  of  the  patriotic  leader  were 
badly  requited.  He  was  accused  of  participating  in  the  conspiracy  of 
Pausanias ;  and  although  nothing  was  proved  against  him,  he  was,  by 
the  popular  ballot,  condemned  to  exile,  in  471.  He  took  refuge  at  the 
court  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  where  he  died,  whether  by  poison  or 
disease  is  uncertain. 

Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades,  now  became  the  prominent  actor  in  the 
affairs  of  Greece.  This  great  man  w*as  said  to  unite  the  courage  of  his 
father  with  the  prudence  of  Themistocles  and  the  integrity  of  Aristides. 
He  had  already  acquired  renowm  by  his  conquests  in  Thrace,  and  his 
successes  over  the  Persians  in  Asia  Minor.  At  the  battles  of  the  Eury- 
medon,  in  466,  he  utterly  defeated  the  troops  of  Artaxerxes,  both  by 
land  and  sea ;  whereby  he  struck  such  a  blow  at  the  power  of  that 
sovereign,  that  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by  w7hich  the  freedom  of  the 
Ionian  cities  was  guarantied,  and  no  Persian  horseman  allowed  to  approach 
within  a  day’s  journey  of  the  sea.  In  a  subsequent  expedition,  Cimon 
recovered  the  Thracian  Chersonese;  and  by  the  surrender  of  Thasos  in 
463,  the  Athenians  obtained  the  gold-mines  on  the  opposite  coasts  of 
Thrace. 

Pericles,  son  of  Xantippus,  the  conqueror  at  Mycale,  now  appeared 
on  the  stage  of  Athenian  politics.  He  joined  the  popular  faction  in 
order  to  oppose  Cimon,  who  w  as  at  the  head  of  the  aristocracy ;  and 
the  third  Messenian  war,  w  hich  led  to  the  exile  of  that  chief,  left  him 
without  a  rival,  461.  Thebes  and  Argos,  which,  during  the  struggle 
with  Persia,  had  deserted  and  betrayed  the  Greek  party7,  became  the 
cause  of  a  severe  contest  between  Athens  and  Sparta ;  the  latter  declar¬ 
ing  for  the  Thebans,  the  former  for-  the  Arrives.  On  the  field  of 
Tanagra,  in  Boeotia,  victory  favoured  the  Spartans  (457),  but  the  suc¬ 
cesses  of  Myronides  shortly  after  turned  the  scale.  Nearly  all  the  states 
of  Boeotia  were  revolutionized,  and  garrisons  of  friends  everywhere 
established.  Faction  w*as  not,  however,  quieted,  and  to  preserve  the 
state  from  ruin,  Pericles  himself  solicited  the  recall  of  the  banished 
Cimon,  456.  By  his  intercession,  the  twm  republics  wTere  united  in  a 
common  expedition  against  Persia,  during  wrhich  this  pacificator  died, 
though  not  until  he  had  seen  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  449  b.  c. 

Revolt  of  the  Helots — Third  Messenian  War. — While  Athens 
was  steadily  pursuing  her  career  of  aggrandizement,  Sparta  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  unequalled  in  horrors,  except  by 
that  of  Lisbon  in  1755  a.  d.  The  earth  opened  into  immense  chasms, 
the  tops  of  mountains  were  cleft,  and  enormous  fragments  rolled  down 
7 


74 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


into  the  plains,  destroying  every  thing  in  their  course.  In  the  city,  five 
houses  only  were  left  standing,  and  *20,000  of  its  inhabitants  perished  in 
the  mins,  464  b.  c.  The  Helots,  taking  advantage  of  this  awful 
catastrophe,  rose  in  rebellion,  hoping  to  emancipate  themselves  and 
avenge  their  wrongs.  The  prudence  of  king  Archidamus  saved  Lace¬ 
daemon  ;  the  Helots  were  gradually  dispersed,  and  at  last  blockaded  in 
Ithome,  the  capital  of  Messene,  which  they  had  fortified.  From  this 
circumstance  the  insurrection  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  third  Mes- 
senian  war.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  revolt,  the  assistance  of  Athens 
was  solicited,  and  granted  at  the  suggestion  of  Cimon,  for  which  act  he 
was  afterwards  banished. 

Administration  of  Pericles. — After  the  death  of  Cimon,  Pericles 
became  the  leading  man  at  Athens.  Bold  and  artful,  eloquent  and 
rich,  he  managed  the  fickle  populace  at  his  will,  and  principally  by 
flattering  them  that  each  individual  knew  something  of  the  affairs  of  the 
state.  Abroad  he  was  everywhere  triumphant,  particularly  in  the 
Samian  war,  440 ;  and  Athens  became  the  Queen  of  the  Sea.  During 
forty  years  he  governed  with  kingly  power,  and  his  reign  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  epochs  in  the  history  of  civilisation.  The  arts  and 
sciences,  with  commerce,  made  rapid  advances;  schools  of  philosophers 
and  orators  were  formed ;  and  to  express  one’s  thoughts  with  elegance 
and  perspicuity  became  an  enviable  distinction.  It  is  to  the  patronage 
of  Pericles  that  Athens  owes  the  glory  of  being  the  country  of  literature 
and  the  arts.  How  great  the  contrast  offered  by  Lacedaemon,  where 
grossness  of  manners  and  severe  laws  prevented  all  moral  development! 
Jit  Sparta ,  it  was  said,  men  learn  to  die  for  their  country ;  at  Athens ,  to 
live  for  it.  War  became  inevitable  between  the  rival  states. 

Peloponnesian  War. — The  assistance  furnished  by  the  Athenians  to 
the  Corey reans,  who  were  at  war  with  Corinth  the  mother  city,  was  the 
pretext  of  a  war  which  lasted  twenty-seven  years.  The  real  cause  was 
the  mutual  dislike  of  the  Athenian  democracy  and  the  Spartan  aristo¬ 
cracy.  Fortune  alternately  favoured  each  party ;  Athens,  the  mistress 
of  the  sea,  was  supported  by  tributary  confederates,  whom  fear  attached 
to  her,  while  Sparta,  as  a  land-power,  and  seconded  by  the  greater  part 
of  Greece,  seemed  to  represent  the  cause  of  liberty.  Thus  the  whole 
nation  was  divided  into  two  parties — the  Lacedaemonian  and  Athenian, 
or  the  Doric  and  Ionian. 


On  the  Athenian  side  were — 

Isles — The  Archipelago  (except  Thera, 
Samos,  and  Medos) 

Chios 

Corcyra 

Lesbos 

Cephallenia 

Zacynthus,  with 

Messenia 

Caria 

Thrace,  &c. 


On  the  side  of  Sparta  were — 
Ambracia 
Anactorium 
Bceotia  (except  Plataea) 
Leucas,  Isle 
Locris 
Megara 
Peloponnesus 
Phocis 

Thessaly,  in  part. 


The  great  events  of  this  war  are : — The  devastation  of  Attica ;  the  battle 
of  Arginusae  ,*  the  defence  of  Plataea  ;  the  Sicilian  expedition ;  the  battle  of 
JEgos-Potamos  ;  the  siege  and  taking  of  Athens . 


FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


75 


The  remarkable  persons  are  : — 

_  „  . ,  „  ...  C  Pericles,  Alcibiades,  Cleon,  Nicias,  Conon, 

On  the  sick  of  Mens  £  Lamachus. 

^  .  7  j.  0  .  C  Callicratidas.  Brasidas,  Gylippus,  Lysander, 

On  the  side  of  Sparta  ^  Mindams/ 

Consequence. — The  defeat  of  the  Athenians,  and  the  supremacy  of 
Lacedaemon. 


Plague  of  Athens. — During  the  two  first  years  of  the  contest, 
victory  seemed  to  incline  to  the  side  of  Sparta.  .  Attica,  a  prey  to  the 
horrors  of  war,  was  devastated  still  more  by  the  scourge  of  pestilence, 
which  carried  off  many  of  the  principal  men.  Pericles,  who  was  con¬ 
sidered  the  author  of  their  evils,  was  deposed  and  fined  ;  but  he  was 
soon  besought  by  the  common  voice  to  resume  the  cares  of  government. 
He  did  not  long  enjoy  his  triumph ;  he  caught  the  dreadful  infection,  of 
which  he  died,  lamented  alike  by  friends  and  enemies,  429. 

Read  :  Account  of  the  Plague  of  Athens,  in  Anacharsis. 

Sicilian  Expedition. — Cleon,  a  currier,  succeeded  the  great  Pericles, 
and  an  unregulated  democracy  was  preparing  the  most  lamentable  con¬ 
sequences.  Sparta,  in  her  young  and  valorous  general  Brasidas, 
threatened  a  dangerous  rivalry  to  Athens ;  but  he  perished  too  ear..y, 
before  Amphipolis,  a  victim  to  his  own  courage,  422.  A  short  time 
previous  to  this  event,  Lacedaemon  had  been  the  theatre  of  a  terrible 
domestic  tragedy.  Under  the  pretence  of  enrolling  the  Helots  among 
the  troops  destined  for  the  Thracian  expedition,  2000  of  the  flower  of 
the  slave  population  were  selected,  and  while  enjoying  the  festival  of 
their  newly  gained  liberty,  wdth  the  garlands  of  freedom  still  encircling 
their  heads,  in  the  emphatic  and  significant  language  of  the  histoiian, 
they  disappeared. 

A  truce  of  fifty  years  was  now  concluded  by  the  management  of 
Nicias,  but  as  it  displeased  all  the  allies,  it  could  not  last.  Almost 
within  a  year  the  war  was  revived  by  the  ambition  of  Alcibiades.  This 
young  man  united  the  advantages  of  extreme  beauty,  wealth,  and  noble 
birth,  with  the  most  eminent  talents.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Socrates, 
and  the  ward  of  Pericles,  whom  he  endeavoured  to  imitate,  but  without 
his  maturity  of  judgment.  Embracing  the  popular  side,  by  his  well- 
timed  flattery  and  florid  descriptions,  he  persuaded  his  countrymen  to 
undertake  the  fatal  expedition  to  Sicily.  Grecian  colonies  had  long 
been  settled  in  that  island  ;  the  principal  town,  Syracuse,  was  built  by 
Corinthians  in  the  eighth  century.  The  Carthaginians  had  endeavoured 
to  obtain  its  mastery,  but  they  were  utterly  defeated  at  Panormus  on  the 
day  of  the  battle  of  Thermopylae.  The  oppressions  exercised  by  Syra¬ 
cuse  over  the  weaker  towns  compelled  them  to  look  abroad  for  aid ; 
Egesta  applied  to  Athens  for  help,  which  was  readily  granted,  in  despite 
of  the  warning  voice  of  Nicias. 

A  fleet  was  equipped,  and  intrusted  to  the  command,  of  Alcibiades, 
with  Lamachus  and  Nicias  for  his  associates,  415  b.  c.  But  scarcely 
had  the  armament  sailed,  when  he  was  accused  of  sacrilege ;  and  fearing 
to  obey  the  orders  of  recall,  he  fled  to  Sparta,  where  he  became  the 
enemy  of  his  country.  During  this  time,  the  fleet  and  army  of  the  Athe¬ 
nians  were  destroyed  after  the  fatal  siege  of  Syracuse,  by  the  counsels 
and  the  aid  furnished  by  Gylippus,  413  b.  c. 


76 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


This  rash  expedition  was  a  blow  to  the  power  of  Athens,  from  which 
it  never  recovered.  Alcibiades  was  forthwith  recalled,  and  the  period 
of  his  second  government  was  the  most  brilliant  of  the  whole  war 
(411-407).  The  repeated  victories  of  his  countrymen  over  the  Spar¬ 
tans,  commanded  by  Mindarus  (who  in  his  distrust  of  Tissaphernes, 
had  formed  an  alliance  with  Pharnabazus,  satrap  of  Northern  Asia 
Minor),  obliged  the  Lacedaemonians  themselves  to  sue  for  a  peace, 
which  the  haughty  Athenians  unhappily  refused.  Another  great  navai 
victory  was  gained  at  Arginusae,  between  Mitylene  and  Asia,  in  which 
Callicratidas,  the  admiral,  was  killed,  406.  For  not  picking  up  the 
dead  bodies  in  the  stormy  weather  after  the  battle,  six  of  the  com¬ 
manders  were  unjustly  put  to  death,  Socrates  alone  venturing  to  raise 
an  opposing  voice. 

Victory  of  Lysander. — In  the  following  year,  Lysander  detached 
Ephesus  from  the  Athenian  party,  and  made  an  alliance  with  Cyrus  the 
younger,  governor  of  Western  Asia.  Being  reinforced  by  this  prince, 
in  405,  he  destroyed  the  enemy’s  fleet  at  iEgos-Potamos,  in  the  Thracian 
Chersonese,  and  killed  3000  men,  Conon  alone,  with  eight  vessels  and 
the  sacred  ship  Paralus,  escaping  the  general  havoc.  The  fate  of  Athens 
was  now  sealed.  Lysander  proceeded  with  his  victorious  squadron  to 
the  Piraeus,  when  the  city,  closely  pressed  by  land  and  sea,  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  surrender,  404.  Peace  was  granted  on  the  following  hard  con¬ 
ditions  : — that  the  fortifications  should  be  demolished ;  that  all  the  men- 
of-war,  save  twelve,  should  be  given  up  ;  that  the  tributary  cities  should 
be  emancipated ;  that  the  exiles  should  be  recalled ;  and  that  no  war 
should  be  carried  on  except  under  the  orders  of  the  Lacedaemonians. 
Athens,  to  complete  its  misfortunes,  beheld  its  government  violently 
changed.  The  democracy  was  destroyed,  and  all  authority  placed  in 
the  hands  of  thirty  archons,  known  as  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  Thus 
ended  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

“The  victory  of  iEgos-Potamos,”  says  Muller,  “destroyed  only  the 
dominion,  not  the  greatness  of  Athens ;  an  enlightened  nation,  which  does  not 
forget  itself,  secures  a  dignity  which  is  independent  of  the  vicissitudes  of 
events.”  The  consequences  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  were  more  injurious  to 
the  morals  than  to  the  policy  of  the  Greeks.  A  factious  spirit  usurped  the 
name  of  patriotism,  and  each  nation  saw  a  rival  or  an  enemy  in  the  other. 
Athens  lost  her  preponderance,  and  was  replaced  by  Sparta ;  but  the  bond  of 
unity  was  broken,  and  the  despotism  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  was  more  burden¬ 
some  to  the  tributary  states  than  that  of  independent  Athens.  It  was  easy  to 
foresee  that  Greece  would  fall  a  prey  to  the  first  foreign  power  that  ventured 
to  attack  it. 

It  is  some  feeble  consolation,  that  during  this  dark  and  stormy  period,  Athens 
was  laying  the  foundation  of  an  empire  which  Sparta  could  not  destroy,  and 
which  the  lapse  of  years  has  rendered  more  powerful.  Literature  and  the  fine 
arts  attained  their  highest  eminence.  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  and 
Aristophanes,  still  delight  and  form  our  taste.  The  ruins  of  the  Parthenon  are 
yet  an  object  of  veneration,  and  from  the  mutilated  sculptures  of  Phidias  the 
best  modern  artists  have  drawn  their  inspiration. 

After  the  battle  of  JEgos-Potamos,  Lysander  placed  a  Lacedaemonian 
governor,  with  ten  archons,  in  all  the  cities  of  Caria,  Ionia,  the  Hellespont,  and 
Thrace.  He  returned  in  triumph  to  Sparta  with  immense  riches,  the  fruits  o^ 
his  conquests.  His  ambition  was  not  satisfied  with  his  success  ;  he  endeavour¬ 
ed  to  seize  upon  the  crown,  but  on  finding  himself  deserted  by  his  partisans,  he 
was  compelled  to  abandon  his  pretensions. 

• 

Thrasybulus. — This  illustrious  Athenian,  in  company  with  other 


FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


77 


exiles,  had  taken  refuge  at  Thebes  from  the  cruelty  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  Putting  himself  at  the  head  of  500  soldiers,  raised  at  the 
expense  of  the  orator  Lysias,  he  succeeded  in  taking  the  Piraeus,  and  in 
defeating  the  Thirty,  who  had  hastened  thither  with  their  troops,  403. 
Thus  by  the  wisdom  and  moderation  of  a  single  man,  Athens  recovered 
liberty  and  peace,  while  the  ancient  form  of  government  was  renewed, 
in  defiance  of  all  the  exertions  of  Lacedaemon.  The  despots  had  been 
replaced  by  a  council  of  Ten  members,  not  less  absolute  than  their  pre¬ 
decessors.  By  this  body  the  aid  of  Lysander  and  his  mercenary  army 
was  invoked,  but.  the  victory  remained  with  king  Pausanias,  who  had 
come  to  the  support  of  Thrasybulus  and  his  adherents.  On  the  deposi¬ 
tion  of  the  Ten,  the  democratic  government  was  restored,  and  a  general 
amnesty  proclaimed.  Forms  may  be  easily  re-established,  but  the 
departed  spirit  of  a  nation  can  never  be  recalled. 

Death  of  Alcibiades. — Alcibiades,  accused  by  Thrasybulus  of  hav¬ 
ing  ruined  the  Athenian  commonwealth,  was  a  second  time  deprived  of 
the  chief  command.  He  at  first  retired  to  his  Thracian  estates,  but  was 
compelled  to  leave  them  to  avoid  the  machinations  of  his  enemies,  and 
to  seek  an  asylum  in  Bithynia.  The  people,  in  their  distress,  again 
turned  their  thoughts  towards  him,  and  agitated  his  recall ;  but  the 
Thirty  Tyrants  counselled  Lysander  to  demand  him  alive  or  dead,  from 
the  satrap,  who  was  base  enough  to  comply  with  their  wishes ;  and  he 
accordingly  perished  beneath  the  weapons  of  the  barbarians,  at  the  age 
of  forty,  404  b.  c. 

Read :  Life  of  Alcibiades,  in  Anacharsis. 

Ostracism. — In  this  extraordinary  proceeding,  each  citizen  wrote  upon  a 
shell  or  piece  of  broken  ware,  the  name  of  the  person  he  desired  to  banish. 
Whenever  the  number  amounted  to  6000,  they  were  sorted,  the  man  was 
exiled  for  ten  years  whose  name  was  found  on  the  majority,  although  no  crime 
might  have  been  alleged,  and  no  defence  was  allowed.  A  similar  custom 
existed  at  Argos,  and  also  in  Sicily,  under  the  name  of  Petalism.  Athens 
spared  neither  the  lives  nor  fortunes  of  her  heroes.  Miltiades,  the  conqueror 
at  Marathon,  died  in  prison;  Aristides  the  Just,  and  the  benevolent  Cimon, 
who  fought  at  Eurymedon,  were  banished.  Paches,  the  conqueror  of  Mitylene, 
committed  suicide  to  avoid  the  results  of  an  unjust  accusation.  Themistocles 
saved  his  life  by  fleeing  to  Persia ;  Herodotus  the  historian  found  an  asylum  in 
Southern  Italy  ;  Thucydides  fled  from  the  jealousy  of  the  demagogue  Cleon; 
the  amiable  Xenophon  was  driven  into  exile  ;  Socrates  was  poisoned  ;  Timo- 
theus  the  son  of  Conon,  who  had  rebuilt  the  walls  of  Athens,  died  of  extreme 
want ;  Iphicrates  and  Chabrias  withdrew  to  avoid  a  similar  fate  ;  Phocion  was 
condemned  to  die  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-four ;  Demetrius  of  Phalerae 
sought  refuge  in  Egypt ;  and  even  in  more  recent  days,  the  father  of  the  his 
torian  Chalcondylas,  met  with  no  return  for  his  services  but  ingratitude. 

N.  B.  Let  the  student  give  the  particulars  from  Plutarch’s  Lives,  Lempriere’s 
Dictionary,  or  any  other  authentic  source. 


PERSIA. 

Xerxes  I.,  485. — The  last  days  of  Darius  were  embittered  by  dis¬ 
putes  between  his  sons  about  the  succession ;  until  at  length  Xerxes, 
born  to  him  by  his  second  wife,  Atossa,  the  daughter  of  Cyrus,  was 
declared  heir.  He  marched  against  the  Egyptian  rebels,  and  placed  the 
subject  country  under  the  severe  treatment  of  his  brother,  the  Satrap 
Achaemenes  He  is  the  Ahasuerus  —  a  title,  not  a  proper  name  —  who 
7 * 


78 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


confirmed  the  Jews  in  all  the  privileges  granted  by  his  father,  and  forced 
the  Samaritans  to  contribute  to  the  building  of  the  temple.  His  cruel¬ 
ties  and  dissolute  life  were  terminated  by  assassination;  his  murderers 
gave  out  that  he  fell  by  the  hands  of  his  son  Darius,  465,  who  shortly 
afterwards  perished  in  a  similar  manner.  The  results  of  the  invasion 
of  Greece  have  been  mentioned  in  another  place. 

Artaxerxes  I.  Longimanus,  on  his  accession,  465,  found  the  pro¬ 
vinces  in  rebellion.  His  brother  Hystaspes,  in  Bactria,  was  subdued 
after  two  battles ;  and  Egypt,  whose  submission  was  neither  certain 
nor  durable,  was  recovered,  though  not  without  difficulty,  in  455.  The 
Greeks,  meanwhile,  retaliated  upon  Persia  the  evils  inflicted  by  Mar- 
donius.  The  kindred  cities  of  Ionia  were  re-established,  and  Cimon, 
having  in  one  day  destroyed  both  ships  and  army  at  the  Eurymedon, 
466,  compelled  the  great  king  to  accede  to  an  inglorious  peace.  No 
Persian  governor  was  to  reside  within  three  days’  journey  of  the  Medi¬ 
terranean,  and  none  of  his  war-vessels  were  to  sail  between  Palestine 
and  the  Chersonese. 

Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  401. — Rapid  and  violent  revolutions, 
with  rebellions  in  the  provinces,  particularly  in  Egypt,  414,  under  Darius 
II.  Nothus,  led  to  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II.  Mnemon,  405.  He  had 
scarcely  ascended  the  throne  when  he  was  compelled  to  defend  it  against 
his  brother  Cyrus  the  younger,  governor  of  Asia  Minor,  who  claimed 
the  throne  from  being  the  first  bnrn  after  his  father's  accession.  His 
army  of  100,000  barbarians  under  Ariaeus  was  reinforced  by  13,000 
Grecian  volunteers,  commanded  by  Clearchus.  The  hostile  armies  met 
at  Cunaxa,  about  twenty  leagues  from  Babylon,  where  Cyrus,  engaging 
in  battle  with  his  brother,  who  had  1*20,000  men  under  his  command, 
lost  his  life,  401.  The  Greeks  maintained  the  reputation  of  their  coun¬ 
try  not  only  in  this  fight,  but  in  that  memorable  retreat,  in  which,  at 
the  end  of  fifteen  months,  after  having  overcome  every  obstacle  of  nature, 
and  triumphed  over  all  the  attacks  of  the  nations  on  their  route,  they 
again  beheld  their  native  shores.  The  Anabasis  of  Xenophon,  their 
general,  has  immortalized  this  unexampled  march. 

Sketch  a  Map  of  the  March  to  Cunaxa  and  of  the  Retreat. 

Read :  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  in  Rollin  or  in  Anacharsis. 

ROME. 

The  Consuls. — On  the  abolition  of  royalty,  the  power  of  the  kings 
was  transferred  to  two  consuls,  annually  elected,  of  Whom  Brutus  and 
Collatinus  were  the  first,  509.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  to  restore  the 
exiled  sovereign,  and  among  its  members  were  two  sons  of  Brutus ;  but 
the  plot  being  discovered,  the  criminals  were  apprehended.  The  father 
himself  presided  on  the  trial,  and  condemned  his  children  to  the  scourge 
and  the  axe.  Such  heartlessness  and  cruelty,  not  required  by  any  state 
of  society,  is  too  frequently  held  out  as  an  example  worthy  of  imitation. 
Ambition  and  stoical  pride  could  alone  have  excited  a  parent  to  pursue 
a  line  of  conduct  which  would  now  meet  with  universal  execration. 
Tarquin’s  only  remaining  resource  was  arms;  and,  assisted  by  the 
Etruscan  Porsenna,  he  overran  the  country,  defeated  the  Romans,  com¬ 
pelled  them  to  surrender  a  third  part  of  their  territory,  and  to  give  hos- 


FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


79 


tages  from  their  noblest  families.  The  deposed  dynasty  was  not,  how¬ 
ever,  restored,  and  the  king,  after  many  adventures,  and  having  outlived 
all  his  children,  died  at  Cumae,  b.  c.  494.  The  most  important  monu¬ 
ment  of  the  authenticity  of  early  Roman  history  is  the  first  commercial 
treaty  wdth  Carthage,  509,  in  which  Rome,  although  a  free  state,  does 
not  appear  as  the  head  of  Latium. 

The  first  consuls  were  of  the  family  of  Tarquin,  the  name  and  not  the  power 
erf  the  supreme  ruler  being  changed.  They  were  first  called  praetors,  the  name 
of  consul  being  given  after  the  decemvirate. 

Dictator. — Scarcely  had  Rome  been  freed  from  the  regal  yoke,  when 
the  people  began  to  suffer  from  patrician  tyranny.  The  equitable  con¬ 
stitution  of  Servius  being  laid  aside,  the  office  of  dictator  was  created, 
498,  and  Lartius  was  the  first  who  filled  this  office.  The  law  of  appeat 
established  by  Valerius  Poplicola  was  by  this  means  evaded,  and 
unlimited  authority  was  exercised  over  the  commonalty.  The  oppres¬ 
sion  of  the  nobles  was  principally  manifested  in  withdrawing  the  elec¬ 
tion  of  the  consuls  from  the  centuries,  and  by  reducing  their  unfortunate 
debtors  to  the  rank  of  slaves  (next).  An  accident  drove  the  commons 
( plebs )  into  sedition;  the  legions  deserted  their  generals  and  retired  to 
the  Sacred  Mount,  while  the  plebeians  occupied  the  Aventine  and 
Esquiline  Hills.  After  long  resistance,  the  Valerian  laws  were  restored, 
and  all  debtors  set  at  liberty.  The  fable  of  Menenius  Agrippa  (the  belly 
and  the  members)  refers  to  this  period,  493  b.  c. 

Tribunes. — The  sole  purpose  of  these  officers  (who  owe  their  creation 
to  the  preceding  disturbances)  was  to  uphold  the  Valerian  laws  and 
check  the  consular  power.  At  first  they  were  a  plebeian ,  afterwards  a 
national  magistracy,  and  their  number  was  increased  from  two  to  ten. 
Coriolanus,  who  had  distinguished  himself  against  the  Volsci,  obstinately 
resisted  the  right  they  claimed  of  summoning  patricians  before  the  tribu¬ 
nal  of  the  commons.  Being  driven  into  exile  (475),  he  headed  a  band 
of  Romans  in  a  like  situation  with  himself,  and  nearly  endangered  the 
existence  of  his  native  city.  The  tears  of  a  mother  availed  more  than 
the  entreaties  of  the  Senate.  He  concluded  a  glorious  peace,  and  when 
he  died,  at  an  advanced  age,  among  the  Volscians,  the  Roman  matrons 
mourned  him  during  a  whole  year,  and  he  was  justly  honoured  as  an 
upright  patriot. — In  acknowledgment  of  the  service  rendered  by  Veturia, 
a  temple  was  erected  at  Rome  to  Female  Fortune. 

Agrarian  Laws. — These  famous  laws  concerned  the  public  lands 
alone,  setting  no  limit  to  the  landed  property  of  any  class  or  individual. 
When  a  hostile  territory  was  subdued,  one-third  was  appropriated  for 
the  benefit  of  the  people  generally ;  and  the  quantity  to  be  held  by  each 
man  was  limited,  the  commons  having  generally  five  acres,  subject  to 
all  assessments.  The  patricians  managed  to  hold  much  larger  portions, 
and  as  these  lands  were  the  only  pay  of  the  legionary  soldiers,  the  con¬ 
querors  were  not  unfrequently  compelled  to  give  up  their  booty  to  the 
public  treasury.  The  dispute,  in  which  the  commonalty  finally  prevailed, 
wTas,  whether  they  should  have  an  equitable  share,  or  the  aristocracy 
possess  the  whole.  Spurius  Cassius,  one  of  the  wisest  of  Roman  states¬ 
men,  in  his  third  consulate  proposed  an  Agrarian  law,  by  which  he 
hoped  to  attach  the  plebeians  firmly  to  the  state ;  but  means  were  taken 
to  evadfe  the  execution  of  this  statute,  and  he  himself  suffered  death  as  a 


80 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


traitor,  484.  The  call  for  these  laws,  however,  did  not  cease :  the 
people  refused  to  serve  in  the  legions,  and  when  drawn  up  in  battle, 
allowed  themselves  to  be  defeated  without  a  blow.  At  last,  to  settle  the 
differences,  ten  men  ( decem-viri )  were  appointed  to  draw  up  a  code, 
which  should  unite  the  commons  and  the  patricians,  by  placing  them  on 
an  equal  footing :  a  supreme  magistracy  was  also  to  be  instituted  in 
place  of  the  consulate.  The  first  decemvirs  were  worthy  men,  but  their 
successors  abandoned  themselves  to  cruelty,  avarice,  and  licentiousness ; 
hence  the  support  shown  to  them  by  the  patriciate  excited  the  indigna¬ 
tion  of  the  people.  Among  their  victims  was  Sicinius  Dentatus,  whom 
Niebuhr  styles  the  Roman  Roland .  The  brutal  outrage  of  Appius 
against  Virginia  caused  the  abolition  of  the  decemvirate,  and  the  restora- 
tion  of  the  tribunes,  b.  c.  449.*  Amid  various  disputes,  and  the  alterna¬ 
tion  of  tribunitial  and  consular  power,  the  rights  of  the  people  were 
advancing ;  and  freedom  was  secured  by  reviving  old  or  framing  new 
laws.  The  prohibition  of  intermarriages  between  the  patricians  and 
plebeians  raised  an  insurmountable  barrier  between  the  two  classes ; 
but  this  regulation  was  repealed  in  445.  The  struggle  for  the  admission 
of  the  commons  to  the  consulate  continued  eighty  years.  The  jealousy 
of  the  privileged  orders  was  provoked  by  the  generosity  of  Spurius 
Maelius,  who  expended  a  large  fortune  in  supporting  the  people  during 
a  period  of  famine.  To  avert  the  supposed  danger,  the  well-known 
Cincinnatus  was  a  second  time  chosen  dictator ;  and  in  full  assembly  of 
the  people,  the  benefactor  of  his  miserable  fellow-citizens  was  bar¬ 
barously  murdered  (440  b.  c.),  a  victim  to  a  cruel  and  ruthless 
faction. f 

Rome,  as  the  head  of  the  Latin  confederation,  was  engaged  in  con¬ 
tinual  wars  with  those  states  that  felt  or  imagined  themselves  to  be 
oppressed  by  her  rule.  Though  insignificant  feuds  in  themselves,  they 
were  the  means  by  which  Rome  became  a  conquering  nation,  and  which 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  senatorial  power.  Among  the  most  important 
was  the  last  war  against  Veil,  404-395. 

Volscian  and  Veientine  Wars. — The  A3quian  war  is  included  by 
Gellius  in  his  list  of  memorable  epochs.  The  AEquian  and  Volscian 
armies  were  composed  of  picked  men,  bound  by  awful  oaths  to  fight  til] 
death.  On  the  18th  June,  they  were  attacked  by  the  dictator  Tubertus, 
and  defeated  after  a  bloody  conflict.  The  Veientines,  an  Etrurian 
people,  long  maintained  a  powerful  opposition  against  the  Romans,  and 
nearly  took  their  city.  But  fortune  changed;  Veii  was  in  its  turn 
blockaded,  and  taken  by  Camillus,  396  b.  c.,  after  a  protracted  siege, 
though  the  manner  of  its  capture  is  apocryphal.  This  war  was  signalized 
by  the  devotion  of  the  Fabian  family,  who  raised  an  intrenched  camp 
on  the  Cremera,  as  the  Spartans  did  at  Deceleia,  whence  they  ravaged  the 
Veientine  territory.  They  all,  but  one  man,  perished  by  stratagem, 
within  sight  of  a  Roman  force.  These  wars  first  introduced  the  system 
of  winter  campaigns,  and  of  paying  the  soldiers,  thus  gradually  forming 
a  standing  army. 


*  Appius  and  M.  Claudius  found  imitators  in  the  Duke  of  Fronsac  and  others  of  the 
same  cast,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 

f  Niebuhr,  vol.  ii. 


FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


81 


On  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. 

The  Grecian  origin  of  these  laws  has  been  unreasonably  questioned ;  ana 
although  it  is  not  probable  that  the  haughty  patriciate  of  Rome  would  con¬ 
descend  to  copy  the  Athenian  democracy,  still  the  pre-eminence  of  Athens 
under  Pericles,  might  have  justified  an  examination  into  her  codes.  The  casual 
resemblances  to  be  found  in  the  legislative  enactments  of  Solon  and  the  Decem¬ 
virs  may  also  be  discovered  in  the  first  efforts  of  all  people  in  the  infancy  of 
their  civilisation.  The  Twelve  Tables  inculcated  the  soundest  principles  of 
government  and  morals ;  they  were  learnt  by  schoolboys,  and  were  the 
favourite  meditation  of  their  fathers.  They  were  soon  overloaded  b57  a  multi¬ 
tude  of  new  statutes,  when  Augustus  conferred  the  legislative  authority  on  the 
senate.  The  edicts  of  the  Praetors  furnished  the  salutary  means  of  perpetually 
harmonizing  the  several  codes  with  the  spirit  of  the  times.  The  Praetors  were 
the  true  organs  of  the  public  mind ;  their  regulations  were  framed  according  to 
the  opinions  of  the  great  lawyers  of  the  day.  Laws  were  rarely  enacted  con¬ 
trary  to  the  provisions  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  which,  by  certain  fictions,  existing 
alike  in  ail  nations,  were  brought  into  accordance  with  the  necessities  of  the 
age.  These  variable  edicts  at  length  comprehended  the  whole  of  the  Roman 
legislation,  and  became  the  basis  of  the  jurisprudence  contained  in  the  digest 
of  Justinian. 


CARTHAGE. 

The  progress  of  this  nation  was<  slow,  but  at  the  close  of  the  fifth 
century  it  was  the  first  power  in  Africa,  and  possessed  many  extensive 
foreign  settlements.  The  principal  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  it 
is  supposed  the  Canaries  and  Madeira,  were  occupied  by  her  adventur¬ 
ous  citizens.  Mago,  with  his  two  sons  and  six  grandsons,  had  the  glory 
of  extending  the  territory,  and  establishing  the  dominion  of  Carthage  in 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Africa,  550-480.  About  the  same  period  this 
republic  became  connected  with  the  Persian  monarchy, — had  met  and 
fought  the  Phocean  navy, — extended  its  colonies  along  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic,  539, — and  concluded  its  first  treaty  with  Rome,  509.  The 
great  object  of  its  policy  was  now  the  possession  of  the  fertile  island  of 
Sicily  ;  but  the  alliance  with  Xerxes  in  his  attack  upon  Greece  led  to 
the  dreadful  rout  and  disgraceful  peace  of  Himera,  480.  This  great 
battle  was  fought  on  the  same  day  as  that  of  Salamis,  and  one  of  the 
conditions  of  the  treaty  which  followed  it  is  highly  honourable  to  the 
victor  Gelo :  he  insisted  on  the  cessation  of  human  sacrifices  at  the 
shrines  of  the  Punic  divinities.  For  seventy  years  Carthage  dreaded 
the  arms  of  Greece,  and  her  name  is  scarcely  met  with  in  history;  but 
the  accession  of  Dionysius  I.  renewed  the  war,  406  b.  c.,  each  party  at 
the  conclusion  retaining  its  conquests.  The  second  commercial  treaty 
with  Rome  was  formed  about  this  period.  The  contest  with  Sicily 
continued  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Punic  wars,  which  were  the 
necessary  consequence  of  the  aggrandizing  ambition  of  two  powerful 
nations.  Rome  was  the  aggressor;  yet  her  own  safety  was  scarcely 
compatible  with  the  dominion  of  her  rivals  in  Sicily. 

Read:  Heeren’s  African  Nations. 


82 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


FOURTH  CENTURY. 

Greece. — 399,  Death  of  Socrates. — 394,  Battle  of  Coronea. — 387,  Peace  of 
Antalcidas. — 371,  Leuctra. — 362,  Mantinea. — 338,  Chaeronea. — 331,  Arbela. 
— 323,  Alexander,  d. — 312,  JE ra  of  the  Seleuckhe. 

Rome, — 396,  Veii  taken. — 390,  Rome  taken  by  the  Gauls. — 366,  Plebeian 
consuls. — 343,  Samnite  Wars. — 321,  Candine  Forks. 

Literature,  &c. — 401,  Xenophon ;  Ctesias;  Isocrates,  b.  436;  Plato;  De¬ 
mosthenes  ;  Aristotle ;  Epicurus  ;  Menander. 

Discoveries. — 360,  Analysis ,  by  Plato. — 333,  Encaustic  Painting. — 306,  Sun¬ 
dial  at  Rome ,  by  Paririus  Cursor. — 300,  Colossus  of  Rhodes;  Operation  for 
Cataract,  by  Herophilus. 

GREECE.  ' 

Death  of  Socrates,  399. — This  philosopher,  one  of  the  most  cele¬ 
brated  of  antiquity,  was  bom  at  Athens.  In  his  early  days  he  pursued 
.the  trade  of  his  father  Sophroniscus,  who  was  a  sculptor,  but  abandoned 
this  pursuit  for  the  more  enchanting  study  of  mental  science.  He  was 
a  virtuous  man,  and  one  of  his  most  characteristic  qualities  was  a  tran¬ 
quillity  of  mind,  which  could  not  be  shaken  by  any  accident,  by  any 
reverse  of  fortune  or  insulting  language.  Even  the  violent  temper  of 
his  wife  Xantippe,  a  name  become  proverbial,  never  made  him  forget 
his  patience.  He  effected  a  real  revolution  in  Philosophy ;  he  attacked 
the  method  of  his  contemporaries,  by  laying  down  self-knowledge  as 
the  basis  of  all  inquiries.  By  this  means  he  substituted  the  method  of 
observation  for  that  of  rash  hypothesis;  he  was  in  fact  the  creator  of  the 
science  of  Ethics,  and  founded  his  precepts  on  the  conscience.  His 
manner  of  teaching  was  novel  and  attractive;  his  was  no  regular 
method,  but  each  auditor  was  skilfully  conducted  by  a  simple  species 
of  interrogation  from  one  truth  to  another  until  he  arrived  at  a  just  con¬ 
clusion.  This  mode  of  reasoning  still  bears  the  name  of  the  Sucratic . 
His  virtuous  life,  his  principles  of  morality,  his  belief  in  the  existence 
of  a  supreme  ruler  of  the  universe,  and  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
found  as  many  enemies  as  disciples.  Under  the  government  of  the 
Thirty  Tyrants,  Melitus,  Anytus,  and  Lycon  accused  him  before  the 
council  of  Five  Hundred,  of  corrupting  the  youth,  of  despising  the  gods, 
and  of  endeavouring  to  introduce  new  divinities.  The  real  ground  of 
this  charge  appears  to  have  been  the  offence  which  his  intimacy  with 
Caitias  and  Alcibiades  gave  to  the  democratic  party.  The  minds  of  the 
populace  being  easily  inflamed  by  a  misrepresentation  of  his  doctrines, 
he  was  condemned  to  drink  hemlock,  and  his  death  did  not  belie  his 
principles.  A  short  time  afterwards,  the  Athenians  repented  of  their 
injustice,  and,  by  way  of  atonement,  condemned  Melitus  to  death,  and 
the  others  to  banishment.  A  bronze  statue,  by  the  celebrated  Lysippus, 
was  raised  to  his  honour,  and  a  temple  was  dedicated  to  his  memory. 
His  actions,  conversations,  and  opinions  have  been  transmitted  to  us  by 
the  two  most  distinguished  of  his  disciples,  Xenophon  and  Plato. 

Philosophic  Sects. 

The  Greeks  recognised  two  principal  schools  of  Philosophy  ;  the  Ionian  and  the 
Italian.  These  admit  of  many  subdivisions,  from  the  different  principles  of 
their  founders. 


FOURTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


83 


Ionian  School 

This  school,  distinguished  for  its  reason  and  good  sense,  was  founded  by 
Thales  of  Miletus,  548  e.  c.  He  travelled  extensively,  learned  Geometry  in 
Egypt,  and  Astronomy  in  Phoenicia.  V*  ith  him  commenced  the  study  of 
Natural  Philosophy.  Anaxagoras,  the  tutor  of  Pericles  (480-450),  Socrates, 
and  Plato,  belonged  to  this  school.  Its  chief  sects  were — 

The  Academicians ,  founded  by  Plato,  one  of  the  greatest  geniuses  of  anti¬ 
quity.  Dion,  Aristotle,  Isocrates,  and  Demosthenes,  were  among  his 
followers. 

The  Peripatetics,  founded  by  Aristotle,  the  preceptor  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  the  most  voluminous  and  profound  writer  of  all  antiquity. 

The  Cynics,  founded  by  Antisthenes,  who  placed  happiness  in  the  practice 
of  virtue,  which  he  taught  was  the  contempt  of  wealth,  and  of  the  enjoyments 
of  life.  Diogenes  destroyed  the  reputation  of  this  sect  by  the  excess  to  which 
he  carried  its  doctrines. 

The  Stoics,  a  revival  of  the  Cynics  by  Zeno,  w’ho  taught  the  celebrated 
dogma,  that  pain  is  no  evil,  the  only  real  evils  being  moral  imperfections.  He 
said  that  we  should  follow  virtue  instinctively,  and  practise  benevolence  from 
inclination.  Epaminondas,  Trajan,  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  professed  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  the  porch. 

Italian  School. 

Pythagoras  founded  this  school  between  540  and  510  b.  c.  during  the  reign 
of  Tarquin  the  Proud.  He  quitted  Samos,  his  native  country,  and  after 
travelling  through  the  East,  where  he  imbibed  many  of  his  peculiar  doctrines, 
he  settled  at  Crotona,  in  Southern  Italy,  and  there  effected  a  complete  revolu¬ 
tion  of  ideas  and  manners.  He  was  a  great  mathematician  and' natural  philoso¬ 
pher,  and  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls.  The  chief  sub¬ 
divisions  of  this  school  were — 

The  Sceptics,  founded  by  Pyrrho,  336  b.  c.  who  doubted  of  every  thing. 
They  asserted  that  no  truth  or  positive  knowledge  existed  which  we  could 
attain  by  our  senses  or  reasoning.  The  supreme  good  was  placed  in  ataraxy 
and  apathy,  in  suspension  of  judgment  and  in  calmness  of  soul. 

The  Epicureans,  whose  founder  was  E«picurus,  placed  the  supreme  good  in 
the  practice  of  virtue,  and  in  the  pleasurable  emotions  excited  by  benevolence. 
His  followers  degraded  these  doctrines  by  assuming  the  pleasures  of  the  senses 
to  be  the  only  happiness.  Horace,  Virgil,  Atticus,  and  Maecenas,  belonged 
to  this  sect.  They  appear  to  have  admitted  the  existence  of  God,  but  to  have 
denied  a  Providence. 

The  school  of  the  Eleatics  was  founded  by  Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  at 
Elaea  in  Western  Italy,  538.  To  it  belonged  Parmenides,  Zeno,  and  Hera¬ 
clitus  the  Ephesian.  Their  main  doctrine  taught  that  God  was  all  in  all,  and 
could  be  represented  by  no  graven  image. 

Consult:  Enfield’s  History  of  Philosophy;  Anacharsis. 


Synoptical  Table. 


Names  of 
Philosophers. 

Birthplace. 

Time. 

Sect. 

Particulars. 

Agesilaus,  king  of  Sparta,  who  was  as  insignificant  in  person,  as  he 
was  noble  in  martial  qualities,  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Persia 
(396-394),  but  was  recalled  in  the  midst  of  victory  to  contend  against 
the  Athenians  and  their  allies.  The  Persian  court,  despairing  of  safety 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


84 

had  adopted  the  prudent  course  of  subsidizing  the  Grecian  states,  and 
exciting  them  to  take  arms  against  each  other.  The  Athenians,  having 
recovered  from  the  ruinous  government  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  had  re¬ 
built  the  walls  of  their  city,  and  also,  under  the  guidance  of  Conon,  395, 
thrown  off  the  Spartan  yoke.  Agesilaus  checked  for  a  season  this 
returning  prosperity,  by  the  disastrous  battle  of  Coronea.  The  defeat 
of  the  Lacedaemonians,  in  the  sea-fight  near  Cnidus,  by  Conon,  who 
served  with  the  Persians  (b.  c.  394),  led  finally  to  the  peace  of  Antal- 
cidas,  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  Laconian  negotiator.  The  repu¬ 
tation  of  Sparta  suffered  by  this  disgraceful  treaty,  which  was  dictated 
by  the  Eastern  monarch  :  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  were  declared  subject 
to  him,  though  the  independence  of  their  states  in  Europe  was  acknow¬ 
ledged.  Sixty  years  before  this,  Cimon  had  dictated  conditions  to 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus ;  but  now  the  supreme  state  of  Sparta  was 
compelled  to  accept  those  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  The  treaty  was 
signed  8th  August,  387  b.  c.,  and  by  one  of  its  clauses,  Persia  engaged 
to  compel  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  by  force  of  arms.  Conon  was 
accused  of  treason  for  endeavouring  to  oppose  its  ratification,  and  car¬ 
ried  to  Susa,  where  he  was  poisoned.  Thrasybulus,  the  liberator  of 
Athens,  perished  in  a  trifling  squabble  between  his  troops  and  some 
peasants ;  and  Sparta  lost  her  influence  at  the  very  period  when  the 
obscure  Theban  republic  began  to  acquire  a  name. 

Theban  Wa^. — Thebes  had  hitherto  been  a  blank  in  Grecian  history; 
but  the  unjust  occupation  of  the  citadel  of  that  town  by  the  Lacedaemo¬ 
nians  called  forth  the  talents  of  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas.  The 
latter  liberated  the  city  from  its  foreign  garrison  ;  while  the  former 
asserted  the  independence  of  his  country,  and  successfully  maintained  it 
on  the  field  of  Leuctra,  where  the  flower  of  the  Spartan  youth  perished, 
371  b.  c.  The  Lacedaemonians  were  now  in  their  turn  to  suffer  the 
horrors  of  invasion.  Epamindos  overran  the  country,  and  at  Mantinea 
in  Arcadia,  the  Thebans  again  triumphed,  but  at  the  expense  of  theii 
brave  general’s  life,  and  with  him  ended  their  brief  supremacy,  36*2  b.  c. 
Both  states  were  weakened  and  exhausted  by  the  war,  and  there  was 
no  longer  a  predominating  power  in  Greece.  Even  Athens  had  lost  a 
great  part  of  her  influence,  together  with  three  of  her  most  celebrated 
commanders. 

Macedon. — The  foundations  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy  were  laid 
in  the  eighth  century  b.  c.,  by  Caranus,  a  descendant  of  Hercules.  His 
successors,  and  the  people  over  whom  they  ruled,  were  long  considered 
as  barbarians  by  the  more  polished  inhabitants  of  the  South  ;  and  dur¬ 
ing  400  years  they  were  under  the  protection  of  Sparta,  Athens,  or  of 
Thebes.  On  the  death  of  Amyntas  II.  (369),  civil  dissensions  agitated 
the  kingdom,  which  were  not  appeased  until  Pelopidas  entered  the 
country  with  a  strong  army.  On  his  return  to  Thebes,  he  led  with  him 
numerous  hostages,  among  which  was  Philip,  the  brother  of  King  Per- 
diccas  III.,  whom  he  succeeded  under  the  title  of  Philip  II.  359  b.  c. 
To  strengthen  his  usurped  power,  he  improved  the  discipline  of  the 
iToops,  and  formed  the  celebrated  phalanx  on  the  model  of  the  Sacred 
Battalion  of  Thebes.  He  married  Olympias,  daughter  of  Neoptolemus, 
king  of  Epirus,  and  became  the  father  of  Alexander  III.  stfrnamed  the 
Great  (356). 

1.  Sacred  War,  b.  c.  359. — The  Phocians,  who  had  beer,  aned  by 


FOURTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


85 


the  Amphictyonic  council  for  having  committed  sacrilege  by  ploughing 
up  some  consecrated  ground  near  the  fane  of  Apollo,  resisted  payment, 
and  seized  on  the  treasures  in  the  temple  of  Delphi,  to  support  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  After  ten  years  the  struggle  was  brought  to  a 
satisfactory  conclusion,  principally  by  the  intervention  of  Philip,  who 
was  rewarded  by  the  seat  in  the  Amphictyonic  council,  which  had  been 
forfeited  by  Phocis.  A  second  war  led  to  the  disastrous  battle  of  Chae- 
ronea,  338  b.  c.,  in  which  the  Athenians  and  their  allies  were  defeated 
by  the  Macedonian  king,  and  the  country  laid  prostrate  at  his  feet. 
While  forming  new  projects  for  the  conquest  of  Persia,  at  the  head  of 
the  confederated  army  of  Greece,  he  was  assassinated  by  Pausanias, 
336  b.  c. 

Demosthenes  the  orator  was  at  the  head  of  an  Athenian  party,  which, 
with  greater  foresight  than  their  rivals,  beheld  the  subjugation  of  their 
native  land  in  the  ambitious  designs  of  Philip.  But  his  eloquence  was 
exerted  in  vain ;  and  like  Cassandra,  he  predicted  coming  woes  only  to 
see  his  cautions  heedlessly  rejected.  While  he  was  exciting  the  people 
to  war,  Phocion  was  proclaiming  the  necessity  of  peace.  Still  he  did 
not  less  exert  his  military  talents  in  defence  of  his  country,  and  com¬ 
pelled  the  invader  to  raise  the  siege  of  Byzantium.  Had  he  command¬ 
ed  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  the  fortune  of  the  day  might  have  been 
changed. 

Consult :  Leland’s  History  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 

Alexander  *he  Great. — Alexander  and  his  unfortunate  antagonist 
Darius  ascended  the  throne  in  the  same  year,  336  b.  c.  Taking  courage 
from  the  youth  of  the  new  monarch,  who  was  only  twenty  years  old, 
the  Blyrians,  Triballians,  and  other  barbarous  tribes  reduced  by  Philip, 
endeavoured  to  recover  their  independence ;  but  with  an  impetuosity 
and  speed  which  1  affled  calculation,  Alexander  crushed  his  various 
antagonists  with  almost  a  single  blow.  A  false  report  of  his  death 
having  reached  Thebes,  the  people  rose  and  massacred  the  Macedonian 
garrison,  and  organized  an  extensive  revolution.  These  plans  were 
thwarted  by  the  rapid  movements  of  the  king,  who,  before  two  weeks 
elapsed,  reached  Bceotia  at  the  head  of  an  army  flushed  with  victory. 
The  capital  was  taken  by  assault,  and  all  the  horrors  that  could  be  prac¬ 
tised  by  an  unrestrained  soldiery  befell  the  inhabitants.  Every  house 
was  rased  to  the  ground,  the  surviving  women  and  children  were  sold 
into  slavery,  and  its  territory  was  allotted  to  the  victorious  allies ;  but 
the  dwelling  of  Pindar,  and  of  all  connected  by  blood  with  the  poet, 
were  saved  in  the  general  ruin.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
melancholy  catastrophe  of  Thebes  took  place  without  the  authority  of 
Alexander,  as  general  in  chief  of  the  Amphictjmnic  council.  Athens 
and  other  states  who  had  favoured  her  views,  now  sent  embassies,  and 
submitted  to  the  conqueror.  ' 

Having  thus  successfully  defeated  every  opposition  which  had  assail¬ 
ed  his  throne,  he  prepared  to  carry  into  effect  the  projects  of  his  father, 
by  the  invasion  of  Asia.  In  the  spring  of  334,  he  began  his  march  at 
the  head  of  30,000  infantry,  and  about  5000  cavalry.  Antipater  was 
left  behind  to  watch  over  his  interests  in  Greece,  while  Parmenio,  one 
of  Philip’s  experienced  and  valiant  generals,  was  appointed  his  lieuten¬ 
ant  in  the  field.  After  indulging  nis  ardent  imagination  by  a  visit  to 
8 


86 


/ 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


the  scenes  described  in  the  Iliad ,  his  favourite  poem,*  Alexander  has¬ 
tened  to  join  his  troops,  which  had  crossed  the  straits  to  Abydos.  At 
the  passage  of  the  Granicus  the  first  struggle  ensued,  the  king  himself 
dashing  into  the  river,  at  the  head  of  the  companion-cavalry.  Disre¬ 
garding  all  personal  risk,  with  his  own  lance  he  killed  the  Persian 
Teader,  being  himself  twice  saved  by  the  activity  of  his  friends.  The 
example  of  the  monarch  was  followed  by  all  his  troops,  and  the  rout  of 
the  enemy  soon  became  general.  All  Asia  westward  of  Mount  Taurus 
fell  into  his  hands  as  he  advanced.  The  rich  provinces  of  Phrygia, 
Lydia,  and  Caria,  the  great  cities  of  Ephesus,  Sardis,  and  Miletus,  were 
compelled  to  submit  to  his  authority.  Darius  now  appointed  Memnon 
commander-in-chief  both  of  the  land  and  naval  forces;  but  while  this 
prudent  soldier  was  carrying  into  execution  a  well-devised  plan  that 
would  have  been  fatal  to  Alexander’s  progress,  he  was  suddenly  cut  off 
by  death.  The  battle  of  Issus,  in  which  the  Persian  ruler  commanded 
in  person,  soon  followed  ;  but  fortune  still  proving  adverse,  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  flee,  leaving  his  mother,  wife,  and  children,  in  the  power  of 
the  victor. 

Syria,  with  its  capital  Damascus,  and  Phoenicia,  the  cradle  of  Gre¬ 
cian  literature  and  tradition,  next  invited  his  arms.  Sidon  readily  threw 
off  the  Persian  yoke,  but  Tyre,  refusing  to  admit  Alexander  within  her 
walls,  was  taken  and  sacked  after  a  resistance  of  seven  months.  This 
city  was  no  easy  capture :  it  had  baffled  Shalmaneser,  and  compelled 
him  to  return,  after  a  siege  of  five  years ;  and  during  the  lapse  of  thir¬ 
teen  resisted  the  attacks  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Egypt  next  surrendered 
without  a  blow ;  and  not  limiting  his  views  in  that  country  to  ephemeral 
conquest  or  vain  display,  he  laid  the  foundations  of  a  new  city,  to  be 
called  after  his  own  name,  and  w~hich  soon  became  the  capital  of  the 
country,  the  depot  of  science,  and  the  centre  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Eastern  world.  While  he  was  thus  occupied  in  the  south,  Darius  was 
preparing  for  a  final  and  desperate  struggle,  in  the  very  heart  of  his 
dominions.  The  Grecian  army  rapidly  marched  through  Syria,  crossed 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which  had  been  left  unguarded,  and  reached 
Gaugamela  or  the  Camel’s  House,  so  called  from  the  animal  wThich  bore 
Darius  Hystaspes  from  his  Scythian  expedition.  Here  Alexander  found 
himself  in  front  of  600,000  men,  of  all  tribes  and  nations,  hastily  col¬ 
lected  from  various  provinces.  So  great  a  host  being  weak  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  its  numbers,  the  confusion  produced  by  the  first  charge  of  the 
Macedonians  could  not  be*recovered ;  and  after  a  brief  conflict,  the 
great  king  once  more  became  a  fugitive,  331  b.  c.  From  Arbela,  by 
which  name  this  victory  is  generally  known,  the  conqueror  proceeded 
to  Babylon  and  Susa  (Shusham  of  Scripture),  when  the  accumulated 
treasures  of  a  lono-  race  of  monarchs  fell  into  his  hands.  The  march 
to  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  Ancient  Persia,  was  not  effected  without 
obstruction  and  dano-er ;  but  the  city  was  at  length  reached  in  time  to 
save  the  treasures  from  plunder  by  the  retreating  soldiers.  The  palace 
is  said  to  have  been  afterwards  reduced  to  ashes  in  mere  wantonness,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  beautiful  Lais.f 


*  Et,  voyageur  arme  pour  conqu6rir  la  terre, 

Alexandre  en  Asie  emporta  son  Homer e.— Lebrun. 

f  Other  accounts  say  that  the  destruction  of  the  palace  was  an  act  of  stern  retalia¬ 
tion  for  the  demolition  of  the  Grecian  temples  by  Xerxes.  The  Persian  writers  make 


FOURTH  CENTURY  JB.  C.  87 

After  his  defeat,  Darius  had  fled  into  Media,  where  he  hoped  to 
organize  such  resistance  as  might  arrest  the  progress  of  the  invader. 
In  Greece,  too,  events  were  occurring  which  might  have  materially 
injured  the  cause  of  Alexander.  Lacedaemon  was  at  the  head  of  the 
disaffected  party,  and  Demosthenes  was  endeavouring  to  excite  the 
Athenians  to  share  in  the  intrigues.  Antipater,  however,  was  not  want¬ 
ing  in  vigour  during  this  emergency,  and  in  a  battle  which  shortly  after 
ensued,  the  hopes  of  Spartan  supremacy  were  frustrated,  their  troops 
defeated,  and  King  Agis  slain,  while  fifty  of  her  principal  citizens  were 
compelled  to  become  hostages  for  her  future  conduct.  Probably  being 
informed  of  this  unexpected  change  in  the  affairs  of  Greece,  Darius  fled 
from  Ecbatana  towards  the  Caucasus,  accompanied  with  not  more  than 
10,000  men.  Actively  pursued  by  Alexander,  he  was  killed  by  the 
sword  of  one  of  his  own  officers  before  the  conqueror  could  overtake 
him ;  and  Bessus,  the  murderer,  who  had  assumed  the  regal  title,  fell 
shortly  after  into  the  hands  of  the  King  of  Macedon,  by  whom  he  was 
scourged  and  mutilated,  330  b.  c. 

About  this  time  the  conqueror  learnt  that  Philotas,  the  son  of  Par- 
menio,  had  entertained  designs  against  his  life ;  and  the  offender,  with 
his  father,  suffered  death,  according  to  the  decision  of  a  tribunal  of  their 
countrymen.  Clitus,  who  had  saved  his  prince’s  life  at  the  Granicus, 
and  had  been  appointed  to  the  companion-cavalry  after  the  execution  of 
Philotas,  was,  in  a  fit  of  ungoverned  passion  or  of  intoxication,  stabbed 
by  him  to  the  heart.  Nothing  for  a  time  could  allay  the  bitter  regret 
which  Alexander  felt,  and  at  the  moment  he  could  scarcely  be  restrained 
from  plunging  the  bloody  weapon  into  his  own  bosom. 

In  becoming  the  sovereign  of  Asia,  the  Macedonian  aimed  at  per¬ 
manency  of  dominion,  and  with  this  view  assumed  the  Median  dress, 
married  Roxana,  a  Persian  lady  of  high  rank,  and  in  his  internal  policy 
contemplated  the  prosperity  of  his  new  empire.  But  all  his  enemies 
were  not  yet  subdued,  and  the  victorious  leader  next  carried  his  arms, 
with  his  wonted  fortune,  beyond  the  Indus,  and  was  meditating  an 
expedition  as  far  as  the  Ganges.  During  his  progress  in  India, \  he 
carried  into  execution  his  plans  for  promoting  a  communication  between 
that  country  and  Greece;  and  a  fleet  under  Nearchus  was  fitted  out  to 
gain  the  desired  information,  by  exploring  the  coasts  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  Persian  Gulf.  Returning  from  these  distant  scenes  of  con¬ 
quest,  he  reached  Susa  once  more,  where  Barcine  or  Statira,  the  beauti¬ 
ful  daughter  of  Darius,  became  his  wife.  Proceeding  thence  to  Ecba¬ 
tana,  he  offered  magnificent  sacrifices,  followed  by  festive  games,  in 
gratitude  for  his  long-continued  success.  It  was  here  that  he  lost  his 
early  and  dearest  friend,  Hepheestion.  He  now  returned  to  Babylon, 


no  mention  of  this  circumstance,  or  of  the  death  of  Beetis,  Clitus,  Callisthenes,  and  the 
other  acts  of  debauchery,  pride,  and  cruelty,  with  which  the  Greeks  and  their  Latin 
copyists  have  loaded  the  memory  of  Alexander.  These  historians  represent  him,  on 
the  contrary,  as  a  model  of  public  and  private  virtues.  This  difference  is  supposed  to 
arise  from  the  protection  afforded  by  the  king  to  the  vanquished  against  the  exactions 
of  the  victors,  who  desired  nothing  better  than  to  sit  down  and  enjoy  their  conquests 
at  their  ease.  Before  they  could  divide  the  immense  spoils,  it  was  necessary  to  be  freed 
from  his  presence,  and  his  actions  were  calumniated  that  his  death  might  be  the  less 
regretted.  The  Greeks  were  all  king-haters,  and  the  Macedonian  sovereigns  who  had 
subjugated  them  were  particularly  the  objects  of  their  abhorrence.  They  listened  with 
an  easy  belief  to  all  the  scandalous  tales  which  were  brought  from  the  East,  and  com 
mitted  them  to  an  imperishable  memorial  in  their  writings. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


258 

regardless  of  the  warnings  said  to  have  been  given  by  the  Chaldean 
seers,  and  of  the  various  omens  that  had  preceded  his  entry  into  that 
city.  Here,  while  engaged  in  plans  for  improving  his  future  capital, 
and  for  restoring  to  the  ancient  Assyrian  empire  its  former  supremacy 
m  arms  and  commerce,  he  was  attacked  by  a  fatal  disease,  of  which  he 
died  on  the  eleventh  day  of  his  illness,  323  b.  c.  He  was  cut  olf  in  the 
flower  of  his  age,  when  much  might  have  been  expected  from  the 
maturer  years  of  one  whose  youth  had  given  such  brilliant  promise :  he 
died  in  the  midst  of  his  grand  designs,  at  the  moment  when  a  career  of 
usefulness  appeared  to  be  opening  before  him.  But  although  our  minds 
cannot  fathom  the  designs  of  Infinite  Intelligence  in  thus  removing  him 
at  the  most  important  period  of  his  life,  we  are  not  to  conclude  that  all 
is  the  result  of  chance.  In  the  words  of  the  historian,  we  may  add, 
that  “  not  without  especial  purpose  of  the  deity  was  such  a  man  given 
to  the  world,  to  whom  none  has  ever  yet  been  equal.” 

Partition  of  the  Empire. — The  death  of  the  illustrious  conqueror 
became  the  signal  of  discord,  and  his  vast  empire  a  theatre  of  war  and 
revolution:  but  from  the  multitude  of  candidates  who  aspired  simul¬ 
taneously  to  the  supreme  command,  the  history  of  this  period  is  thrown 
into  almost  inextricable  confusion. — Perdiccas  by  general  consent  wTas 
appointed  regent,  and  the  kingdom  divided  into  thirty-three  provinces, 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  generals.  This  distinguished  leader  fell 
shortly  after  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin,  and  Antipater  succeeded  to  his 
office  :  disorder  continued  to  reiom  among  the  numerous  successors  of 
Alexander,  and  each  party  was  by  turns  victorious  or  defeated. 

Lamian  War. — Taking  advantage  of  these  disturbances,  the  Athe- 
nians,  excited  by  Demosthenes,  in  opposition  to  the  counsels'  of  Phocion, 
entered  into  a  league  to  throw  off  the  Macedonian  yoke.  Leosthenes, 
the  generalissimo  of  the  allies,  gained  two  victories  over  Antipater,  by 
which  the  Greeks  were  quite  intoxicated;  but  at  Cranon  these  advan¬ 
tages  were  lost,  and  Athens  itself  was  with  difficulty  preserved.  The 
orator  was  compelled  to  flee  and  take  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Neptune 
at  Calauria,  when,  being  reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  he  swallowed 
poison  and  died,  322  b.  c. 

Another  revolution  placed  the  regency  in  the  hands  of  Polysperchon, 
who,  desirous  of  the  support  of  the  Greeks,  re-established  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  their  cities,  319  b.  c.  Athens  made  an  unjust  use  of  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  her  democracy,  in  the  accusation  of  Phocion  and  his  condemnation 
without  being  allowed  the  privilege  of  defence.  He  suffered  like  many 
of  his  illustrious  predecessors;  and  even  after  death,  the  fury  of  the 
populace  forbade  the  interment  of  his  corpse.  Probity  was  the  charac¬ 
teristic  of  this  great  man ;  he  was  elected  general  forty-five  times,  was 
always  victorious  and  always  poor.  Although  compelled  to  perform 
the  duties  of  domestic  life,  generally  intrusted  to  the  slaves,  he  refused 
a  hundred  talents  which  Alexander  wished  to  force  upon  him.  Deme¬ 
trius  Phalerius,  a  wise  and  learned  person,  whom  Cassander  some  time 
after  (318)  appointed  his  lieutenant,  met  with  a  fate  different  from  that 
of  Phocion.  Three  hundred  and  sixty  statues  were  erected  in  gratitude 
for  his  skilful  administration  ;  but  they  were,  with  true  Athenian  fic¬ 
kleness,  as  suddenly  thrown  down  as  they  had  been  raised.  He  retired 
to  Egypt,  and  consoled  himself  with  literary  pursuits  at  the  court  of 
Ptoleni)  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Antigonus,  wTho  had  delivered  Athens 


FOURTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


89 


and  nearly  all  Greece  (307),  was  appointed  generalissimo  in  302,  and 
four  years  after  driven  into  banishment.  He  gained  the  epithet  of 
Po/iorcetes,  or  vanquisher  of  cities ,  by  his  great  success  in  the  reduction 
of  fortified  places. 

Ambitious,  and  jealous  of  each  other,  the  generals  of  Alexander  had 
never  ceased  to  contend  for  the  spoils  of  his  vast  empire.  At  last,  after 
a  long  alternation  of  success  and  reverses,  the  united  army  of  Ptolemy, 
Cassander,  Lysimachus,  and  Seleucus,  gained  at  Ipsus  in  Phrygia  a 
decisive  victory  over  Antigonus  and  his  son  Poliorcetes.  The  father 
perished  on  the  field,  while  tlm  other  not  without  difficulty  escaped  to 
Greece  with  the  fleet  and  a  remnant  of  his  army,  301  b.  c.  The 
dominions  of  the  son  of  Philip  were  now  divided  into  four  large  king¬ 
doms  :*  Macedon  and  Greece,  and  the  viestern  parts,  under  Cassander; 
Thrace,  Bithynia,  and  the  northern  parts,  under  Lysimachus ;  Egypt, 
and  the  south,  under  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus  ;  and  Syria,  with  the  east, 
under  Seleucus.  With  the  establishment  of  this  last  king  at  Babylon 
commences  the  Era  of  the  Seleucidas  I-  (312  b.  c.),  which  was  in  use 
until  65  b.  c. 


Arts,  Literature,  and  Science  among  the  Greeks. 

The  Greeks  cultivated  Letters  and  the  Arts  with  a  perfection  that  places 
them  in  the  first  rank  of  civilised  nations,  and  the  monuments  the)  have  left  in 
every  branch  have  shed  a  glory  upon  their  country  that  almost  obscures  their 
military  fame.  It  is  in  the  period  beginning  with  Solon  and  terminating  with 
Alexander,  that  most  of  the  great  men  flourished  who  brought  such  renown  on 
the  Grecian  name. 

Architecture. — During  the  administration  of  Pericles,  architecture  sprang 
from  rude  forms  to  perfection.  From  the  Greeks  we  derive  three  orders  or 
styles,  the  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian  ;  from  the  Romans,  the  Tus¬ 
can  and  the  Composite  ;  from  the  Goths,  the  Gothic,  in  which  most  of  our 
ancient  cathedrals  are  constructed.  The  Tuscan  order  is  the  simplest  and  least 
ornamented.  The  essential  character  of  the  Doric  is  solidity ;  of  the  Ionic, 
delicacy  and  elegance;  of  the  Corinthian,  nobility  and  grace.  The  Composite 
is,  as  its  name  indicates,  a  mixture  of  Ionic  and  Corinthian.  The  temple  of 
Ceres  and  Proserpine  at  Eleusis  was  built  in  the  Doric  manner;  that  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus  and  of  Apollo  at  Miletus,  in  the  Ionic  ;  the  temple  of  the  Olympian 
Jupiter  at  Athens,  in  the  Corinthian  ;  the  column  of  Trajan  at  Rome,  in  the 
Tuscan ;  and  the  Pantheon  in  the  Composite. 

Sculpture. — The  ancient  sculptors  made  use  of  wood,  stone,  marble,  ivory, 
precious  stones,  as  the  agate,  several  metals,  as  gold,  silver,  copper,  brass,  and 
different  other  plastic  substances,  such  as  clay,  plaster,  and  wax.  The  most 
celebrated  statuaries  were  Phidias,  Polycletus,  Myro,  Lysippus,  and  Praxiteles. 
The  Elgin  marbles  in  the  British  Museum  are  supposed  to  have  been  carved 
under  the  direction  of  Phidias,  part  being  the  work  of  his  own  hand  ;  the  famous 
horses  of  Venice  are  said  to  be  the  production  of  Lysippus. 

Painting. — We  have  no  specimens  to  show  that  this  elegant  art  was  carried 
to  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection  as  sculpture.  The  Greeks  made  use  of  only 
four  colours,  black,  white,  red,  and  yellow.  Down  to  the  age  of  Nero,  paint¬ 
ings  were  executed  chiefly  on  wood :  at  this  period  canvass  began  to  be 
employed,  but  it  seems  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  ancients  were  entirely 
unacquainted  with  oil-painting.  They  wrought  in  distemper  and  in  fresco  ;  the 


*  This  partition  of  the  empire  of  Alexander  remarkably  fulfils  the  prophecy  of  Daniel 
(chap,  viii.) :  “The  great  horn  was  broken;  and  for  it  came  up  four  notable  ones, 
toward  the  four  winds  of  heaven.” 

tUsed  in  the  East  by  Pagans,  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mahoinmedans, — called  Era  of 
Contracts  bv  the  Jews. 

8  * 


\ 


90  *  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  ✓ 

former,  on  wooden  tablets,  with  colours  mingled  with  gum-water ;  the  latter, 
on  walls  covered  with  fresh  and  undried  plaster.  They  practised  also  painting 
in  various  kinds  of  wax,  in  miniature,  enamel,  and  mosaic.  The  most  celebrated 
artists  of  antiquity  were,  Polygnotus,  Apollodorus,  Zeuxis,  Parrhasius,  Pam- 
philus,  Timanthes,  Apelles,  Aristides,  Protogenes,  and  Pausias,  almost  all 
fellow-countrymen  and  contemporaries  of  the  sculptors  named  above. 

Music. — The  object  of  music  among  the  Greeks  was  to  elevate  the  mind 
rather  than  charm  the  ear  ;  it  excited  to  courage  in  battle,  softened  the  manners 
of  the  savage,  and  thus  contributed  to  the  progress  of  civilisation.  Music  hav¬ 
ing  there  a  political  end,  was  cultivated  with  great  care,  and  formed  in  a  certain 
measure  part  of  their  national  education.  In  Sparta,  every  innovation  in  the 
art  was  strictly  forbidden,  and  a  musician  was  banished  who  had  ventured  to 
increase  the  number  of  the  strings  of  the  lyre. 

Poetry. — Thespis,  of  Attic  birth,  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  dramatic  art, 
595  b.  c.  iEschylus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Xerxes,  and  shared  with  his 
brother  Cynaegirus  the  dangers  of  the  Persian  wars,  distinguished  himself  as 
an  author  in  that  department.  The  battle  off  Salamis,  at  which  he  was  present, 
forms  the  subject  of  one  of  his  tragedies.  Sophocles  surpassed  him  in  purity 
and  simplicity  :  of  his  numerous  compositions  only  seven  remain.  Euripides, 
the  rival  of  Sophocles,  carried,  in  the  opinion  of  the  eminent  critic  Aristotle, 
the  pathetic  power  of  tragedy  to  its  greatest  height. 

Susarion  of  Megara,  a  contemporary  of  Thespis,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  comedy  ;  Aristophanes,  unequalled  for  his  wit  and  genius,  both  too 
frequently  defiled  by  the  grossness  of  his  time,  introduced  the  living  manners 
on  the  stage.  The  political  aims  of  his  comedies  can  scarcely  be  accurately 
appreciated  by  the  moderns.  Menander,  the  predecessor  of  the  Roman 
Terence,  made  ideal  characters  the  vehicle  of  his  sentiments  and  of  his 
story. 

In  lyric  poetry  we  meet  with  the  name  of  Simonides  and  of  the  unrivalled 
Pindar,  who  devoted  their  genius  to  the  celebration  of  the  victors  at  the  Public 
Games,  about  390  b.  c.  Anacreon  confined  his  muse  to  Epicurean  and  comic 
strains ;  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  and  Archilochus  sang  the  pleasures  and  the  pangs 
of  love. 

Writing. — In  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  writing  was  confined  to  characters 
graven  on  stone  or  plates  of  metal.  Palm-leaves  came  subsequently  into  use, 
and  then  the  inner  bark  {liber)  of  certain  trees ;  soon  afterwards,  canvass  and 
tablets  covered  with  wax  were  employed.  Paper  was  introduced  in  the  age  of 
Alexander ;  it  was  fabricated  from  the  papyrus ,  a  plant  still  growing  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile  and  in  Sicily.  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  was  the  inventor 
of  parchment,  and  gave  it  the  name  it  bears. 

Eloquence. — Eloquence  could  not  fail  to  be  in  great  esteem  among  the 
Greeks,  with  whom  it  was  the  principal  instrument  of  polity  and  the  mainspring 
of  government.  Pericles  was  the  first  who  gained  any  lasting  reputation  by 
this  popular  talent ;  he  was  followed  by  Isocrates,  Demades,  Aeschines,  Lysias, 
Aristides, — all  of  whom  were  greatly  surpassed  by  Demosthenes. 

History. — History,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  ancients,  had  a  close,  con¬ 
nexion  with  oratory.  They  were  satisfied  with  the  narrative,  provided  it  con 
tained  long  speeches  gratuitously  put  into  the  mouths  of  actual  personages. 
Herodotus,  surnamed  the  Father  of  History,  is  at  the  head  of  the  list ;  Thucy¬ 
dides,  the  most  perfect  of  all,  was  the  model  adopted  by  Tacitus :  Xenophon 
was  the  author  of  the  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  and  of’ the  Cyropaedia. 
Polybius,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  and  Diodorus  Siculus  appeared  sub 
sequently. 

Philosophy. — Greece  gave  birth  to  a  great  number  of  men,  who,  under  the 
name  of  philosophers,  were  occupied  chiefly  with  the  first  principles  of  civil 
polity  and  the  duties  of  society.  They  were  divided  into  a  great  number  of 
sects,  the  chief  of  which  have  been  enumerated  above,  page  83. 


FOURTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


91 


Remarks  on  the  History  of  Alexander. 

With  the  death  of  Epaminondas  at  Mantinea  (362),  and  of  Agesilaus  in  his 
return  from  Egypt,  terminates  the  history  of  the  Greek  commonwealths. 
Their  era  was  completed ;  that  of  the  Macedonians  was  beginning.  All  the 
republics  united  around  three  centres  —  Sparta,  Thebes,  Athens;  but  their 
energies  were  exhausted  when  Philip  appeared  on  the  scene.  His  son  per¬ 
severed  in  his  father’s  course,  though  on  a  much  larger  theatre.  Mind  was 
marching  to  the  conquest  of  matter ;  despotism  was  about  to  yield  to  liberty. 
Greece  restored  to  the  East  the  knowledge  she  had  received  from  it.  “  Thus,” 
says  Michelet,  “this  little  imprisoned  world  declared  eternal  war  against  all 
the  relics  of  natural  life  in  the  oriental  tribes.  This  form,  by  which  the  Pelasgi 
had  imitated  Asia  in  Europe,  was  effaced  by  Athens  and  by  Rome.  In  this 
contest  were  strongly  characterized  the  three  epochs  of  Greece ;  she  attacked 
Asia  in  the  Trojan  War,  —  repelled  her  at  Salamis, — subdued  her  under 
Alexander.” 

We  should  not  regard  this  hero  as  a  mere  warrior  sighing  for  fresh  worlds 
to  conquer ;  he  is  to  be  admired  rather  for  his  sagacity  and  discrimination, 
evinced  in  the  political  regulations  of  the  various  states  which  were  subjected 
to  his  authority.  He  was  the  messenger  of  the  Almighty  sent  forth  to  work 
his  predicted  ends ;  to  effect  no  transient  conquests,  but  to  open  the  path  into 
the  remote  East;  to  introduce  the  Grecian  language,  the  medium  of  civilisation 
and  Christianity,  into  those  countries ;  and  to  prepare  secretly  yet  power¬ 
fully  the  way  for  that  dispensation,  which  “in  the  fulness  of  time”  was  to 
enlighten  the  countries  he  traversed  as  a  conqueror.  “  The  fortune  of  Alexan¬ 
der  was  indeed  the  overruling  providence  of  God.” 

Measured  by  years,  his  life  was  short;  long,  if  we  reckon  it  by  events.  How 
great  was  his  progress  in  a  few  months  !  He  was  no  longer  King  of  Macedon, 
but  the  conqueror  of  the  world  ;  at  his  death  it  remained  without  a  master. 
His  generals  were  brave,  sagacious,  enterprising,  and  successful,  so  long  as 
they  fought  under  his  eye.  When  he  was  no  more,  disunion  and  dissension 
followed  ;  and  the  capital  of  the  world  was  removed  to  Rome.  “  She  enclosed 
within  her  walls  two  cities  and  two  races,  Tuscan  and  Sabine  ;  sacerdotal  and 
military  ;  eastern  and  western  ;  patrician  and  plebeian ;  landed  property  and 
personal;  stability  and  progression  ;  nature  and  liberty.  It  was  now  her  turn 
to  rule.”  From  these  apparently  discordant  materials,  we  shall  soon  perceive 
how  Rome  became,  even  in  consequence  of  them,  the  mistress  of  the  world. 

Consult :  Williams’  Life  of  Alexander. 

Prepare  :  A  Map  of  the  World  after  the  division  of  Alexander’s  Empire. 

ROME. 

Preliminary  Observations  on  the  Gauls. 

The  Gauls  or  Celts  now  first  appeared  in  history.  They  were  a  warlike 
people,  who,  about  two  centuries  before  this  period,  had  crossed  the  Alps  under 
the  command  of  Bellovesus,  and  settled  in  the  north  of  Italy,  or  Hither  Gaul, 
having  exterminated  the  whole  population.  Their  chief  pursuits  were  pasturage 
and  war :  the  form  of  government  was  a  hereditary  monarchy  :  their  religion, 
Druidical.  The  strength  of  their  armies  consisted  in  cavalry  or  in  chariots ; 
and  the  huge  bodies  wild  features,  and  shaggy  hair  of  the  men,  struck  terror 
into  their  enemies.  They  were  badly  equipped  ;  armour  was  rare,  their  shields 
were  small,  their  swords  long,  thin,  and  brittle.  They  hung  the  heads  of  the 
slain  to  their  horses’  manes,  and  in  many  of  their  houses  might  be  seen,  nailed 
up  as  an  heirloom,  the  skull  of  some  person  of  rank  who  had  fallen  before  them 
in  battle.  Their  towns  were  few,  their  habitations  mean  and  comfortless 
They  betrayed  an  extreme  passion  for  golden  ornaments,  which  they  ever 
wore  in  battle.  Their  cloaks  shone  with  all  the  hues  of  the  rainbow,  like  the 
picturesque  dresses  of  the  Highlanders. 


92 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Capture  of  Rome,  390  b.  c. — Allured  by  the  luxuries  and  climate  of 
Italy,  successive  invaders  pushed  farther  south,  crossed  the  Apennines, 
and  appeared  before  Clusium,  where  first  they  attracted  the  attention  of 
Rome,  and  whither  ambassadors  were  sent  to  ascertain  who  these 
foreigners  were.  The  envoys  having  improperly  taken  part  in  a  battle, 
the  Gauls  demanded  that  they  should  be  given  up.  The  senate  con¬ 
sented,  but  the  people  refused ;  upon  which  the  invading  army,  70,000 
strong,  under  Brennus,  marched  towards  the  city.  They  were  met  on 
the  banks  of  the  Allia  by  40,000  men,  who  were  defeated  with  terrible 
slaughter,  and  before  nightfall  the  enemy  were  at  the  gates  of  Rome 
The  town  was  deserted,  but  the  Capitol  was  held  by  about  1000  despe¬ 
rate  combatants.  During  several  days  the  city  was  given  up  to  plunder, 
and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  all  the  houses  were  burned  to  the  ground. 
Part  of  the  conquering  army  now  continued  their  advance,  and  the 
remainder  almost  succeeded  in  taking  the  Capitol,  the  defenders  of 
which  were  reduced  to  the  last  extremities  by  famine.  Brennus,  after 
remaining  seven  months,  was  induced  to  accept  a  thousand  pounds 
weight  of  gold  as  the  price  of  quitting  Rome  and  her  territories,  upon 
which  he  led  his  people  home  without  encountering  opposition.  The 
story  of  their  subsequent  defeat  by  Camillus  is  a  fiction  of  Roman  vanity. 

It  was  now  proposed  that  the  seat  of  government  should  be  removed 
to  Yeii,  a  town  equal  to  Rome  in  magnitude  and  beauty,  when  the  lucky 
omen  of  a  word  decided  the  question,  and  within  a  year  a  new  city  rose 
from  the  ashes  of  the  former.  Fresh  wars  ensued;  Roman  fortune 
again  prevailed;  the  Sabines,  Etrurians,  Latins,  iEqui,  and  Volsci, 
were  successively  defeated,  and  the  Gauls,  who  had  attempted  a  second 
invasion,  were  routed  with  great  slaughter.  But  Rome  still  suffered 
much  from  the  former  assault  of  that  fierce  people ;  though  this,  which 
elsewhere  was  a  deathblow  to  liberty,  raised  the  constitution  nearly  to  a 
perfect  state.  The  oppressive  rate  of  interest,  the  power  which  the 
creditor  still  possessed,  and  not  unfrequentiy  exercised,  of  life  and  death 
over  the  debtor,  had  reduced  the  lower  orders  to  desperation.  Manlius, 
the  preserver  of  the  Capitol,  took  pity  on  the  helpless  people.  On  the 
retreat  of  the  invaders,  he  had  found  himself  neglected,  while  all  civil 
and  military  honours  were  heaped  upon  his  enemy  Camillus.  His  first 
actions,  which  resulted  from  the  pure  feelings  of  humanity,  led  him  to 
become  the  patron  of  the  commonalty.  The  measures  by  which  he 
proposed  to  alleviate  the  public  distress  excited  the  anger  of  the  patri¬ 
cians,  who  charged  him  with  aiming  at  despotic  power,  and  committed 
him  to  prison,  from  which  he  was  soon  afterwards  released.  He  was 
again  accused  by  the  tribunes,  with  the  design  of  driving  him  into  exile, 
but  he  was  unanimously  acquitted.  Still  thirsting  for  his  blood,  the 
public  prosecutors  once  more  arraigned  him  ;  he  was  on  this  accusation 
condemned  to  death,  and  a  slave  treacherously  pushed  him  down  the 
fatal  Tarpeian  rock,  384  b.  c. 

Licinian  Laws. — The  universal  distress  had  now  reached  the  highest 
pitch,  and  Rome  was  on  the  point  of  degenerating  into  a  miserable 
oligarchy, -when  two  men  appeared  who  changed  the  fate  of  their  coun¬ 
try  and  that  of  the  world.  In  the  year  376  b.  c.,  Licinius  Stolo  and  L. 
Sextius  were  chosen  tribunes.  The  celebrated  rogations ,  which  they 
brought  forward,  produced  a  violent  opposition  between  the  two  parties 
of  the  state,  which  lasted  six  years.  Though  the  country  was  fortu- 


FOURTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 


93 


nately  at  peace,  such  a  condition  of  affairs  was  unsafe;  and  at  length, 
Camillus  mediating  between  the  patricians  and  the  commonalty,  tho 
rogations  passed  the  senate.  By  these,  the  consuls,  one  of  whom  was 
to°be  a  plebeian,  replaced  the  military  tribunes ;  the  laws  of  debtor  and 
creditor  were  altered ;  an  Agrarian  law  was  enacted,  limiting  the  shares 
of  the  public  lands  to  500  acres  and  the  taxes  to  be  raised  upon  them, 
and  enjoining  that  free  labourers  should  be  employed  in  their  cultivation. 
The  consular  power  was  however  diminished  by  committing  judicial 
affairs  to  a  praetor,  and  by  the  appointment  of  curule  aediles,  366  b.  c. 
L.  Sextius  Lateranus  was  the  first  plebeian  consul ;  and  the  commons 
having  once  made  good  their  claim  to  this  high  office,  were  not  long 
before  they  participated  in  the  others.  They  were  admitted  to  the  dic¬ 
tatorship,  359 ;  the  censorship,  351 ;  the  praetorship,  337  ;  and  the  priest¬ 
hood,  301  b.  c.  A  second  commercial  treaty  with  Carthage  (348)  shows 
that  the  Roman  navy  was  at  this  time  far  from  contemptible ;  and  though 
it  appears  to  have  been  merely  piratical,  squadrons  were  equipped  and 
sent  from  their  ports  before  the  close  of  the  century. 

Samnite  Wars,  343  b.  c. — The  Samnites  inhabited  the  mountains 
towards  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  had  spread  still  farther  to  the 
south,  when  the  Campanians,  with  whom  they  were  at  war,  applied  to 
Rome  for  assistance,  which  was  readily  granted.  The  former  made  a 
long  and  vigorous  resistance ;  but  being  at  last  routed  by  Decius,  30,000 
of  them  were  left  dead  on  the  field.  The  Roman  arms  were  now  turned 
against  the  Latins,  who  had  long  been  their  allies.  A  war,  which  dif¬ 
fered  little  from  a  civil  contest,  broke  out;  and  in  a  conflict  at  the  foot 
of  Vesuvius,  the  Latin  and  Samnite  forces  would  have  conquered,  but 
for  the  patriotic  sacrifice  of  Decius,  who,  clad  in  magnificent  robes, 
rushed  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  where  he  fell  under  a  thousand 
wounds.  A  cruel  revenge  was  taken  by  the  victors,  and  Latium  was 
rendered  for  ever  incapable  of  opposing  their  power,  338  b.  c.  A  signal 
disgrace,  it  is  true,  was  inflicted  on  their  army  at  the  Caudine  Forks, 
321  b.c.  ;  but  it  was  soon  effaced,  and  Samnium  reduced  to  submission, 
after  a  struggle  of  more  than  fifty  years,  290  b.  c.  These  wars  opened 
a  way  to  the  subjugation  of  Italy,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Roman 
greatness.  A  new  species  of  tactics  was  learnt;  the  relations  with 
neighbouring  states  were  more  firmly  established  ;  and  the  influence  of 
Rome  extended  to  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  Peninsula. 

The  internal  discords  of  the  city  were  ended  about  this  period  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  three  laws  introduced  by  Publilius  Philo,  the  dictator:^ 
1st,  The  office  of  censor  was  made  common  to  the  two  orders;  2d,  The 
veto  was  taken  away  from  the  curiae;  3d,  The  plebiscita,  or  decrees  of 
the  people,  were  rendered  binding  on  the  whole  state;  the  distinction 
between  patricians  and  commons  being  now  merely  nominal.  Thus 
was  the  constitution  completed,  and  Rome  rapidly  advanced  to  universal 
empire,  286  b.  c. 

JUDiEA. 

Judaea  now  became  part  of  the  Syrian  prefecture,  under  the  heads  of 
the  priesthood,  subject  to  the  civil  and  military  control  of  the  Persian 
satraps,  373  b.  c.  The  meagre  annals  of  this  period  record  but  one 
remarkable  event,  and  that  an  atrocious  crime,  perpetrated  by  the  high 
priest  Jonathan,  who,  suspecting  his  brother  Joshua  of  intriguing  with 


94 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Bagosess  the  imperial  governor,  slew  him  within  the  precincts  of  the 
temple.  Bagoses  hastened  to  Jerusalem,  forced  his  way  into  the  holy 
edifice,  and  imposed  a  heavy  tax  on  the  sacrifices  as  a  penalty  for  that 
outrage.  Alexander  passed  under  the  walls  of  the  city,  which  he  was 
induced  to  spare  by  the  timely  submission  of  the  people,  while  he  bow¬ 
ed  in  adoration  before  the  name  of  Jehovah,  inscribed  on  the  head-dress 
of  the  high  priest  Jaddua.  He  was  shown  the  prophecies  in  which 
Daniel  had  foretold  his  conquest  of  the  Persian  empire,  at  which  cir¬ 
cumstance  he  was  so  much  pleased,  that  he  took  the  Jews  into  par¬ 
ticular  favour,  332  b.  c.  After  his  death  and  the  division  of  his  empire, 
Palestine  was  regarded  as  a  valuable  frontier  province  both  by  the 
Syrian  and  Egyptian  kings.  It  fell  at  last  into  the  hands  of  Ptolemy 
Soter,  who  took  Jerusalem  by  treachery  on  the  Sabbath,  and  led  a  great 
multitude  of  the  inhabitants  captive  into  Egypt,  312  b.  c.  Philadel- 
phus,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  released  120,000  of  them,  and 
caused  the  famous  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  called  the  Septua - 
gi?it,  to  be  prepared  by  seventy  learned  men.  The  fables  concerning 
the  isolation  of  these  translators  and  the  perfect  coincidence  of  their 
versions,  are  utterly  unworthy  of  credit.  The  high  priest  Simon  the 
Just,  the  favourite  hero  of  Jewish  traditions,  died  in  292;  an  event  that 
is  said  to  have  been  announced  by  prodigies,  and  which  the  nation  had 
cause  to  lament,  while  groaning  under  his  unworthy  successors.  He 
completed  the  Canon  of  the  Ancient  Scriptures,  which  has  never  since 
been  changed.  About  this  time  the  sects  of  the  Pharisees,  Sadducees, 
and  Essenes,  assumed  their  peculiar  distinctions. 

PERSIA. 

The  safe  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  and  the  subsequent  victories 
of  Agesilaus,  revealed  the  weakness  of  this  monarchy:  but  the  union  of 
the  Athenian  and  Persian  fleets  under  Conon,  and  the  defeat  of  the 
Spartans  near  Cnidus,  had  neutralized  those  events,  when  the  peace  of 
Antalcidas  again  restored  to  Persia  its  supremacy  over  Asia,  and  inflicted 
on  Sparta  a  deep  disgrace.  Artaxerxes  II.  failed  in  recovering  Egypt 
(374),  so  little  could  his  barbarian  hosts  achieve  without  Grecian  troops 
and  generals.  The  court  was  under  the  control  of  women ;  each 

o  7 

satrap  was  at  war  with  his  neighbour;  and  disputes  about  the  succes¬ 
sion  had  nearly  produced  the  downfal  of  the  empire  thirty  years  before 
the  battle  of  Arbela.  Ochus  mounted  the  throne  and  assumed  the  name 
of  his  father,  358  e.  c.  ;  and  though  insurrections  in  Asia  Minor  and 
extensive  rebellions  in  Phoenicia,  Egypt,  and  Cyprus,  disturbed  his 
reign,  he  nevertheless,  with  the  help  of  Greek  mercenaries,  reduced 
Egypt  once  more  to  a  Persian  province  (350).  Returning  to  his  own 
capital,  he  resigned  himself  to  luxury,  as  if  desirous  to  allay  the  pang? 
of  conscience ;  for  he  had  scarcely  assumed  the  regal  tiara  before  he 
massacred  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  his  relations,  besides  a  great  numbei 
of  the  nobility.  He  was  himself  poisoned  by  his  favourite,  Bagoas, 
who  promoted  the  king’s  youngest  son  to  the  throne,  338,  but  soon  after 
murdering  him  with  all  his  family,  he  set  up  in  his  place  the  unfortunate 
Darius  III.  Codomannus,  by  whom  the  invasion  of  Alexander  was  ably 
opposed.  After  several  bloody  battles,  the  last  of  which  was  fought  on 
the  well-known  field  of  Arbela  (331  b.  c.),  the  destiny  of  the  empire 
was  sealed,  and  Darius,  whose  virtues  entitled  him  to  a  better  fate, 
shortly  afterwards  perished  by  assassination. 


THIRD  CENTURY  B.  C. 


95 


THIRD  CENTURY. 

Rome. — 280,  Pyrrhus.— 264,  First  Punic  War. — 256,  Regulus  in  Africa. — 
218,  Second  Punic  War.— 216,  Cannae. — 202,  Zama. 

Greece. — 280,  Achaean  League. — 279,  Gallic  Invasion. — 226,  Cleomenes.— 
206,  Philopoemen. 

Macedon. — 294,  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. — 286,  Lysimachus. — 221,  Philip  V. 
Egypt. — 283,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. — 270,  Septuagint  Translation  of  the  He¬ 
brew  Scriptures. — 256,  Parthia — Arsaces. 

Inventions,  &c. — 269,  First  silver  money  coined  at  Rome. — 264,  The  Parian 
Chronicle. — 263,  Parchment. — 250,  Clepsydra. — 220,  Burning-glasses. 
Literature,  &c. — Euclid,  Archimedes,  Theocritus,  Manetho — Plautus,  d.  183. 

ROME. 

Pyrrhus,  280-275  b.  c. — After  subjugating  the  Latins  and  Samnites, 
the  Romans  turned  their  arms  against  the  Tarentines,  who,  unable  to 
defend  themselves,  applied  to  the  King  of  Epirus  for  assistance.  Taren- 
tum  was  a  Lacedaemonian  colony  of  the  eighth  century  b.  c.,  established 
at  the  same  period  with  many  other  towns  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
Italian  peninsula,  hence  called  Magna  Graecia.  These  cities,  which 
had  made  rapid  advances  in  wealth  and  power,  had  also  attained  some 
eminence  in  science,  literature,  and  philosophy.  Crotona  was  immor¬ 
talized  by  the  presence  and  instructions  of  Pythagoras,  to  whom  the 
real  system  of  the  universe  was  not  unknown ;  while  Herodotus  and 
Lysias  were  among  the  founders  of  Thurium.  The  Eleatic  school  of 
philosophy,  the  parent  of  so  much  genius  and  virtue,  was  first  formed 
in  Magna  Graecia,  where  history  and  poetry  were  cultivated  with  an 
ardour  worthy  of  their  birth.  The  celebrated  laws  of  Zaleucus  of  Locris 
continued  in  force  two  centuries ;  but  the  progress  of  the  Tarentines  in 
luxury,  which  led  to  their  ruin,  was  not  less  rapid  than  their  advances 
in  literature  and  refinement.  Involved  in  a  contest  with  the  Romans, 
they  demanded  the  aid  of  the  military  talents  of  Pyrrhus.  He  came  to 
their  assistance  with  30,000  men,  and  success  at  first  crowned  his  efforts 
on  the  fields  of  Heraclea  and  Asculum,  but  after  six  years  he  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  yield  to  the  ascendency  of  Rome.  Leaving  the  Tarentines  to 
their  own  resources,  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  where  he  perished 
by  an  unworthy  death,  272.  The  fall  of  their  capital  in  the  following 
year  decided  the  fate  of  Southern  Italy. 

Punic  Wars,  264  b.  c. — Seven  years  after  the  reduction  of  Magna 
Graecia,  the  First  Punic  War  broke  out,  and  Sicily  became  the  theatre 
of  the  earliest  struggle  between  Rome  and  Carthage.  Syracuse,  the 
capital  of  the  island,  was  of  Corinthian  origin, — the  most  celebrated  of 
all  the  cities  that  were  founded  by  the  Greeks.  It  had  reached  the 
height  of  political  and  literary  renown  about  a  century  previous  to  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Punic  Wars.  The  single  name  of  Archimedes 
would  have  immortalized  it.  Epicharmus  was  the  model  of  Plautus, 
and  Theocritus,  the  first  of  pastoral  poets,  has  been  closely  imitated  by 
Virgil.  So  great,  indeed,  was  the  estimation  in  which  learning  was 
held,  that  even  the  tyrant  Dionysius  was  its  patron,  and  a  competitor 
tor  its  envied  honours.  The  First  Punic  War  was  begun  in  defence  of 


96 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


an  act  of  flagrant  injustice,  and  to  protect  a  band  of  murderous  savages 
The  Mamertines,  a  mercenary  body  of  Italian  soldiers,  after  serving  n 
the  armies  of  Agathocles,  had  taken  forcible  possession  of  the  city  of 
Messana,  and  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword,  *280.  The  Syracusans 
and  the  Carthaginians  united  to  punish  them,  upon  which  the  terrified 
criminals  applied  to  the  Romans  for  support.  The  pretext  for  war  was 
eagerly  seized  on,  as,  independently  of  the  hatred  existing  between  the 
rival  republics,  it  was  necessary  to  remove  a  powerful  enemy  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Southern  Italy,  which  had  been  so  recently  conquered. 

Preliminary  Observations. 

The  defeat  of  Pyrrhus  and  the  subjugation  of  Magna  Greecia,  with  the 
definitive  submission  of  Samnium  and  Etruria,  had  reduced  beneath  the  Roman 
sway  all  Italy  from  the  Arno  to  the  Straits  of  Messina.  The  Roman  name 
began  to  attract  attention  and  to  be  treated  with  respect ;  the  constitution  was 
in  its  utmost  vigour ;  and  a  chain  of  military  colonies,  the  nurseries  of  hardy 
and  experienced  soldiers,  held  the  conquered  nations  in  awe  from  north  to  south. 
Such  was  the  state  of  Rome :  nor  was  that  of  Carthage  in  any  respect  inferior 
at  the  breaking  out  of  these  celebrated  wars — called  Punic ,  from  the  Po&ni.  or 
Phoenicians,  from  whom  the  Carthaginians  were  descended.  They  are  three 
in  number : — 

First,  264^241  b.  c.,  by  which  the  Carthaginians  were  compelled  to  evacuate 
Sicily  and  the  Italian  Isles.  They  suffered  still  more  by  the  total  exhaustion 
of  their  finances,  and  a  civil  commotion  of  three  years  and  a  half  (240-237), 
terminated  only  by  the  heroism  of  Hamilcar,  who  sought  the  aid  of  the  demo¬ 
cracy  against  the  power  of  the  senate. 

Second ,  218-202  b.  c.  Signalised  by  the  rivalry  of  Hannibal  and  Scipio.  The 
Romans  conquered  Spain,  and  Carthage  was  deprived  of  all  her  possessions 
out  of  Africa. 

Third ,  149-146  b.  c.  Scipio  iEmilianus,  surnamed  Africanus  II.,  took  and 
destroyed  Carthage. 

First  Punic  War,  264-241  b.  c. — The  great  obstacle  to  carrying 
on  this  war  was  the  want  of  a  fleet,  which  the  ingenuity  of  the  Romans 
soon  supplied  ;  and,  strange  to  relate,  in  the  first  naval  battle,  the  consul 
Duillius  defeated  a  nation  long  the  mistress  of  the  seas,  260.  Scipio 
expelled  the  Carthaginians  from  Corsica,  while  Regulus  transferred  the 
seat  of  war  from  Sicily  to  Africa,  where  he  was  defeated,  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  superior  skill  of  Xantippus,  a  Lacedaemonian  general. 
The  torments  inflicted  on  the  captive  are  said  to  be  imaginary,  and  were 
invented  solely  to  extenuate  the  Roman  cruelty  towards  their  prisoners, 
and  to  make  it  appear  an  act  of  retaliation.  After  various  successes,  in 
one  of  which  off  Drepanum  (Trapani)  the  Romans  lost  ninety  galleys, 
and  28,000  men  killed  or  made  prisoners,  the  Carthaginians  met  with  a 
signal  defeat  on  the  western  coast  of  Sicily,  which  terminated  the  war, 
241.  The  conditions  of  peace  were  the  surrender  of  that  island  and  the 
payment  of  2200  talents. 

The  temple  of  Janus  was  now  shut  for  the  first  time  since  the  reign 
of  Numa,  235  b.  c. 

Second  Punic  War,  218-202  b.  c. — The  issue  of  the  preceding  war, 
while  it  exalted  the  Roman  state  and  extended  its  influence  abroad, 
increased  also  the  power  of  the  senate.  Little  breathing  time  was 
allowed  to  this  warlike  people.  Their  powerful  navy  was  next  employed 
in  destroying  the  Illyrian  pirates  under  a  queen  called  Teuta;  and  thus, 
while  their  maritime  superiority  was  preserved,  their  first  political  rela¬ 
tions  with  Greece  were  formed.  A  dreadful  war  of  six  years  next 


THIRD  CENTURY  B.  C. 


97 


ensued  with  the  Transalpine  Gauls,  to  oppose  whom  was  levied  an 
army  said  to  amount  to  the  almost  incredible  number  of  700,000  infantry 
and  70,000  cavalry.  The  invaders  had  entered  Etruria  and  cut  to  pieces 
50,000  men  near  Clusium,- when  the  victory  near  Telamo  (225)  saved 
Rome.  Northern  Italy  was  soon  after  compelled  to  submit,  and  the 
conquest  of  Istria  and  Illyria,  in  219,  opened  the  way  to  Greece. 

This  war  had  scarcely  ceased  when  the  Romans  were  called  upon  to 
defend  their  country  against  one  of  the  most  remarkable  generals  of 
ancient  times.  Hannibal  was  the  swTorn  enemy  of  Rome,  even  from  his 
youth.  He  succeeded  in  the  command  of  the  army  in  Spain,  to  his 
father,  the  great  Hamilcar,  and  to  Hasdrubal,  Hamilcar’s  son-in-law. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-six,  he  captured  the  city  of  Saguntum  in  alliance 
with  the  Romans,  and  in  a  short  time  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
Peninsula.  A  second  war  between  the  twTo  nations  now  broke  out,  in 
which  Hannibal,  adopting  the  policy  of  the  enemy,  carried  the  war  into 
the  heart  of  their  country.  By  a  rapid  march  he  crossed  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Rhone,  and  the  Alps,*  and  with  little  more  than  30,000  men,  defeated 
the  consul  Scipio  at  the  Ticinus.  Again  at  the  Trebia  he  vanquished 
Sempronius ;  at  the  lake  Trasimenus  he  routed  Flaminius;  and  so 
eagerly  were  the  combatants  engaged  that  a  great  earthquake,  which 
overthrew  many  cities  in  Italy,  was  by  them  quite  unperceivecL  At  the 
great  battle  of  Cannae,  216,  he  was  again  victorious,  and  left  70,000  of 
the  enemy  dead  on  the  field.  This  triumph  threw  all  the  south  of  Italy 
into  his  hands;  but  Rome  was  too  powerful  to  be  overthrown  even  by 
such  a  terrible  reverse.  While  the  Carthaginian  army  was  wintering 
in  the  luxurious  Capua,  the  senate  was  occupied  in  raising  new  troops, 
conciliating  allies,  and  carrying  on  a  successful  war  in  Sicily,  Spain, 
Sardinia,  and  Greece.  Marcellus  inflicted  two  severe  checks  upon  Han¬ 
nibal  near  Nola,  and  the  latter,  shortly  after,  while  menacing  Rome, 
lost  Capua  and  Tarentum,  209.  His  brother  Hasdrubal,  marching  to  his 
assistance  with  60,000  men,  was  worsted  and  slain  near  the  Metaurus ; 
and  after  keeping  possession  of  Italy  fifteen  years,  during  which  neither 
money  nor  assistance  reached  him  from  home,  he  was  recalled  to  oppose 
the  armies  of  Scipio.  The  fate  of  Carthage  was  sealed  at  Zama,  where 
Hannibal  was  defeated.  Rigorous  terms  of  peace  were  imposed  on  the 
vanquished  city  :  all  her  foreign  possessions  were  to  be  given  up, — her 
munitions  and  ships  of  war  to  be  surrendered,  —  a  tribute  of  10,000 
talents  to  be  paid  in  fifty  years,  and  she  was  bound  to  engage  in  no  war 
without  the  consent  of  Rome,  202  b.  c. 

Hannibal,  on  his  return,  was  placed  as  supreme  magistrate  at  the 
head  of  the  republic  ;  and  so  great  were  the  reforms  he  introduced  into 
the  finances,  that  ten  years  had  scarcely  elapsed  before  Carthage  was 
enabled  to  furnish  at  once  the  whole  of  the  tribute  which  she  had 
engaged  to  pay  by  instalments.  The  Barcine  faction  to  which  he  be¬ 
longed  was  dominant;  that  of  Hanno  was  powerless.  Already  he 
meditated  a  vast  confederacy  of  the  world  against  Rome,  when  he  was 
demanded  by  her  ambassadors.  Compelled  to  flee  from  his  native 

*  Hannibal’s  inarch  across  the  Alps  has  called  forth  nearly  a  hundred  different  accounts. 
The  most  probable  routes  are  those  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  Mount  Genevre,  or  Mount 
Cenis.  The  dissertation  of  Messrs.  Cramer  and  Wickham  appear  to  prove  that  the  first 
must  claim  the  honour  of  Hannibal’s  passage.  The  reader  will  smile  at  the  account  of 
the  softening  the  rocks  by  the  joint  action  of  fire  and  vinegar,  or  esteem  it  an  extra 
vagant  metaphor,  expressive  of  the  ardour  and  impetuosity  of  the  invading  army. 

9 


98 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


country,  he  took  refuge  with  Antiochus  of  Syria;  he  afterwards  retired 
to  Crete,  and  then  to  Bithynia,  where,  finding  that  Prusias  the  king  was 
about  to  betray  him  to  his  enemies,  he  took  poison,  of  which  he  died, 
183  b.  c.,  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age.  About  the  same  period  Scipio,  his 
great  rival,  expired  in  retirement  at  Linternum. 

The  conquest  of  Magna  Grtecia,  and  the  intercourse  with  Sicily,  brought 
Rome  into  contact  with  the  philosophy  and  literature  of  Greece  at  a  period 
when  they  had  reached  their  highest  perfection.  A  rapid  and  almost  unparal¬ 
leled  improvement  was  the  consequence.  An  immediate  change  took  place  in 
the  language  ;  its  barbarisms  suddenly  disappeared,  and  Latin  became  a  com¬ 
paratively  polished  tongue.  The  power  of  Rome  was  also  greatly  increased  by 
the  result  of  the  Punic  War.  Her  dominion  extended  over  foreign  countries, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Carthaginian  navy  left  her  without  a  rival  on  the  sea. 
She  had  now  become  also  a  great  military  republic,  and  began  henceforward 
to  aspire  to  universal  dominion, — an  object  rendered  easier  by  the  degeneracy 
of  the  people  in  foreign  states. 

State  of  Europe  and  Asia  at  the  end  of  the  First  Funic  War. 

The  Roman  dominion  and  influence  prevailed  from  the  north  to  the  south 
of  Italy,  in  Sicily,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  on  all  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
and  began  to  be  felt  also  in  Greece  and  in  the  East.  At  this  epoch  there  were 
only  three  powers  capable  of  making  a  vigorous  resistance  against  the  con¬ 
querors  of  Carthage.  These  were — 

1.  Greece,  in  which  these  various  nations  still  formed  a  strong  barrier  :  The 
fierce  JEtolians .  the  members  of  the  Achcean  League ,  and  the  Boeotians. 

2.  Macedonia,  defended  by  its  lofty  mountains,  and  formidable  on  account 
of  its  courageous  and  active  population. 

3.  Syria ,  the  most  powerful  of  the  kingdoms  which  rose  upon  the  ruins  of 
Alexander’s  empire  ;  but  the  kings  posterior  to  Seleucus  passed  an  effeminate 
life;  the  example  spread  from  the  court  to  the  army,  and  even  the  Romans 
were  tainted  by  it  during  their  war  with  Antiochus. 

Prepare  :  Map  of  the  Roman  dominions. 

Trace  :  Rout  of  Hannibal  and  his  campaigns  from  the  siege  of  Saguntum 
till  he  quitted  Italy. 

GREECE  AND  MACEDON. 

The  extensive  ank  rapid  victories  of  Alexander  terminated  in  the 
murder  of  all  his  family,  and  the  usurpation  of  his  throne.  The  battle 
of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia  decided  the  fate  of  the  various  competitors.  Mace- 
don  fell  to  the  share  of  Cassander,  but  he  enjoyed  his  sovereignty  only 
three  years ;  and  he  was  shortly  after  followed  to  the  tomb  by  Philip, 
his  successor.  The  two  remaining  sons  disputed  the  throne,  when 
Antipater  murdered  his  own  mother  Thessalonice,  for  the  partiality  she 
manifested  towards  his  younger  brother.  Each  now  applied  to  foreign¬ 
ers  for  help :  Antipater  to  his  father-in-father  law  Lysimachus  of 
Thrace,  and  Alexander  to  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  by  whom  he  was 
shortly  afterwards  put  to  death.  The  army  proclaimed  Demetrius  king, 
and  in  his  person  the  house  of  Antigonus  ascended  the  throne  of  Mace¬ 
donia.  His  seven  years’  government  was  a  constant  series  of  wars; 
and  being  dethroned  by  Pyrrhus,  he  died  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  his 
son-in-law  Seleucus,  283  b.  c.  Lysimachus  of  Thrace  expelled  the 
ruler  of  Epirus  after  a  brief  reign  of  one  year ;  but  he  was  soon  involved 
in  a  war  with  Seleucus  Nicator  in  wdiich  he  lost  his  life,  281.  The 
monarch  of  Asia  nowr  assumed  the  title  of  kino-  of  Macedonia  ;  but 

o 

shortly  after  he  had  crossed  over  to  his  new  dominions,  he  fell  !y  the 


THIRD  CENTURY  B.  C. 


99 


nand  of  Ceraunus,  brother  of  the  Egyptian  sovereign.  The  assassin 
’.ad  scarcely  secured  the  throne  before  he  lost  his  life  in  battle  against 
the  invading  Gauls,  279.  Antigonus  Gonatas,  son  of  Poliorcetes,  who 
now  assumed  the  vacant,  throne,  was  deposed  by  Pyrrhus  ;  but  after  his 
death,  he  recovered  his  dominions,  which  he  and  his  family  possessed 
until  the  Roman  conquest.  He  died  in  his  eightieth  year,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  his  son,  Demetrius  II.,  243.  Philip  V.  ascended  the  throne 
after  the  usurpation  of  Doson,  221.  At  the  early  age  of  sixteen  he 
displayed  many  of  tiie  qualities  that  form  a  great  prince;  he  participated 
in  the  war  between  the  htltolian  and  Achaean  leagues;  and  ratified  a 
treaty  with  Hannibal  against  the  Romans.  Many  things  concurred  to 
prevent  both  parties  from  acting  upon  this  agreement,  and  finally  a 
general  peace  was  concluded  in  204. 

During  this  century  the  Gauls  or  Celts,  who  had  established  them¬ 
selves  in  Pannunia  300  years  before,  threatened  Greece  with  invasion. 
Two  expeditions  were  unsuccessful,  but  the  third,  under  Brennus  II., 
overran  Macedonia,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Delphi,  where  a  dreadful 
storm  having  thrown  their  army  into  confusion,  they  were  attacked  and 
routed  by  the  Greeks.  Another  party,  continuing  their  march  towards 
the  East,  supported  the  claims  of  Nicornedes  to  the  throne  of  Bithynia, 
and  settled  in  the  province  called  from  them  Galatia,  or  Gallo-Graecia. 

Athens,  on  the  death  of  Alexander,  made  some  vain  endeavours  to 
recover  her  liberty,  which  ended  in  the  imposition  of  a  more  grievous 
yoke.  To  regain  their  freedom  the  cities  of  Achaea  revived  the  ancient 
confederacy,  named  the 

Ach-«an  League,  —  a  union  of  several  small  republics  in  Achaia, 
bound  together  on  the  footing  of  perfect  equality.  Their  constitution 
was  so  renowned  as  to  be  adopted  by  several  other  Grecian  cities.  This 
coalition  was  dissolved  in  the  commotions  subsequent  to  the  death  of 
Alexander.  In  280,  it  was  partially  revived,  but  did  not  become  formi¬ 
dable  till  the  accession  of  foreign  states  (243-229).  Many  great  names 
appear  in  connexion  with  it ;  such  as  the  virtuous  Aratus,  Philopcemen, 
and  Lycortas.  The  Romans  endeavoured  to  excite  quarrels  between 
the  different  members,  with  the  view  of  checking  their  rising  power;  yet 
Philopcemen,  the  last  of  the  Greeks ,  maintained  their  dignity,  at  the  very 
time  when  the  Romans  presumed  to  speak  as  arbitrators.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Messenians,  and  poisoned  at  the  age  of  seventy; 
and  the  venal  Callicrates  who  could  hear  unmoved  44  the  very  boys  in 
the  streets  taunt  him  with  treachery,”  became  his  successor.  The 
conquest  of  Macedonia  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  Achaean  League. 
Above  1000  of  the  most  eminent  members  were  summoned  to  Rome, 
167,  and  kept  in  prison  seventeen  years  without  a  hearing;  and  when  at 
length  they  were  allowed  to  return  home,  they  excited  a  war  against 
the  common  enemy.  Their  heroic  efforts  proved  vain  against  dishonesty 
within  and  the  powerful  arms  of  Rome  without.  With  the  taking  of 
Corinth  vanished  the  last  hopes  of  Grecian  independence,  and  under 
the  title  of  Achaia  the  country  lost  even  its  name,  146  b.  c. 

EGYPT. 

The  Ptolemies. — Ptolemy  I.,  323  b.c.,  the  son  of  Lagus  and  sup¬ 
posed  brother  of  Alexander,  was  governor  of  Egypt,  which  title  he 


100 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


changed  for  that  of  king  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  301.  He  wished  to 
form  a  state  on  the  model  of  Greece,  and  with  that  design  beautified 

'  O 

Alexandria,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  its  celebrated  library.  His 
empire  increased  every  day  in  wealth,  learning,  and  civilisation.  It  is 
said  of  him  that  he  never  went  to  war  without  neceSvsity,  and  that  he 
was  always  successful.  He  was  named  Soter  (Deliverer)  by  the  Rho¬ 
dians,  whom  he  had  protected  against  the  attacks  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes,  304.  His  son,  the  second  of  the  name,  who  had  ascended  the 
throne  in  286  as  joint-king,  became  sole  monarch  two  years  after.  It 
was  in  irony  that  he  was  styled  Philadelphus,  having  put  one  brother  to 
death  and  banished  another.  In  the  patronage  he  bestowed  upon  learn¬ 
ing,  he  excelled  even  his  father :  at  his  court  were  entertained  the 
astronomer-poet  Aratus;  the  grammarians  Aristophanes  and  Aristarchus  ; 
Theocritus,  and  Lycophron  the  celebrated  commentator;  the  historian 
Manetho;  the  mathematicians  Conon,  Euclid,  and  Hipparchus;  Calli¬ 
machus  and  Zenodotus,  the  latter  famous  for  his  notes  on  Homer.  By 
his  order  the  Septuagint  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  was  pre¬ 
pared  ;  the  lighthouse  of  the  Pharos  erected ;  and  the  canal  between  the 
Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  cleared  out.  Ptolemy  III.,  246,  trod  in  the  steps 
of  his  father  and  grandfather ;  his  grateful  subjects  styled  him  Euergetes 
(the  Benefactor).  Before  his  death  in  221,  his  government  extended  to 
Cyrene,  as  well  as  over  Ccele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  Lycia,  Caria,  and 
Cyprus  in  the  north.  Egypt  was  singularly  fortunate  in  having  three 
great  kings  in  succession.  The  change  which  ensued  was  produced  in 
the  natural  course  of  events,  for  it  was  impossible  that  a  prosperous  court 
should  remain  untainted  by  luxury.  Ptolemy  IV.  Philopator,  a  de¬ 
bauched  and  cruel  monarch,  was  ruled  by  crafty  favourites,  who  like¬ 
wise  endeavoured  to  maintain  their  power  during  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  the  youthful  Ptolemy  V.  surnamed  Epiphanes ;  but  the  nation, 
to  avoid  the  dangers  impending  from  the  attacks  of  the  Macedonian  and 
Syrian  monarchs,  intrusted  the  regency  to  the  senate  of  Rome,  202. 

The  internal  government  of  Egypt  appears  latterly  to  have  been  in  most 
respects  similar  to  that  of  ancient  times.  The  division  into  nomes  continued  ; 
the  regal  power  was  limited ;  the  priestly  caste  with  their  ancient  forms  of 
religion  still  existed.  Under  Ptolemy  II.  Egypt  was  inferior  to  Rome  alone. 
Theocritus,  probably  with  the  exaggeration  of  a  poet,  speaks  of  its  33,000 
citjes ;  at  all  events,  it  was  the  greatest  mercantile  nation  then  existing.  By 
its  caravans  and  its  fleet  of  merchant-ships,  it  collected  in  its  warehouses  the 
silks  and  spices  of  India,  the  purple  of  Phoenicia,  the  precious  metals  of  Spain 
and  Thrace,  and  the  ivory  of  Ethiopia.  The  revenue,  without  including  the 
corn-tax,  which  was  paid  in  kind,  amounted  to  14,800  silver  talents  (about  four 
millions  sterling). 

Consult :  Sharpe’s  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies. 

PARTHIA 

Lies  between  Media  and  Aria,  southward  from  Hyrcania.  The 
tyranny  of  the  Syrian  viceroy,  Agathocles,  drove  the  inhabitants  into 
rebellion.  Arsaces,  by  his  military  talents,  raised  himself  to  power, 
and  with  him  begins  the  numerous  family  of  the  Arsacidae,  256  b.  c. 
The  Euphrates,  the  Indus,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  soon  became  the  boun¬ 
daries  of  the  kingdom,  remarkable  in  history  for  little  more  than  its 
obstinate  wars  against  the  Romans,  in  one  of  which  Crassus  was 
defeated  and  killed,  53  b.  c.  His  death  was  avenged  some  years  after- 


SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 


101 


wards  by  the  consul  Ventidius;  but  Julian  the  Apostate,' despising  the 
lessons  of  experience,  invaded  the  country  and  perished  with  a  numerous 
army.  The  regal  power  was  extinguished  by  the  Sassanides,  a.  d.  226. 

This  empire  was  divided  into  satrapies,  and  contained  several  small 
tributary  kingdoms,  with  some  Grseco-Macedonian  settlements.  The 
constitution  was  monarchical  and  aristocratic.  The  supremacy  of  the 
Parthians,  a  people  jealous  of  all  strangers,  interrupted  the  commerce 
between  the  East  and  West,  until  a  new  route  was  opened  by  Palmyra 
and  Alexandria. 


SECOND  CENTURY. 

Rome. — 197,  Battle  of  Cynoscephalae. — 190,  Defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great. 
— 168,  Battle  of  Pydna. — 146,  Corinth  and  Carthage  burnt. — 133,  Fall  of 
Numantia. — 133  and  121,  Gracchi. — 111,  Jugurthine  War.— 102,  Cimbric 
War. 

JuDiEA. — 166,  Judas  Maccabaeus. — 130,  Independent. — 106,  Aristobulus. 
Inventions,  &c. — 190,  Pumps  by  Hero  of  Alexandria. — 142,  Precession  of 
Equinoxes,  Latitude  and  Longitude,  Spherical  Trigonometry,  by  Hipparchus. 
Literature. — Polybius,  Aristarchus,  Bion  and  Moschus,  Ennius,  Terence. 

ROME. 

Macedon  reduced. — The  fortunate  conclusion  of  the  Second  Punic 
War  had  inspired  the  Romans  with  a  desire  of  subjugating  the  world. 
Hostilities  were  declared  against  Philip  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
tribunes,  and  the  artful  Quintius  Flamininus  was  sent  against  him. 
Much  political  ingenuity  was  displayed  by  these  two  commanders,  but 
at  length  Quintius  succeeded  in  gaining  over  the  Achaean  League, 
assisted  by  whose  cavalry  he  utterly  routed  his  antagonist  at  the  battle 
of  Cynoscephalae,  197  b.  c.  The  treaty  which  followed,  besides  con¬ 
fining  the  king  to  the  boundaries  of  Macedon,  imposed  a  tribute  of  1000 
talents,  and  stipulated  for  the  surrender  of  his  fleet,  as  well  as  for  the 
reduction  of  his  army  to  500  men.  Roman  commissioners  now  filled 
the  country ;  but  the  troops  were  not  withdrawn  from  the  states  which 
had  been  declared  free  at  the  national  festival  of  the  Isthmian  games. 

Syrian  War. — Antiochus  III.  of  Syria  was  the  only  remaining  enemy 
in  any  degree  formidable  to  the  Romans.  His  dominions  extended  from 
the  east  of  Persia  to  Asia  Minor,  and  he  was  meditating  the  conquest 
of  Egypt,  when  the  Roman  intervention  was  solicited  in  favour  of 
Ptolemy  V.  Some  time  after,  Antiochus  undertook  to  reduce  Caria  and 
Lydia,  and  had  crossed  the  Hellespont  to  seize  on  the  Thracian  Cher¬ 
sonese.  At  this  time  Hannibal,  who  had  fled  to  him  for  refuge,  offered, 
at  the  head  of  10,000  men,  to  transfer  the  war  to  Italy.  Had  this  pro¬ 
posal  been  adopted,  the  result  of  the  contest  might  have  been  different. 
To  avert  the  impending  danger,  Rome  gained  over  to  her  interest 
Eumenes  of  Pergamus,  whose  fears  had  been  excited  by  the  power  of 
Antiochus.  The  vanity  of  the  Greeks  was  flattered  more  than  ever ; 
Philip  of  Macedon  was  easily  won  over ;  and  the  fidelity  of  the  Boeo¬ 
tians  and  Achaeans  was  assured.  The  importance  attached  to  this  war 
9* 


102 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


was  such,  that  the  consul  Cornelius  forbade  the  senators  to  be  absent 
from  Rome  more  than  one  day  at  a  time. 

Antiochus  commanded  his  army  in  person.  He  had  been  led  to  expect 
that  all  Greece  would  rise  at  his  approach,  but  he  was  joined  by  only 
two  or  three  of  the  smaller  tribes.  At  Thermopylae,  Cato,  by  a  bold 
movement,  gained  the  passage  defended  by  the  Syrian  army,  which  was 
utterly  routed,  Antiochus  himself  scarcely  halting  until  he  reached  the 
Asiatic  continent,  191.  His  rear  was  closely  pressed  by  the  Roman 
legions,  under  the  command  of  L.  Scipio,  whose  brother,  Africanus,  was 
then  serving  as  his  lieutenant.  The  defeat  at  Magnesia  in  190,  for  ever 
broke  the  power  of  the  Syrian  empire,  and  the  conditions  of  peace 
included  the  evacuation  of  Asia  Minor,  the  surrender  of  Hannibal,  and 
the  payment  of  15,000  talents.  The  king  perished  in  attempting  to 
plunder  the  temple  of  Elymais  in  Persia,  187  b.  c. 

Syria  remained  a  separate  kingdom  many  years,  and  the  throne  was 
frequently  an  object  of  violent  contention,  until  Pompey  having  defeated 
Mithridates  and  Tigranes,  subdued  Antiochus  XI.,  and  reduced  the  coun¬ 
try  to  a  Roman  province,  65  b.  c. 

Perseus. — Fresh  disputes  arose  with  Macedon,  but  war  did  not  break 
out  until  172.  The  two  sons  of  Philip  were  Demetrius  and  Perseus, 
the  former  of  whom  had  been  sent  as  a  hostage  to  Rome.  The  policy 
of  the  senate  succeeded  in  attaching  this  vouth  to  the  Roman  interest, 
with  the  view  of  causing  a  disunion  between  the  brothers.  Hence 
Demetrius  had  hardly  returned  to  Macedon  before  he  was  accused  of 
endeavouring  to  assassinate  Perseus.  Philip,  who  had  allowed  him¬ 
self  to  be  prejudiced  against  his  son,  ordered  him  to  be  put  to  death, 
and  died  himself  some  time  after  under  the  tortures  of  a  guilty  con¬ 
science.  To  ascend  the  throne  by  the  murder  of  a  prince  befriended  by 
Rome,  was  almost  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  against  the  repub¬ 
lic.  But  all  the  efforts  of  Roman  policy  were  required  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  a  powerful  confederacy  in  the  East.  A  deceitful  truce  was 
resorted  to  for  gaining  time ;  and  at  first  the  war  was  favourable  to 
Perseus.  At  length,  wearied  by  the  slow  progress  of  hostilities,  and 
contrary  to  their  usual  custom,  the  republicans  sent  an  old  general, 
Paulus  iEmilius,  against  him.  The  bloody  and  decisive  battle  near 
Pydna,  168  b.  c.,  showed  how  easily  a  kingdom  may  be  overturned 
which  has  only  an  army  for  its  support.  Perseus,  after  being  led  in 
triumph,  was  starved  in  prison :  Macedonia  was  now  divided  into  four 
governments ;  and  the  inhabitants  were  forbidden  to  marry,  or  to  pur¬ 
chase  property  out  of  their  district,  under  pain  of  death.  Their  gold¬ 
mines  were  no  longer  to  be  worked,  all  commerce  with  foreigners  was 
prohibited,  and  as  if  to  insult  the  unfortunate,  they  were  declared  free. 
An  adventurer,  Andriscus,  pretending  to  be  the  son  of  Perseus,  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  disaffected  ;  but  he  was  overcome  by  Metel- 
lus,  and  the  native  country  of  Alexander  submitted  finally  to  the  arms 
of  Rome,  146  b.  c. 

Conquest  of  Greece. — The  Greeks  perceived  when  too  late  the  error 
they  had  committed  in  demanding  Roman  aid  against  Macedon.  The 
members  of  the  Achaean  league  still  made  head  against  the  ambitious 
barbarians,  but  their  utmost  efforts  and  heroism  proved  vain.  At  Ther¬ 
mopylae,  and  again  at  the  Isthmus,  the  fortune  of  Italy  prevailed. 
Corinth  was  taken  by  Mummius,  who,  after  countenancing  the  most 


SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C.  ^  103 

revolting  cruelties,  burnt  the  city  to  the  ground,  146.  Greece  now  also 
became  a  tributary  province  under  the  name  of  Achaia. 

Third  Punic  War. — This  war  originated  in  domestic  faction.  Cato, 
envious  of  the  great  influence  possessed  by  Scipio  Nasica  in  the  senate, 
was  offended  by  the  coldness  with  which  he  had  been  received  as 
ambassador  at  Carthage ;  and  the  disputes  with  Masinissa  were  made 
the  pretext  for  hostilities,  149.  The  Romans,  after  claiming  all  their 
ships  of  war,  ordered  the  Carthaginians  to  quit  their  city,  and  build 
another  in  the  interior.  So  imperious  a  command  was  not  obeyed ; 
despair  furnished  them  with  arms ;  the  women  cut  off  their  hair  to 
weave  cordage  for  the  ships,  and  gave  their  ornaments  as  a  contribution 
towards  the  defence  of  their  country.  During  three  years  the  devoted 
city  held  out;  but  at  length  the  younger  Scipio  ^Emilianus  obtained  a 
footing  within  its  walls.  For  six  days  more  the  inhabitants  maintained 
an  obstinate  resistance, —  every  inch  of  ground  was  defended  with 
desperation ;  and  in  the  end,  setting  fire  to  the  town,  they  perished  in 
the  ruins.  Seventeen  days  the  conflagration  continued,  and  the  con¬ 
queror,  it  is  said,  wept  at  the  dreadful  sight.  Thus  perished  the  mis¬ 
tress  of  the  sea,  the  most  formidable  rival  of  Rome,  146  b.  c.  The 
city  was  more  than  twenty  miles  in  circumference,  contained  700,000 
inhabitants,  and  its  wealth  may  be  estimated  by  the  plunder  collected 
by  Scipio,  amounting  to  ^61,500,000.* 

Spanish  War. — In  Spain,  also,  the  Roman  arms  had  proved  victo¬ 
rious.  This  region  was  originally  possessed  by  Celts  and  Iberians,  a 
brave  and  independent  race,  whose  descendants  still  survive  on  the 
shores  of  Biscay.  The  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver  excited  the  cupidity 
of  the  Romans,  but  so  courageously  was  the  country  defended,  that 
seventy  years  elapsed  ere  its  conquest  was  effected.  Carthage  had 
never  possessed  more  than  the  coast  and  Baetica;  the  interior  and  the 
west  were  protected  by  the  mountains  so  favourable  to  that  species  of 
warfare  in  which  the  Spaniards  excel.  The  contest  began  with  the 
revolt  of  the  Seditani,  200  b.  c.  They  were  soon  crushed ;  and  after 
three  years’  tranquillity  the  senate  was  alarmed  by  the  news  of  a  general 
insurrection,  and  the  defeat  of  the  praetor  Sempronius.  Cato  cruelly 
retaliated  by  destroying  400  towns  in  one  day ;  but  Paulus  ^Emilius, 
afterwards  so  famous  in  Macedon,  lost  6000  men,  whose  fate  he 
revenged  by  the  slaughter  of  20,000  Spaniards  in  the  following  year. 
Successive  battles  under  different  generals  took  place,  until  Sempronius 
Gracchus,  who  was  four  times  victorious,  concluded  a  favourable  treaty, 
179.  Other  successes  gained  by  Posthumius  compelled  the  Lusitanians 
to  lay  down  their  arms.  After  a  long  peace,  only  interrupted  by  two 
revolts  which  were  easily  quelled,  the  Celtiberians,  now  weary  of  inac¬ 
tion,  defeated  Calpurnius  Piso,  routed  A.  Fulvius  Nobilior,  with  the 
loss  of  6000  men,  and  destroyed  his  army  at  Numantia,  153.  Mum- 
mius,  and  the  consul  Marcellus,  were  scarcely  more  fortunate. 
Alarmed  by  such  repeated  misfortunes,  the  Romans  regarded  Spain  as 
the  tomb  of  their  legions.  The  victories  were  dearly  purchased  ;  men 
refused  to  be  enrolled  for  this  interminable  war  ;  and  the  province  would 
have  been  lost  but  for  the  courage  of  Scipio  iEmilianus,  son  of  Paulus 


*  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  city  of  Timbuctoo  may  have  been  founded  by  Car 
thaginians  who  escaped  from  the  conflagration  of  their  city. 


104 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


dBmilius,  and  adopted  grandchild  of  Scipio  Africanus.  Lucullus  ana 
Galba  were  unsuccessful  in  all  but  their  plans  to  enrich  themselves 
the  latter,  by  an  atrocious  massacre  of  30,000  unarmed  men,  made  the 
name  of  his  country  an  object  of  execration  throughout  the  Peninsula. 
A  shepherd,  named  Viriathus,  who  had  escaped  from  this  slaughter, 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  small  body  of  partisans.  The  fame  of  his 
exploits  having  brought  together  a  numerous  army,  he  defeated  the 
praetor  sent  against  him,  149  b.  c.  Four  generals  were  successively 
foiled  by  this  skilful  leader ;  but  the  temporizing  tactics  of  the  consul 
Fabius  iEmilianus  proved  a  match  for  him.  Metellus  Macedonicus 
restored  the  reputation  of  the  Roman  arms  in  Celtiberia ;  still  in  Lusi¬ 
tania,  Viriathus  defeated  a  new  proconsul,  and  afterwards  the  consul 
himself  near  Ituca.  The  exhaustion  of  both  parties  led  to  a  peace, 
most  humiliating  on  the  part  of  Rome,  which  was  only  a  snare,  as  the 
consul  Caepio  took  up  arms  as  soon  as  he  knew  that  the  allies  were 
separated  and  their  troops  disbanded.  Viriathus  still  resisted,  when  the 
invader,  unable  to  attain  his  ends  by  other  means,  corrupted  two  of  the 
officers  of  that  brave  commander,  who  assassinated  him  in  his  tent,  141 
b.  c.  With  his  death  ended  the  war  in  Lusitania,  only  to  break  out 
more  fiercely  in  Celtiberia ;  it  was  no  longer  confined  to  the  mountains, 
for  Numantia  became  the  second  terror  of  the  Romans.  The  consul 
Mancinus  was  beaten  in  every  encounter,  and  obliged  to  retreat  in  dis¬ 
grace,  after  concluding  an  ignominious  treaty,  which  the  senate,  ever 
unfaithful  in  such  cases,  refused  to  ratify.  Scipio  JEmilianus,  who  ten 
years  before  had  destroyed  Carthage,  was  nominated  to  conclude  this 
war.  He  blockaded  Numantia,  and  surrounded  it  with  a  double  line 
of  fortifications ;  the  one  to  repel  the  sallies  from  the  town,  the  other  to 
oppose  any  attempts  that  might  be  made  to  raise  the  siege.  At  last, 
reduced  by  famine  and  disease  to  a  very  small  number,  the  inhabitants 
set  fire  to  their  houses  and  perished  in  the  flames,  133  b.  c.,  upon  which 
the  Romans  took  possession  of  a  desolate  and  ruined  city. — The  reader 
•  will  not  fail  to  remark  the  extraordinary  perseverance  with  which  the 
Spaniards,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  history,  have  defended  their 
besieged  cities.  It  is  unnecessary  to  mention  more  than  three  names, — 
Saguntum,  Numantia,  and  Saragosa.  .  In  the  army  of  Scipio  were  two 
men  who  soon  after  became  very  celebrated,  Jugurtha,  grandson  of 
Masinissa,  king  of  Numidia,  who  commanded  a  body  of  auxiliaries, 
and  Marius  who  was  destined  to  vanquish  him. 

Conquest  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. — The  wars  between  the  Gauls  and 
Romans  were  at  once  sudden  and  destructive ;  and  the  senate  soon 
became  convinced  that  they  could  not  safely  leave  such  intrepid  enemies 
in  Upper  Italy.  These  barbarians,  discovering  the  error  into  which 
they  had  fallen  in  not  seconding  the  designs  of  Hannibal,  seized  on  a 
favourable  moment  for  reviving  the  war.  In  the  year  200  b.  c.,  when 
the  general  attention  was  directed  to  the  Macedonian  contest,  Rome 
was  alarmed  by  the  report  of  a  Gallic  tumult ,  for  that  was  the  name 
peculiarly  applied  to  such  invasions.  Hamilcar  was  at  the  head  of  the 
united  tribes,  who  took  the  town  and  colony  of  Placentia,  which  he 
burnt  to  the  ground.  Cremona  was  threatened  with  a  similar  fate, 
when  the  assailants  were  attacked  by  the  consular  army,  and  routed 
with  the  loss  of  35,000  men,  including  their  general.  Seventy  stand 
a^ds,  200  war-chariots,  and  all  the  booty  that  had  been  collected  ¥ 


SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 


105 


them,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors.  The  succeeding  years, 
marked  with  the  usual  alternations  of  success  and  defeat,  produced  an 
excessive  loss  of  life  on  both  sides  ;  the  Romans,  however,  gained 
ground,  owing  to  the  greater  regularity  with  which  they  pursued  their 
plans.  In  194  b.  c.,  a  more  vigorous  effort  was  made,  but  the  two 
consuls  were  obliged  to  return  unsuccessful.  The  population  of  Northern 
Italy,  meanwhile,  was  gradually  decreasing,  when  a  number  of  the 
more  influential  families  who  bore  the  Gallic  name,  submitted  to  the 
ronsuls  ;  one  of  whom,  Q.  Flamininus,  desirous  of  pleasing  a  young 
friend  who  had  accompanied  him  from  Rome,  smote  to  the  ground  and 
stabbed  a  noble  Boian  who  had  fled  to  him  for  safety.  Eight  years 
elapsed  before  he  was  punished  for  this  crime,  under  the  rigorous  cen¬ 
sorship  of  Cato. 

Many  generous  efforts  were  still  made  by  the  Brians,  although  dis¬ 
united ;  but  in  191  they  were  defeated  by  the  consul  Scipio  Nasica,  and 
lost  *20,000  men.  Proud  of  his  success,  he  committed  the  most  horrible 
ravages,  and  dared  to  boast,  when  claiming  the  honours  of  a  triumph, 
that  he  had  left  none  alive  of  the  Boian  race  except  the  old  men  and 
children.  Unable  any  longer  to  contend  against  a  cruel  enemy,  and 
too  proud  to  live  dependent  in  their  native  country,  they  crossed  the 
Norican  Alps  to  seek  a  refuge  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  in  the  year 
190  b.  c. 

Conquest  of  Liguria. — The  Gallic  and  Ligurian  insurrections  were 
the  great  military  schools  of  the  Roman  legions.  Livy  observes  that 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Boians,  the  Ligurians  appeared  reserved  by 
Providence  to  maintain  the  discipline  of  the  soldiers  during  the  intervals 
between  the  more  regular  wars.  Their  resistance  lasted  thirty  years, 
beginning  with  the  massacre  of  the  praetor’s  escort  in  189.  For  several 
seasons  the  two  consuls  were  sent  into  Liguria,  one  of  wrhom,  M.  Po« 
pilius  Laenas,  in  173,  besieged  Carystum,  which  surrendered  on  favour¬ 
able  conditions.  These  were  not,  however,  respected  ;  the  inhabitants 
were  deprived  of  their  arms,  their  city  was  destroyed,  themselves  sold 
as  slaves,  and  their  goods  put  up  to  auction.  Even  the  senate  was 
shocked  at  this  atrocious  conduct,  and  gave  orders  for  the  liberation  of 
the  people,  and  the  restoration  of  their  property.  Popilius  disobeyed 
the  decree,  and  preserving  his  command  as  proconsul  in  the  next  year, 
provoked  a  universal  rising  of  the  Ligurian  tribes.  The  indignation  at 
Rome  was  at  its  height,  and  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  with  the  con¬ 
currence  of  the  senate,  declared  that  if  on  the  first  of  August  there  re¬ 
mained  one  Statiellian  unliberated,  the  author  of  the  crime  should  be 
sought  opt  and  punished.  The  new*  consuls  replaced  Popilius,  and  he 
was  saved  from  the  menaced  judgment  by  intrigue  and  influence ;  yet 
he  had  massacred  20,000  innocent  persons  !  The  last  struggle,  which  • 
soon  afterwards  began,  continued  nearly  four  years.  Each  summer  two 
armies  and  two  consuls  w*ere  required,  in  the  words  of  Florus,  “to 
break  that  stone  on  wrhich  the  Roman  people  had  for  so  lono-  a  time 
sharpened  their  swords,”  163  b.  c. 

Istria,  which  had  been  conquered  in  221,  recovered  its  liberty  during 
the  Second  Punic  War,  but  it  was  again  reduced  under  the  yoke  of 
Rome  a  few  years  before  the  subjugation  of  Liguria.  One  circumstance 
alone  in  the  campaign  deserves  mention,  for  all  these  wars  against  the 
^dependent  tribes  of  Gallic  or  German  origin,  are  but  a  repetition  of 


106 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


similar  atrocities.  iEpulo  and  the  principal  Istrian  chiefs  had  been 
driven  from  place  to  place  until  they  took  refuge  in  the  strong  town  of 
Nesactum.  C.  Claudius  Pulcher  immediately  laid  siege  to  it.  and 
finding  himself  impeded  in  his  operations  by  the  river  Arsia,  which 
supplied  the  besieged  with  water,  succeeded  in  turning  it  into  a  new 
channel.  The  barbarians,  struck  with  terror  at  the  drying  up  of  the 
stream,  without  demanding  terms  of  surrender,  killed  their  wives  and 
children  on  the  ramparts  in  sight  of  the  enemy,  and  flung  them  over 
into  the  ditches.  In  the  midst  of  this  frioffitful  slaughter  the  Roman 

cj  O _ 

soldiers  scaled  the  wails  and  penetrated  into  the  city.  The  king  killed 
himself  with  his  own  sword  to  avoid  falling  alive  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy ;  the  survivors  surrendered  or  were  slain.  The  possession  of 
Istria  secured  the  dominion  over  the  Adriatic ;  while  the  conquest  of 
Sardinia  and  Corsica  gave  the  Romans  two  important  posts  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  former  island  was  reduced  by  Sempronius,  the 
father  of  the  Gracchi ;  and  so  great  a  number  of  captives  was  brought 
to  Rome  that  Sardi  venales  (Sardinians  for  sale)  became  a  proverb  to 
designate  any  considerable  quantity  of  articles  for  which  it  was  difficult 
to  find  purchasers. 

Internal  Condition  of  Rome. 

With  the  termination  of  those  great  wars,  which  may  be  said  to  have  com¬ 
promised  the  safety  of  Rome,  began  the  internal  dissensions  which  had  been 
suspended  in  the  presence  of  a  foreign  enemy ;  and  that  city,  now  become  the 
mistress  of  the  world,  was  doomed  to  be  torn  asunder  by  the  strife  of  rival 
factions. 

After  the  fall  of  Carthage,  the  people,  noble  and  plebeian,  enriched  by  the 
spoil  of  empires,  were  desirous  in  their  turn  to  taste  the  luxuries  of  the  East ; 
and  hence  an  unrestrained  voluptuousness  suddenly  appeared  in  the  city,  bring¬ 
ing  with  it  the  most  frightful  depravity.  In  many  of  the  nobler  minds  this 
seduction  commenced  with  the  externals  of  Greek  civilisation.  Scipio  Africa- 
nus,  in  particular,  affected  the  Athenian  manners,  and  thus  excited  the  indigna¬ 
tion  of  his  quaestor  Cato.  Flamininus,  Metellus,  iEmilius,  Fabius,  and  other 
patricians,  followed  the  example  of  Scipio  ;  and  to  defend  themselves  against 
the  assertors  of  the  ancient  manners ,  they  united  by  adoptions  and  intermar¬ 
riages,  and  thus  began  that  faction  which  so  long  controlled  the  senate  itself, 
and  endeavoured  to  take  away  many  of  the  popular  privileges.  Their  pride 
and  strength  may  be  gathered  from  the  defence  made  by  Fabius  in  behalf  of 
his  son-in-law,  who  had  been  declared  guilty  of  treason: — He  is  not  guilty,  for 
he  married  my  daughter.  Cato  alone  dared  to  resist,  and  attacked  their  chief, 
having  instigated  the  tribunes  to  summon  him  to  render  an  account  of  the 
various  sums  of  money  he  had  received.  The  result  of  this  struggle  is  unknown; 
but  it  appears  certain  that  Africanus,  after  momentarily  triumphing  over  the 
tribunitial  power,  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Linternum,  where  he  died. 

In  195  the  Roman  matrons,  displeased  with  the  severity  of  the  Oppian  law,* 
succeeded  in  procuring  its  abrogation  in  despite  of  the  exertions  of  Cato.  Ten 
years  after,  it  became  evident  that  the  intercourse  with  Greece  and  the  East 
had  introduced  into  Rome  many  dangerous  innovations.  Numerous  crimes, 
the  work  of  unknown  hands,  had  excited  terror  throughout  the  city,  when  the 
senate  discovered  that  an  obscure  superstition,  the  orgies  of  Bacchus,  had  been 
mysteriously  communicated,  and  that  this  worship,  whose  rites  were  prostitu¬ 
tion  and  the  murder  of  those  who  refused  to  submit  to  infamy,  already  counted 
numerous  partisans.  The  greatest  precautions  were  taken  to  convict  the 
criminals,  and  many  women,  who  had  been  initiated  into  these  disgraceftr 
mysteries,  were  secretly  put  to  death  in  their  own  houses. 


♦  By  the  Oppian  law  women  were  forbidden  to  wear  more  than  half  an  ounce  of  gold 
to  have  party-coloured  garments,  or  to  be  carried  about  in  any  city  or  town,  except  in 
the  case  of  certain  festivais. 


SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 


107 


The  last  effort  against  the  increasing  depravity  and  corruption  was  the 
nomination  of  Cato  to  the  censorship.  While  in  this  office  he  expelled  several 
members  of  the  senate,  and  among  others  the  Q.  Flamininus  mentioned  above. 
He  established  many  sumptuary  regulations ;  taxed  private  carriages,  and 
numerous  articles  of  dress  ;  cut  off  all  the  private  conduits  which  were  fed  by 
the  public  fountains ;  demolished  the  buildings  which  encroached  on  the  public 
way  ;  and  by  his  financial  changes  greatly  increased  the  revenues  of  the  state. 

Luxury  at  home  could  only  be  supported  by  injustice  abroad,  and  accordingly 
we  find  the  provinces  on  all  sides  appealing  to  the  senate  against  the  exactions 
of  their  governors.  The  Sicilian  deputies  said  they  would  rather  be  swallowed 
up  in  Etna  than  have  Marcellus  a  second  time  to  rule  over  them.  Spain,  from 
its  containing  silver  mines,  was  made  a  scene  of  plunder  by  its  numerous  prae¬ 
tors.  Greece  met  with  no  better  fate  ;  both  its  temples  and  private  houses 
being  pillaged.  When  Anicius  pacified  Epirus  and  Illyria,  150,000  of  the 
natives  were  sold  into  slavery,  and  all  their  cities  dismantled. 

A  thirst  of  distinction  appeared  among  the  great,  who  disdained  to  be  con¬ 
founded  in  the  crowd  of  their  fellow-nobles.  Victorious  generals,  assuming  the 
names  of  the  countries  they  had  subdued,  were  called  Africanus,  Asiaticus, 
Macedonicus,  and  such  like.  .  Public  offices  were  now  become  so  lucrative, 
that  the  higher  ranks  sought  them  with  avidity.  The  villian  law%  which  fixed 
the  age  at  which  these  could  be  filled ;  a  law  passed  in  181  against  the  corrupt 
practices  preceding  an  election  ;  the  consular  law  of  159  against  bribery, — were 
nugatory.  The  Sabinian  law  of  139  provided  for  the  purity  of  election.  Four 
new  tribunals,  under  the  name  of  Qucestiones  Perpetucc ,  were  established  to 
inquire  into  all  cases  of  extortion,  bribery,  or  peculation ;  but  the  judges  parti¬ 
cipated  in  the  disorders  which  it  was  their  duty  to  punish,  and  shamelessly  sold 
their  decisions. 

Before  the  various  public  offices  were  opened  to  the  plebeians,  there  had 
been  a  continual  and  frequently  a  bloody  struggle  between  the  patricians  and 
the  popular  leaders ;  but  the  plebeian  families,  which  became  illustrious  from 
the  stations  filled  by  their  members,  were  at  last  confounded  with  the  higher 
order,  and  formed  with  them  an  aristocracy  so  much  the  more  dangerous  as  it 
comprehended  many  whose  ancestors  had  long  contended  for  popular  privileges. 
The  plebeians  themselves  were  altered.  Decimated  by  continual  wars,  the 
plebs,  which  now  crowded  the  forum,  was  a  confused  medley  of  Italians  and 
freedmen  mingled  with  the  ancient  Romans,  who  had  lost  all  traces  of  their 
former  dignity  by  misery  and  association  with  those  whose  bodies  were  free, 
but  whose  minds  yet  retained  the  feelings  of  slaves.  Such  a  populace  was  little 
respected  or  feared  by  the  senate;  still,  so  long  as  external  enemies  remained 
to  be  encountered,  the  people  were  relieved  by  the  founding  of  numerous 
colonies.  In  197,  fifteen  hundred  families  were  settled  in  five  towns  of  Cam¬ 
pania  and  Etruria ;  three  years  later  six  new  colonies  were  formed  in  Lucania 
and  Bruttium ;  and  thirteen  others  bet  ween  192  and  175.  Gratuitous  distribu¬ 
tions  of  corn  were  made  at  Rome,  and  all  usury  was  forbidden  by  the  tribunes 

But  the  exertions  of  the  senate  were  not  the  less  directed  to  the  depression  of 
the  plebeian  influence  in  the  government.  In  176,  the  censors  confined  the 
populace  to  the  four  lowest  tribes  ;  and  eight  years  afterwards  one  of  these  four 
was  made  to  contain  all  whose  landed  possessions  were  not  of  the  value  of 
30.000  sesterces,  about  £240  sterling.  By  degrees  the  senators  usurped  the 
whole  executive  powers  of  the  government  ;  and  the  knights,  whom  they 
refused  to  consider  as  a  new  order,  were  their  sole  antagonists.  The  richest 
Romans  formed  this  class  which  was  open  to  nobles  and  plebeians,  provided 
they  were  possessed  of  the  requisite  pecuniary  qualification.  Placed  between 
the  senate  and  the  people,  the  Equites  or  Knights  meditated  a  separation  from 
both,  and  the  formation  of  a  distinct  order  in  the  state.  When  almost  too  late, 
the  senate  repented  of  their  alienation  from  this  powerful  intermediate  body. 

The  disorders  of  the  government  were  increased  by  the  defective  harvests  of 
144  and  143,  and  by  the  absence  of  all  colonization  during  more  than  thirty 
years,  beginning  with  168  b.  c.  The  only  resource  left  to  the  impoverished 
multitude  was  to  enter  the  service  of  the  patricians  or  of  the  wealthy  knights; 
but  these  classes  preferred  slave-labour,  and  besides,  the  example  of  Cato  had 


108 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


been  extensively  imitated ;  arable  land  was  generally  changed  into  pasturage 
as  being  more  profitable.  The  poor  were  now  reduced  to  the  alternative  of 
death  or  of  a  revolution  which  might  improve  but  certainly  could  not  asrgcravate 
their  condition. 

Servile  War,  134-131. — The  demands  of  the  people  were  preceded 
by  those  of  the  bondmen.  Slavery,  that  scourge  of  the  East,  had  been 
extended  over  all  Italy  by  the  conquests  of  the  Romans ;  for  those  who 
had  subdued  Greece  and  Carthage  disdained  the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 
Everywhere  slave-labour  had  replaced  that  of  the  freeman ;  and  the  land 
was  covered  with  an  infinite  number  of  those  unfortunate  wretches  whom 
war  had  deprived  of  their  liberty,  or  who  had  been  kidnapped  on  the 
coasts  of  Thrace  or  Asia  Minor.  As  has  been  ever  the  case,  the 
severity  and  cruelty  of  the  proprietors  increased  with  the  number  of 
their  victims.  This  led  to  a  revolt,  which  broke  <5ut  at  Tauromenium, 
headed  by  the  Syrian  Eunus,  a  pretender  to  the  gift  of  prophecy.  Four 
praetors  were  successively  defeated  by  these  armed  slaves,  whose  num¬ 
bers  soon  increased  to  *200,000.  At  last,  a  consul  was  sent  against 
them,  and  the  success  of  Rupilius,  aided  by  his  prudent  measures, 
terminated  a  revolt,  which,  if  it  had  spread  to  Italy,  might  have  com¬ 
promised  the  safety  of  Rome.  Had  the  slaves  within  the  city  acted  in 
concert  with  those  of  Sicily,  they  easily  would  have  crushed  their 
masters,  than  whom  they  are  said  to  have  been  ten  times  more 
numerous.* 

The  Gracchi. — The  revolt  of  the  slaves  menaced  the  existence  of 
the  state ;  while  the  revolution  attempted  by  the  Gracchi,  nearly 
depriving  the  nobles  of  the  power  they  had  usurped,  transferred  it  to 
the  hands  of  the  people.  The  horrible  scenes  enacted  in  the  battle-field 
were  now  to  be  repeated  in  the  streets  of  Rome;  and  we  see  the  just 
retaliation  upon  the  citizens  of  all  the  cruelties  they  had  inflicted  on  the 
conquered  nations.  A  warlike  people  are  usually  cruel,  blood-thirsty, 
and  ignorant  of  the  value  of  human  life.  Tiberius  Gracchus,  grandson 
of  Africanus,  distinguished  himself  in  Africa  and  in  Spain,  but  the 
senate  having  refused  to  sanction  his  treaty  with  the  Numantines,  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  populace,  and  was  elected  to  the 
tribunate.  The  deserted  condition  of  Italy,  which  he  had  witnessed  in 
his  way  to  Spain,  is  said  to  have  excited  him  to  put  an  end  to  a  state 
of  things  which  threatened  to  deprive  his  country  of  her  free  inhabi¬ 
tants,  and  replace  them  by  slaves.  His  project,  previously  entertained 
by  Laelius  the  friend  of  Scipio,  was  to  resume  the  public  lands,  leaving 
to  the  rich,  who  had  usurped  them,  500  acres  for  themselves  individual¬ 
ly,  and  250  for  each  of  their  children  ;  besides  which,  a  compensation 
was  to  be  made  for  the  portion  they  were  to  surrender,  that  it  might  be 


♦There  is  great  difficulty  in  calculating  the  amount  of  the  slave  population  in  the 
Roman  dominions.  Mr.  Blair,  in  his  valuable  treatise  on  “  Slavery  amongst  the  Ro¬ 
mans,”  estimates  that  before  the  fall  of  Corinth,  the  proportion  was  one  slave  to  every 
freeman,  and  from  that  period  to  Alexander  Severus,  as  high  as  three  to  one.  Many 
rich  individuals  counted  their  slaves  by  thousands.  Scaurus  possessed  upwards  of  8000  ; 
those  of  Crassus  formed  the  bulk  of  his  property.  Their  value  affords  a  curious  insight 
into  Roman  manners.  The  cook  of  Apicius  was  sold  for  .£772;  a  fool  or  jester  for 
jClfil  :9:2  ;  the  slave  actor,  rendered  famous  by  the  pleading  of  Cicero,  for  £1614:  li  :8. 
He,  as  well  as  a  good  physician,  a  scribe,  or  a  rhapsodist,  was  valuable  for  the  emolu¬ 
ments  he  brought  to  his  owner.  Death  was  a  frequent  punishment ;  on  one  occasion 
upwards  of  400  were  executed  because  they  had  not  prevented  the  murder  of  their  rnastt 
Whips,  thongs  of  bull’s  hide,  iron  collars,  and  such  instruments,  supplied  the  more  corn 
Dion  punishments. 


SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 


109 


distributed  in  equal  shares  among  the  indigent  citizens.  Octavius  the 
tribune  put  his  veto  upon  this  lenient  measure  of  Gracchus,  who  imme¬ 
diately  appealed  to  the  people  to  procure  the  dismissal  of  the  refractory 
magistrate.  The  agrarian  laws  were  then  carried,  and  proved,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  not  only  a  heavy  blow  to  the  senatorial  party,  but 
even  fatal  to  the  tranquillity  of  Rome.  Tiberius  w7as  accused  of  aiming 
at  the  sovereignty,  and  was  slain  together  with  300  of  his  partisans  by 
Scipio  Nasica  and  an  armed  body  of  the  senators;  but  although  others 
of  his  adherents  were  banished,  his  party  did  not  cease  to  be  formidable, 
as  it  comprised  nearly  the  whole  of  the  people.  The  partition  of  the 
lands  was  no  longer  opposed ;  and  Scipio  was  compelled  to  leave  the 
city,  which  he  never  again  revisited.  The  conqueror  of  Carthage,  sur- 
named  ^Emilianus,  was  chosen  to  carry  the  laws  into  execution,  but  he 
soon  became  unpopular,  T29  b.  c. 

Caius  Gracchus,  untaught  by  his  brother’s  fate,  pursued  the  same 
course  of  agitation.  Not  contented  with  reviving  the  laws  of  Tiberius, 
he  wished  to  extend  the  freedom  of  the  state  to  the  Italian  allies,  and 
thus  place  the  government  at  the  control  of  any  faction  that  could  meet 
in  sufficient  numbers  to  keep  possession  of  the  place  of  assembly.  He 
also  attempted  to  fix  a  maximum  price  on  corn,  ar.d  to  neutralize  the 
senate  by  the  addition  of  600  members.  Nor  w~ere  his  exertions  con¬ 
fined  to  legislative  changes :  he  re-established  several  colonies,  built 
public  granaries,  and  constructed  broad,  solid,  and  commodious  roads 
throughout  all  Italy.  His  authority  in  the  senate  was  almost  mon¬ 
archical  ;  for  beintr  admitted  to  their  deliberations,  he  was  often  con- 
suited.  His  absence  at  Carthage,  where  a  new  city  was  erecting, 
furnished  his  enemies  with  the  means  of  destroying  his  power.  Com¬ 
pelled  to  take  arms  in  self-defence,  he  with  nearly  3000  followers  perish¬ 
ed  in  the  streets,  121  b.  c.,  leaving  as  a  successor  C.  Marius,  formed  by 
birth  and  education  to  be  the  head  of  the  Roman  populace. 

Reflections. — The  revolution  attempted  bv  the  Gracchi  was  not  overcome, 
it  was  merely  retarded  ;  and  the  violence  with  which  the  nobles  opposed  the 
measures  of  the  reforming  party  was  soon  retaliated  upon  them.  The  consuls 
had  stood  aloof  during  the  contest :  the  faction  of  the  Great,  as  Sallust  calls  it, 
was  superior  even  to  the  senate.  The  laws  of  the  Gracchi  were  infringed  ;  the 
gratuitous  distribution  of  corn  from  the  public  granaries  was  much  limited;  and 
soon  the  agrarian  laws  themselves  were  repealed.  The  privileges  of  the  knights 
were  attacked  by  this  all-powerful  body,  which  between  the  years  121  and  107 
B.  c.  proscribed  all  the  new  men,  and  allowed  none  to  aspire  to  the  consulate  or 
the  curule  offices  who  did  not  belong  to  their  ranks.  Such  violence  provoked 
a  reaction,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  cruelties  of  Marius,  who  had  himself 
been  a  victim  of  the  faction.  He  had  been  raised  to  the  tribunate,  by  his 
patron  Metellus,  but  finding  himself  unable  to  contend  at  the  head  of  the 
people  against  the  nobles,  he  sought  elsewhere  the  credit  and  influence  which 
he  could  not  obtain  at  Rome.  He  was  appointed  the  qusestor  of  Metellus  in 
the  Jugurthine  War. 

Jugurthine  War,  111  b.  c. —  Jugmrtha  the  nephew7  of  Masinissa, 
havino-  seized  the  throne  of  Numidia  and  murdered  his  cousins,  human- 
ity,  not  less  than  policy,  compelled  the  Romans  to  assist  their  ancient 
ally,  and  the  usurper  vras  declared  a  public  enemy.  His  first  efforts 
were  successful,  more  by  the  influence  of  gold  than  the  force  of  arms; 
but  Metellus  first  drove  him  out  of  his  kingdom,  and  Marius,  w7ho  ter- 

10 


110 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


minated  the  war,  led  him  in  triumph  to  a  prison,  where  he  was  starved 
to  death,  106  b.  c. 

Consult:  Sallust’s  Jugurthine  War. 

Cimbric  War,  102  b.  c. — Scarcely  had  Marius  returned  from  Numidia, 
when  he  was  called  to  save  Rome  from  the  greatest  perils  she  had 
encountered  since  the  time  of  Hannibal.  The  Cimbri  and  the  Teutones , 
issuing  from  the  boundless  forests  of  the  North,  menaced  both  Gaul  and 
Italy  with  invasion.  The  Romans  marched  to  the  protection  of  their 
•province,  which  already  extended  along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Lyons 
from  the  Alps  to  the  Pyrenees.  Several  consular  armies  were  defeated, 
and  ruin  seemed  impending  over  the  capital  w’hen  Marius  was  elected 
consul.  This  elevation,  while  it  protected  Rome  from  enemies  without, 
served  only  to  expose  it  to  more  imminent  danger  from  within.  His 
consulate  was  prolonged  for  three  years,  during  which  time  he  brought 
his  army  into  the  strictest  discipline.  Embracing  a  favourable  oppor¬ 
tunity,  he  met  the  Teutones  at  Aquae  Sextiae  (Aix),  and  defeated  them 
with  terrible  slaughter,  102.  Hastily  recrossing  the  Alps,  he  attacked 
the  Cimbri  at  Vercellae ,  on  the  Sessites  (Sesia),  where  victory  declared 
in  his  favour,  and  140,000  of  the  enemy  lay  dead  on  the  plain,  101  b.  c. 

The  honours  which  Marius  received  for  this  triumph  prove  how  great 
was  the  consternation  at  Rome.  He  was  surnamed  the  Third  Romulus ; 
each  citizen  offered  libations  in  his  name ;  and  he  himself  compared  his 
exploits  to  those  of  Bacchus  in  his  Indian  campaigns.  The  conqueror 
signalized  his  first  government  by  a  very  remarkable  innovation.  Down 
to  this  period  the  proletars ,  who  constituted  the  lowest  tribes,  and  were 
exempted  on  account  of  their  poverty  from  all  contributions  to  the  state, 
had  never  been  admitted  into  the  Roman  armies.  Marius  enrolled  them ; 
and  these  men,  whose  only  means  of  support  had  too  frequently  been 
confined  to  the  charity  of  the  rich,  now  enjoyed  a  regular  pay,  and 
formed  part  of  the  military  force  of  the  nation.  Having  no  ties  to  their 
country,  they  soon  neglected  Rome  in  favour  of  the  chief  who  supplied 
them  with  booty,  and  from  this  moment  the  armies  ceased  to  belong  to 
the  republic. 

JUDiEA  AND  SYRIA. 

The  Maccabees. — Judaea  successively  acknowledged  the  supremacy 
of  Egypt  and  Syria;  and  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  301,  in  which  Antigonus 
fell,  threw  it  into  the  hands  of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  during  whose  reign  the 
high  priest  Simon  beautified  Jerusalem  and  surrounded  it  with  walls. 
It  suffered  severely  in  the  wars  of  Antiochus  the  Great  with  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  monarchs.  The  Syrian  king,  surnamed  Epiphanes,  restrained  by 
the  Romans  from  pursuing  his  conquests  in  Egypt,  revenged  himself  on 
Judaea,  took  the  capital,  slew  40,000  of  its  inhabitants,  and  led  an  equal 
number  into  captivity,  170  b.  c.  In  168,  he  issued  a  decree  of  extermi¬ 
nation  against  the  whole  Jewish  race,  which  was  acted  on  by  his  will¬ 
ing  minister  Apollonius.  The  streets  ran  with  blood,  the  city  was 
plundered,  and  as  the  ceremonies  of  their  religion  were  denounced,  they 
could  not  be  observed  without  danger.  He  next  enjoined  uniformity  of 
worship,  and  the  most  dreadful  penalties  were  inflicted  upon  those  who 
did  not  profess  the  Grecian  idolatry.  Two  mothers  were  thrown  from 
the  wall,  with  their  infants  at  their  necks,  for  having  complied  with  the 
commands  of  the  Mosaic  Law  ;  but  the  firmness  inspired  by  true  religion 


SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C. 


Ill 


was  never  more  strongly  exemplified  than  during  these  persecutions. 
Seven  brothers  were  brought  out,  and  condemned  to  witness  and  to  suffer 
in  their  mother’s  presence  such  tortures  as  the  heart  of  man  could 
scarcely  devise:  their  tongues  were  cut  out,  their  limbs  mangled,  the 
scalps  torn  from  their  heads,  before  they  were  consigned  to  the  boiling 
caldron  or  the  fire.  The  aged  father  himself,  for  Eieazar  had  passed  his 
90th  year,  went  cheerfully  to  the  torment,  u  to  set  an  example  to  youth 
how  to  die  for  the  honourable  and  holy  laws.”  But  when  longer  for¬ 
bearance  would  have  been  criminal,  a  race  of  heroes,  the  Maccabees,* 
arose,  by  whom  the  Syrians  were  driven  from  their  country,  166. 

The  enterprises  of  Judas  Maccabaeus  were  eminently  successful  : 
Apollonius,  the  governor  of  Samaria,  was  defeated  and  slain ;  as  was 
also  Seron,  satrap  of  Ccele-Syria.  Antiochus  hastily  prepared  to  quell 
the  insurrection,  and  a  numerous  army  was  accordingly  marched  into 
Judaea  under  the  command  of  Nicanor,  Gorgias,  and  Ptolemy  Macron. 
Maccabaeus,  unable  to  meet  such  an  overwhelming  force,  kept  his  troops 
in  the  mountains,  from  which  he  continually  harassed  the  enemy  by 
desultory  attacks.  At  last,  seizing  on  a  favourable  opportunity,  he 
utterly  routed  Nicanor,  divided  the  rich  spoils  of  his  camp  among  the 
soldiers,  and  sold  into  captivity  the  slave-merchants,  who,  calculating 
on  victory,  had  accompanied  the  invaders  to  purchase  their  prisoners. 
Two  other  victories  freed  Judaea  from  the  Syrians,  and  the  patriotic 
army  entered  their  deserted  capital.  The  holy  places  were  repaired  and 
purified,  public  worship  was  restored,  and  the  feast  of  the  dedication 
celebrated.  Thus  did  Judas  achieve  the  temporary  independence  of  his 
country,  and  rescue  his  nation  from  apparently  certain  destruction. 

Antiochus,  dying  in  164,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  surnamed  Eupa- 
tor,  who,  acting  under  the  advice  of  Lysias,  immediately  prepared  to 
make  war  on  Judaea.  The  Maccabees  resisted  bravely,  but  they  wTere 
forced  to  a  capitulation,  the  articles  of  which  were  instantly  violated, 
and  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  demolished.  Demetrius,  the  rightful  heir 
to  the  Syrian  crown,  now  appeared  and  defeated  his  rival,  who  perished 
with  his  counsellor  Lysias.  A  treacherous  policy  distinguished  the 
proceedings  of  Demetrius  towards  the  Jewish  people,  until  Judas  once 
more  took  up  arms  and  expelled  the  tyrant.  This  gallant  patriot,  after 
twice  defeating  Nicanor,  sought  to  strengthen  himself  by  a  Roman 
alliance ;  but  before  the  treaty  could  be  made  known,  the  Syrian  general 
Bacchides  entered  Palestine  with  so  strong  a  force  as  to  defy  all  oppo¬ 
sition.  Judas  disdained  to  flee,  and  encountering  the  invaders,  was 
overpowered  by  numbers,  when  he  fell  fighting  with  heroic  valour, 
“  and  all  Israel  made  great  lamentation  for  him,  and  mourned  many  days, 
saying,  How  is  the  valiant  man  fallen  who  delivered  Israel /”  161  k.  c. 

Jonathan,  his  younger  brother,  still  maintained  the  contest  of  inde¬ 
pendence,  and  was  eventually  successful,  becoming  master  of  the  coun¬ 
try  almost  without  a  blow.  By  a  treaty  with  Demetrius,  nominating 
him  high  priest,  he  united  both  the  civil  and  religious  authority,  and 

*  MaUathias,  a  rich  inhabitant  of  the  village  of  Modin,  offered  the  first  resistance 
to  the  tyranny  of  Antiochus  ;  and  when  his  age  and  infirm  health  were  no  longer  able 
to  support  the  harassing  mountain  warfare,  he  transferred  the  command  to  another  of 
the  Asmonean  family,  Judas,  his  third  and  bravest  son.  This  hero  bore  on  his  standard 
the  letters  M.  C.  C.  B.  J.  (Mi  Camo-Ca  Baalim  Jehovah  — Who  among  the  gods  is  like 
unto  thee,  O  Lord  ?).  and  hence  he  acquired  the  name  of  Maccabee. — See  Cotton’s  Five 
Books  of  the  Maccabees, 


112 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


was  the  first  of  the  Asmonean  princes.  After  a  pacific  reign  of  several 
years,  he  was  treacherously  seized  by  the  insurgent  Tryphon,  and 
cruelly  murdered,  143  b.  c.  His  funeral  was  conducted  with  great 
magnificence ;  and  his  sepulchre,  on  a  lofty  eminence,  became  a  sea¬ 
mark  to  the  mariners  sailing  along  that  coast.  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
Simon,  who  succeeded  his  brother  Jonathan,  was  the  reduction  of  the 
Syrian  garrison  on  Mount  Sion.  He  not  only  destroyed  the  citadel, 
but,  according  to  Josephus,  levelled  the  hill  on  which  it  stood,  so  that 
it  no  longer  commanded  the  temple.  Under  his  wise  administration 
the  country  prospered,  and  the  fields  were  cultivated  in  tranquillity. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John,  surnamed  Hyrcanus,  in  whose  time 
Judaea  was  annexed  to  Syria,  but  on  the  death  of  Antiochus  Sidetes,  in 
130,  its  independence  was  recovered,  and  its  territories  enlarged  by  the 
conquest  of  Samaria  and  Galilee.  Aristobulus,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  John  Hyrcanus,  in  106,  assumed  the  crown  and  the  title  of  king. 
During  his  short  reign  of  one  year,  he  starved  his  mother  to  death,  com¬ 
mitted  three  of  his  brothers  to  prison,  and  caused  the  fourth  to  be  assas- 
s;nated. 


FIRST  CENTURY. 

Rome. —  88,  Social  War. —  Mithridatic  War. —  Marius  and  Sylla. — 73,  Servile 
War. — 63,  Catiline’s  Conspiracy. — 60,  First  Triumvirate. — 48,  Pharsalia. — 
31,  Actium. — 30,  Egypt  a  Roman  province. — 27,  Augustus  Emperor. — a.  m. 
4004,*  Birth  of  Christ. 

JuDiEA. — 68,  Civil  War  between  Hyrcanus  II.  and  Aristobulus  II. — 63,  Jeru¬ 
salem  taken  by  Pompey. —  40,  Herod,  king  of  Judaea. —  29,  Murder  of 
Mariamne. 

Inventions,  &c. —  63,  Shorthand,  by  Cicero. —  60,  Flux  and  Reflux  of  the 
Tides,  by  Posidonius,  who  endeavours  to  measure  the  circumference  of  the 
Earth. —  45,  Calendar  reformed,  by  Caesar. —  6,  Lunar  Cycle  or  Golden 
Number. 

Literature,  &c. — Lucretius,  Catullus,  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid,  Cicero,  Caesar, 
Sallust,  Livy,  Vitruvius,  Nepos,  Tibullus,  Propertius,  Dionysius  of  Hali¬ 
carnassus,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo. 

ROME. 

Marius  and  Saturninus. — As  the  danger  of  barbaric  invasion  passed 
away,  the  gratitude  of  the  people  became  less  intense,  and  when  Marius 
was  a  sixth  time  candidate  for  the  supreme  honours,  he  was  warmly 
opposed  by  the  senate  and  their  favourite  Metellus  Numidicus.  To 
remove  this  last,  it  was  necessary  that  Saturninus,  a  seditious  dema¬ 
gogue,  should  be  chosen  tribune ;  to  effect  which,  a  league  was  formed 
between  him,  Marius,  and  the  praetor  Glaucia,  a  man  of  depraved  cha¬ 
racter.  They  resolved  to  obtain  their  ends  by  violence,  should  all  other 
means  fail ;  and  finding  the  ballot  was  against  them,  and  the  ten  tri¬ 
bunes  already  nominated,  the  partisans  of  Saturninus  threw  down  the 


*  The  Christian  era  commences  from  that  year  of  the  world;  but  our  Saviour  was 
born  four  years  before,  or,  more  properly,  in  the  fifth  year  before  the  common  era. 


FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C. 


113 


urns,  drove  away  the  tribunes,  and  killed  Nonius,  one  of  their  number, 
in  whose  place  he  was  chosen  on  the  morrow  by  an  armed  body,  which 
filled  the  hall  of  election.  In  virtue  of  the  first  law  enacted  by  the  new 
tribune,  extensive  lands  in  the  north  of  Italy  were  distributed  among  the 
proletary  who  had  composed  the  legions  of  Marius.  When  the  period 
of  the  consular  elections  arrived,  Glaucia  became  a  candidate,  and,  to 
ensure  success,  Saturninus  caused  Memmius,  the  rival  of  his  friend,  to 
be  assassinated.  Such  a  crime  excited  general  indignation,  and  Marius 
was  compelled  to  relinquish  his  former  colleagues,  who  had  taken  refuge 
'  in  the  Capitol.  Being  soon  reduced  to  surrender,  they  were  cruelly 
massacred  by  the  people  ;  the  laws  of  Saturninus  were  abolished  ;  Me- 
tellus  returned  in  triumph  from  his  exile,  99,  and  Marius  retired  to  Asia. 

The  democracy  had  triumphed  in  the  election  of  Marius,  who  was 
more  formidable  than  the  Gracchi,  as  he  united  the  talents  of  a  great 
general  with  the  vices  of  a  demagogue.  By  his  elevation  to  the  consu¬ 
late  the  aristocracy  was  humbled,  and  the  path  to  the  highest  honours 
henceforward  lay  open  to  the  meanest  of  birth ;  but  by  his  weakness 
and  incapacity  in  political  arrangements,  he  was  unable  to  execute  his 
furious  plans  against  the  nobles;  The  masses  of  the  people  were,  how¬ 
ever,  supreme,  and  events  showed  that  no  man’s  life  was  safe  who 
opposed  their  sovereign  wfill.  Livius  Drusus,  the  same  who  had  been 
employed  to  destroy  the  popularity  of  Caius  Gracchus,  endeavoured  to 
conciliate  all  parties  and  interests.  To  gain  over  the  people,  he  pro¬ 
posed  the  foundation  of  new  colonies  throughout  Italy,  fresh  distributions 
of  corn,  an  increase  in  the  number  of  senators  by  adding  to  them  300 
of  the  noblest  equites,  and  the  presentation  of  the  civic  freedom  to  the 
Italians.  All  these  laws  were  accepted  by  the  people,  but  met  wfith  a 
violent  opposition  from  the  consuls  and  the  knights  whose  unconstitu¬ 
tional  privileges  were  attacked.  The  tribune,  wTho  succeeded  only  by 
employing  violence,  was  by  his  victory  thrown  into  the  greatest  embar¬ 
rassment.  The  allies,  hy  whose  assistance  he  had  gained  it,  called  upon 
him  to  fulfill  his  pledges,  and  to  confer  the  right  of  citizenship.  Find¬ 
ing  him  unwilling,  or  perhaps  unable,  to  keep  his  promise,  they  formed 
a  conspiracy  for  the  murder  of  the  hostile  consuls,  whom  Drusus  made 
acquainted  with  their  danger.  His  antagonists  were  not  equally 
generous,  for  a  blow  from  an  assassin  cut  short  his  projects,  91.  The 
Italian  towns  did  not  feel  inclined  to  relinquish  their  title  to  a  partici¬ 
pation  in  civic  rights,  and  the  haughty  rejection  of  their  petitions  was 
followed  by  a  general  revolt.  They  formed  the  plan  of  a  separate 
republic,  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  Roman.  Corfinium  was  to  be 
the  capital,  with  its  senate,  consuls,  praetors,  and  other  magis¬ 
trates.  Pompaedius  Silo  was  the  chief  of  the  league,  in  the  first  rank 
of  which  were  the  Marsians  and  Samnites.  Army  after  army  was 
defeated,  and  the  war  was  characterized  by  the  most  barbarous  cruel¬ 
ties.  At  length,  when  300,000  lives  had  been  sacrificed,  and  the 
resources  of  both  parties  were  nearly  exhausted,  the  Italians  were 
admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizens,  88  b.  c.,  an  act  which 
essentially  changed  the  constitution,  and  promoted  the  views  of  the  dis¬ 
affected. 

Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  was  one  of  the  most  formidable  ene¬ 
mies  the  Romans  ever  encountered.  His  dominions,  situated  on  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  had  long  been  independent  of  the 
10* 


114 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Persian  throne  ;  and  having  escaped  the  fate  of  other  Asiatic  princes,  he 
became  by  degrees  the  supreme  ruler  in  that  part  of  the  continent.  He 
was  too  powerful  a  neighbour  to  remain  long  unmolested.  The  social 
war  was  scarcely  terminated,  when  it  was  announced  that  in  one  day 
80,000  Romans  had  been  massacred  in  his  provinces,  88  b.  c.;  and  that, 
driving  their  armies  before  him,  he  had  succeeded  in  extending  his 
authority  to  the  shores  of  the  iEgean  Sea.  The  patrician  Sylla,  once 
the  lieutenant,  now  the  rival  of  Marius,  was  appointed  to  conduct  the 
war ;  but  the  latter  had  the  decree  cancelled,  and  the  command  con¬ 
ferred  on  himself.  Sylla,  who  was  besieging  Nola,  immediately 
hastened  to  Rome,  and  compelled  his  rival  to  flee  to  Africa.  He  next 
marched  against  Mithridates,  and  after  a  short  but  successful  campaign 
in  Bceotia  and  Thessaly,  a  favourable  peace  was  concluded,  84  b.  c., 
by  which  the  Asiatic  monarch  lost  Greece,  Macedonia,  Ionia,  and  other 
provinces  which  he  had  seized,  and  also  a  great  portion  of  his  fleet. 
Sylla  purchased  the  support  of  his  legions  by  distributing  them  among 
the  wealthy  cities  of  Lesser  Asia  ;  besides  which  they  received  regular 
pay,  with  food  and  lodging. 

First  Civil  War. — Cinna,  one  of  the  consuls,  availed  himself  of 
the  victorious  general’s  absence  to  strengthen  the  powers  of  the  Marian 
party,  and  even  to  recall  the  fugitive  himself,  who  entered  Rome  almost 
without  opposition,  and  soon  began  to  glut  his  revenge.  The  principal 
senators  were  slain,  the  high  priest  of  Jupiter  was  murdered  at  the 
altar,  and  the  head  of  the  orator  Antonius  was  brought  to  Marius  while 
he  sat  at  supper.  During  five  days  and  as  many  nights,  the  city  was 
abandoned  to  the  violence  of  the  slaves,  until  at  length  Cinna  and 
Sertorius,  wearied  with  the  excess  of  horrors,  attacked  these  assassins 
in  the  night,  while  they  were  asleep  in  their  camp,  and  slaughtered 
them  all.  Marius  was  not  at  ease  in  the  midst  of  his  triumph ;  the 
report  of  Sylla’s  victories  had  reached  his  ears.  To  blunt  his  senses 
against  the  thought  of  impending  vengeance,  he  gave  way  to  dissipation, 
which  carried  him  off  in  his  seventh  consulate,  and  the  seventieth  year 
of  his  age,  86  b.  c.  The  conqueror  hurried  towards  Rome  immediately 
on  the  conclusion  of  peace,  and  was  joined  by  the  majority  of  the  army 
and  all  the  wealthier  orders  ;  but  even  when  he  was  at  the  gates,  the 
Marian  party  attacked  and  massacred  the  senate  in  the  Hostilian  curia . 
The  extent  of  his  revenge  far  exceeded  the  provocation,  for  the  senate- 
house  resounded  with  the  shrieks  of  no  fewer  than  8000  of  the  opposite 
party,  who  were  murdered  in  its  vicinity  after  having  surrendered ;  and 
the  names  of  5000  citizens  are  said  to  have  been  published  on  the  pro 
scription  lists.  “  Wives  shut  their  doors  against  their  husbands  ;  chil¬ 
dren  slew  their  own  fathers  :  death  was  the  only  refuge  from  cruelty.” 
If  blood  had  flowed  in  the  time  of  Marius,  it  now  poured  in  torrents. 
In  these  dreadful  commotions,  33  consulars,  70  praetors,  60  aediles,  *200 
senators,  and  150,000  Roman  citizens  lost  their  lives,  while  thousands 
more  were  stripped  of  their  property,  and  driven  forth  in  beggary.  Sylla 
at  once  assumed  the  dictatorship,  and  desirous  of  concentrating  all 
power  in  the  hands  of  the  senate,  deprived  the  people  of  many  privi¬ 
leges,  and  cancelled  the  rights  of  citizenship  given  to  the  Italian  cities. 
Twenty-three  legions  were  quartered  throughout  the  peninsula,  and 
Etruria  was  almost  entirely  abandoned  to  his  licentious  troops.  Never¬ 
theless,  he  effected  many  reforms,  created  four  new  tribunals,  raised  the 


FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C. 


115 


number  of  praetors  to  eight,  repressed  the  exactions  of  the  governors  of 
provinces,  and  fixed  the  age  and  qualifications  necessary  for  each 
magisterial  office.  In  two  years  he  voluntarily  resigned  his  despotic 
authority,  and  retired  to  Cumae,  where  his  death,  the  consequence  of  his 
vicious  habits,  soon  followed,  78  b.  c. 

Sylla’s  disdainful  abandonment  of  the  dictatorship,  an  office  which  he  had 
renewed  after  the  lapse  of  120  years,  seems  less  extraordinary  when  it  is  con 
sidered  that  he  left  the  supreme  authority  in  the  hands  of  his  own  party, 
strengthened  by  the  most  extensive  privileges,  and  by  an  army  satiated  with 
blood  and  plunder.  But  every  thing  was  paving  the  way  for  a  monarchy.  T he 
rivalry  of  the  orders  was  followed  by  a  contest  for  universal  power,  and  this  in 
turn  for  the  dominion  of  Rome.  The  strife  of  parties  preceded  that  of  indi¬ 
viduals.  Marius  and  Sylla,  Caesar  and  Pompey,  fought  in  the  names  of  the 
senate  or  the  people — Antony  and  Octavianus  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  world. 
The  Roman  polity  was  already  so  endangered  by  abuses  and  the  consequence 
of  the  Social  War,  that  a  military  despotism  alone  could  preserve  it  from 
anarchy.  Sylla  did  not  employ  his  influence  wisely.  By  destroying  the 
popular  power,  and  by  investing  the  patriciate  with  the  whole  authority — the 
judicial  and  elective  franchise — he  laid  the  foundation  of  Csesar’s  fortune,  of 
that  man  in  whom  he  saw  many  Mariuses. 

Sertorian  War. — Although  the  democratic  faction  had  lost  their 
chiefs  by  proscription  and  murder,  the  party  still  survived  with  all  its 
wrongs  unsatisfied,  and  was  even  increased  by  the  law  which  prevented 
the  tribunes  from  filling  any  of  the  higher  offices  of  the  state.  Lepidus, 
and  Brutus  the  father  of  him  who  assassinated  Caesar,  put  themselves  at 
the  head  of  the  people,  but  all  their  exertions  proved  vain.  Their  par¬ 
tisans,  and  the  remnants  of  the  armies  they  had  collected,  served  to 
increase  the  force  of  Sertorius.  This  old  lieutenant  of  Marius  had  long 
been  celebrated  for  his  courage  and  skill.  In  a  battle  against  the 
Cimbri,  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone,  and  in  which  80,000  Romans 
fell,  he  escaped  almost  alone  with  his  sword  and  buckler.  Other  cir¬ 
cumstances  had  established  his  reputation  in  Spain,  when  he  was  driven 
by  the  legions  of  the  victorious  Sylla  into  Africa,  where  he  remained 
until  invited  by  the  Lusitanians  to  take  the  command  of  their  troops. 
With  an  army  of  less  than  10,000  men,  Italians,  Africans,  and  Span¬ 
iards,  he  maintained  his  ground  against  four  Roman  generals  at  the 
head  of  120,000.  Metellus  aud  Pompey,  who  were  sent  against  him, 
sustained  a  severe  defeat  near  Tarragona.  Rome  was  at  last  freed  from 
an  enemy  who  had  resisted  her  whole  strength  during  several  years,  by 
the  treachery  of  his  lieutenant  Perpenna,  who  slew  him  at  a  feast.  The 
assassin,  however,  was  punished  in  a  manner  worthy  of  his  crime,  in 
the  year  72  b.  c. 

Servile  War. — While  Rome  was  combating  Sertorius  in  Spain,  and 
Mithridates  in  Asia,  a  new  war  of  a  singular  character  broke  out  in 
Italy,  73.  Some  Thracian  gladiators,  discontented  with  their  lot,  ran 
away  from  their  master  and  seized  on  a  strong  fort  in  the  hills  near 
Capua ;  Spartacus,  a  man  of  remarkable  bodily  strength  and  courage, 
being  their  leader.  Their  first  successes  soon  increased  the  number  of 
their  little  army  ;  fugitive  slaves,  shepherds,  and  others,  raised  it  to 
70,000  men.  All  the  troops  sent  against  them  were  worsted  until  the 
command  was  conferred  on  Crassus.  Spartacus  was  at  this  time 
encamped  in  the  peninsula  of  Rhegium,  where  he  was  enclosed  by  a 
deep  trench  and  wall  fifteen  leagues  in  length,  drawn  from  sea  to  sea, 


116 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


and  thus  cut  off  from  all  assistance  by  land.  The  resolute  gladiator 
broke  through  this  line ;  but  although  he  defeated  several  lieutenants 
of  Crassus,  he  soon  afterwards  fell  in  a  general  action,  in  which  his 
followers  were  completely  routed,  71  b.  c. 

Read:  Plutarch’s  Life  of  Crassus. 

Pompey. —  Crassus  had  hastened  the  termination  of  the  war  from 
jealousy  of  Pompey,  who  was  marching  from  Spain  to  his  assistance. 
The  latter  general,  nevertheless,  reaped  all  the  glory,  for  meeting  10,000 
of  the  gladiators  who  had  escaped  in  the  last  battle,  he  slew  the  greater 
part  of  them ;  and  in  announcing  his  good  fortune  to  the  senate,  he 
wrote,  that  if  Crassus  had  cut  down  the  tree,  he  had  torn  up  its  roots. 
The  two  rivals  united  in  claiming  the  consulate,  but  the  very  moment 
of  their  success  was  the  beginning  of  a  lasting  dissension.  The  for¬ 
tune  of  Pompey  was  remarkable.  Raised  to  the  rank  of  general  at  the 
age  of  twenty-three,  he  levied  three  legions  and  marched  them  to  join 
Sylla.  To  him  alone  the  terrible  dictator  was  gentle,  flattering  his 
vanity  by  the  titles  of  Magnus  and  Imperator  ;  and  on  the  death  of  that 
commander  he  became  the  champion  of  the  aristocracy.  His  political 
conduct  was  not  very  decided  ;  but  by  the  people  he  was  regarded  with 
unqualified  enthusiasm  and  admiration. 

Pompey  was  entirely  gained  by  the  applause  universally  lavished 
upon  him,  and  in  return,  during  his  consulate,  he  procured  the  revoca¬ 
tion  of  the  tribunitial  law  of  Sylla,  and  the  re-establishment  of  the  tri¬ 
bunes  in  their  ancient  rights.  He,  moreover,  carried  an  important  law, 
by  which  the  judicial  authority  was  transferred  from  the  senators  to  the 
knights,  thus  effecting  a  great  revolution,  and  giving  to  the  latter  a  pre¬ 
dominance  in  the  state.  This  change  was  brought  about  by  the  trial  of 
Verres,  the  unprincipled  governor  of  Sicily. 

Yerres. — This  man,  whose  whole  life  had  been  one  scene  of  avarice, 
debauchery,  and  cruelty,  was  accused  of  crimes  that  were  probably  too 
frequent  in  the  history  of  Roman  proconsuls.  Enormous  taxes  were 
imposed  upon  the  cities ;  public  money  was  embezzled  ;  the  navy  was 
neglected ;  pirates  were  allowed  to  enter  the  port  of  Syracuse ;  com¬ 
manders  who  were  defeated  owing  to  the  want  of  soldiers  were  cruelly 
put  to  death ;  private  houses  and  temples  were  pillaged  of  all  their 
valuable  works  of  art ;  and  two  vessels  were  yearly  sent  to  Rome  laden 
with  plunder.  When  removed  from  his  post,  his  accusers  preceded  him 
on  his  return  to  Rome ;  but  he  was  without  fear  as  to  the  issue  of  his 
trial,  for  he  boasted  of  having  amassed  wealth  enough  to  screen  him 
from  justice.  Cicero  was  his  accuser,  and  the  result  of  the  trial  was  a 
voluntary  exile,  after  he  had  repaid  to  the  Sicilians  about  one-third  part 
only  of  what  the  illustrious  orator  had  claimed. 

Piratical  War. — To  reward  Pompey  for  the  favour  conferred  upon 
the  knights,  they  gave  him  the  command  of  the  army  in  a  war  against 
the  pirates.  These  were  men  of  various  countries,  particularly  Cilicia, 
who,  taking  advantage  of  the  civil  broils,  and  profiting  by  the  lessons 
then  taught,  infested  all  the  coasts  of  the  empire.  In  many  respects 
they  resembled  the  Buccaneers  of  America,  and  so  great  was  their 
audacity,  that  no  place  was  safe  from  their  attacks.  Legions  had  been 
routed,  magistrates  arrested,  and  foreign  commerce  entirely  stopped, 
when  Pompey  at  length  thoroughly  defeated  them,  and  cleared  the  seas 


FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C. 


117 


in  the  short  space  of  forty  days.  He  repeopled  many  deserted  cities  by 
settling  in  them  20,000  prisoners  whom  he  had  taken,  and  restored  a 
town  which  afterwards  bore  his  name. 

Mithridates  had  profited  by  the  peace  made  with  Sylla  to  recruit 
his  army,  and  increase  his  kingdom  by  conquer  on  the  Bosphorus  and 
in  Colchis.  But  the  possession  of  these  savage  countries  did  not 
satisfy  him ;  he  still  longed  to  add  Cappadocia,  the  most  fertile  part  of 
Asia  Minor,  to  his  dominions.  Thinking  the  opportunity  favourable, 
he  equipped  a  numerous  fleet,  and  collected  an  army  of  160,000  men. 
Two  consuls  were  sent  against  him,  74  b.  c.  ;  one  of  whom,  Cotta,  was 
defeated,  and  the  Roman  ships  were  entirely  destroyed.  But  the  other, 
Lucullus,  who  had  derived  his  military  knowledge  from  the  eloquent 
pages  of  Xenophon  and  Thucydides,  exhausted  by  his  prudent  manoeu¬ 
vres  the  strength  of  the  enemy,  and  compelled  their  sovereign  to  take 
refuse  with  Tigranes  kino-  of  Armenia.  The  success  of  the  victor 
against  these  allied  monarchs  was  less  decisive  owing  to  the  insubordi¬ 
nation  of  his  troops.  Two  of  his  lieutenants  being  worsted,  he  was 
recalled,  and  Glabrio,  who  succeeded  him,  was  so  completely  routed 
that  the  whole  peninsula  of  Lesser  Asia  had  nearly  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  Mithridates.  Pompey,  who  was  next  sent  against  him,  overcame 
every  obstacle  by  the  rapidity  of  his  marches;  and  in  a  night-attack  the 
enemy’s  troops  were  almost  entirely  cut  to  pieces,  the  king  himself 
escaping  with  only  800  horsemen.  It  was  now  that  this  daring  prince, 
in  his  extremity,  formed  the  design  of  transferring  the  war  into  the 
Roman^ territory,  raising  in  his  march  the  barbarous  tribes  which  dwelt 
between  the  Tanais  and  the  Alps.  Treason  cut  short  this  extraordinary 
project ;  and  being  unwilling  to  survive  the  ingratitude  of  his  beloved 
son  Pharnaces,  poison,  administered  by  his  own  hand,  terminated  his 
eventful  life,  63  b.  c.  During  the  space  of  twenty-six  years  he  had 
sustained  a  war  against  the  arms  of  Rome,  conducted  by  her  most  cele¬ 
brated  generals.  Pompey,  on  returning  from  his  eastern  campaign,  was 
honoured  with  a  splendid  triumph,  when  he  contributed  to  the  treasury 
the  sum  of  20,000  talents.  Pharnaces  took  advantage  of  the  civil  war, 
and  endeavoured  to  recover  Armenia  and  Cappadocia;  but  Caesar, 
marching  against  him  from  Egypt,  defeated  his  projects.  The  brief 
despatch  of  the  conqueror  is  familiar  to  all:  “Yeni,  vidi,  vici,” — I 
came,  saw,  and  conquered.  Pontus  was  declared  a  Roman  province 
about  36  b.  c.  After  the  Crusades,  the  family  of  the  Comneni  estab¬ 
lished  the  monarchy  of  Trebizond  (a.  d.  1204),  which  was  destroyed 
by  Mohammed  II. 

Reflections. — The  republic  had  now  reached  its  highest  pitch  ;  there  was 
no  longer  any  foreign  enemy  to  excite  her  apprehensions ;  but  the  change  in 
her  constitution,  and  the  re-establishment  of  the  tribunitial  power,  endangered 
her  existence,  70.  This  victory  of  the  democracy  led  the  way  to  an  oppres¬ 
sive  oligarchy,  and  that  to  the  formation  of  a  terrible  conspiracy,  which  if  suc¬ 
cessful  would  have  placed  the  power  in  the  hands  of  the  ambitious,  the  profli¬ 
gate,  and  the  criminal. 

Catiline’s  Conspiracy. — L.  Sergius  Catilina  was  of  patrician  birth, 
and  of  a  family  distinguished  for  its  services  to  the  state,  but  his  ruined 
fortunes  and  profligacy  tempted  him  to  form  the  dangerous  project  of 
overthrowing  the  government ;  to  ensure  which  design,  he  became  a 
candidate  for  the  consulship.  The  first  time  he  was  rejected ;  two 


118 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


years  later,  he  was  defeated  by  Cicero,  in  defiance  of  his  violent  parti¬ 
sans.  He  had  no  longer  any  hope  of  attaining  the  supreme  power  but 
by  force;  and  with  this  intent  an  army  was  collected  by  Manlius  in 
Etruria,  while  the  traitors  at  Rome  were  plotting  a  general  massacre  and 
conflagration.  Their  designs  were  discovered:  Catiline  was  boldly 
accused  in  the  senate,  and,  to  save  his  life,  he  fled  to  the  troops  which 
his  accomplices  had  raised.  Many  of  the  conspirators  who  had  been 
left  in  the  city  were  led  to  prison  and  put  to  death ;  which  proof  of 
resolution  so  disconcerted  the  rebels,  that  they  were  defeated  by  the 
consul  Antonius,  and  their  leader  fell  as  bravely  as  he  had  lived  un¬ 
worthily,  63  b.  c.  Cicero  was  honoured  with  the  title  of  Father  of 
his  Country  ;  but  he  did  not  escape  the  odium  which  attends  all  extra¬ 
ordinary  vigour  in  the  execution  of  the  laws  during  a  time  of  public 
confusion.  The  tribune  refused  to  administer  the  usual  oath  when  the 
consul  laid  down  his  office ;  upon  which  the  orator  Iwore  that  he  had 
saved  the  state,  and  the  shout  of  the  admiring  people  testified  their 
approbation.  He  was  shortly  after  driven  into  exile  by  Clodius,  in 
virtue  of  a  law  recently  enacted,  which  banished  all  who  had  put  a 
citizen  to  death  without  trial.  At  his  departure  20,000  of  the  knights, 
and  part 'of  the  senate,  wore  mourning  garments.  He  was  recalled  by 
the  influence  of  Pompey  in  the  subsequent  year,  57  b.  c. 

First  Triumvirate,  60  b.  c. — At  this  period  the  leading  men  in  Rome 
were  Pompey,  who  had  merited  the  surname  of  Great  by  his  victories 
in  Asia — Crassus,  who  had  acquired  immense  wealth  by  the  proscrip¬ 
tions  of  Sylla  —  and  Julius  Caesar,  in  whom  were  united  the  highest 
civil  and  military  talents,  and  who,  during  his  praetorship  in  Spain, 
besides  recruiting  his  ruined  fortunes,  had  ingratiated  himself  with  the 
army.  These  three  united  their  influence,  and  formed  that  celebrated 
compact  known  by  the  name  of  the  Triumvirate.  The  powers  of  the 
senate  were  usurped  by  them,  as  well  as  the  command  of  the  legions. 
On  the  termination  of  his  consulate,  Caesar  was  re-appointed  to  the 
government  of  Gaul  for  five  years.  Crassus,  led  away  by  his  avari¬ 
cious  spirit,  took  the  command  of  Syria,  famed  for  its  luxury  and  wealth, 
but  was  shortly  after  defeated  and  put  to  death  at  Charrae,  53  b.  c. 
Pompey  still  remained  in  Italy. 

At  the  epoch  of  the  renewal  of  the  first  triumvirate  the  internal  con¬ 
dition  of  Rome  was  very  deplorable.  Offices  for  the  sale  of  votes  were 
opened  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Campus  Martius ;  and  to  such  an 
extent  was  this  traffic  carried,  that  the  rate  of  interest  rose  from  four  to 
eight  per  cent.  On  one  occasion  the  two  retiring  candidates,  Memmius 
and  Gabinius,  forged  an  edict  of  the  senate  and  the  people,  which  would 
have  conferred  their  office  on  two  candidates  by  whom  they  had  been 
largely  bribed.  During  six  months  the  city  remained  without  its 
supreme  magistrates  ;  and  all  eyes  were  turned  towards  Pompey,  whose 
indecision  prevented  him  from  grasping  the  dictatorship.  The  forum 
became  a  scene  of  contention,  tti  which  the  rivalry  of  Clodius  and  Milo 
created  much  confusion.  To  terminate  the  disorders  which  followed  the 
death  of  the  former  of  these  partisans,  the  consulate  was  offered  to 
Pompey  alone.  The  senators  were  now  secure  in  regard  to  one  of  the 
popular  leaders ;  by  several  wholesome  regulations  order  was  re-estab¬ 
lished;  the  laws  were  impartially  administered  ;  and  the  public  places 
were  no  longer  stained  with  blood.  The  great  object  now  was  to  get 


FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C.  119 

id  of  Caesar,  to  which  measure  Pompey  was  continually  excited  by  the 
.anguage  and  insulting  conduct  of  the  senate. 

Cesar’s  Gallic  Campaign,  58  b.c. — Caesar  was  now  beginning  a 
long  career  of  victory.  Gaul  opened  a  vast  field  for  his  ambition  ;  it 
supplied  him  with  the  means  of  keeping  a  large  and  well-disciplined 
army  always  within  a  few  days’  march  of  Rome,  the  southern  bounda¬ 
ries  of  his  province  being  the  Arno  and  the  Rubicon.  The  brave  people 
who  inhabited  this  country  were  of  Celtic  origin,  but  their  disunion 
proved  their  ruin.  In  eight  campaigns  Caesar  entirely  overran  their 
territory  :  he  reduced  the  Helvetii ;  drove  Ariovistus  back  into  Ger¬ 
many  ;  and,  after  frequent  revolts,  Gaul  submitted  to  his  arms.  It  was 
during  a  brief  interval  of  peace  that  he  visited  Britain,  55  b.  c.,  but 
the  island  was  not  subdued  till  the  close  of  the  first  century  after  Christ. 

At  the  termination  of  the  Gallic  war  the  conduct  of  the  victor  under¬ 
went  a  great  change.  The  last  winter  he  passed  beyond  the  Alps  was 
spent  in  visiting  the  various  cities.  He  exercised  no  violence,  but  left 
them  entirely  free  in  their  internal  government,  requiring  only  a  contri¬ 
bution  of  forty  millions  of  sesterces  as  pay  for  his  men.  The  best  sol¬ 
diers  of  the  nation  he  enrolled  in  his  army,  and  formed  of  them  the 
renowned  legion  Jlfouda .  His  light  troops  were  composed  almost 
entirely  of  Gauls  from  either  province. 

The  Second  Civil  War,  49  b.  c.,  had  its  origin  in  these  circum¬ 
stances : — The  rapid  victories  of  Caesar  so  roused  the  jealousy  of  Pom¬ 
pey,  who  had  been  appointed  sole  consul,  that  when  the  former  demanded 
the  prolongation  of  his  government,  and  to  be  nominated  though  absent, 
he  was  ordered  to  disband  his  legions,  to  which  unjust  command  he 
yielded  with  a  slight  exception.  But  the  senate,  with  Pompey  at  their 
head,  before  they  could  receive  his  answer,  commenced  hostile  proceed¬ 
ings  against  him.  The  tribunes  fled  disguised  from  Rome,  and  sought 
refuge  in  the  camp  of  Caesar,  who  thus  became  tne  head  of  the  popular 
party.  Nothing  but  war  could  now  decide  the  differences  of  the  rival 
generals.  Julius  had  reached  the  banks  of  the  Rubicon,  a  little  stream, 
the  boundary  of  his  government,  and  which  it  was  treason  to  cross  in  a 
hostile  manner ;  an  inscription  to  which  purpose,  devoting  the  trans¬ 
gressor  to  the  infernal  deities,  may  still  be  seen  on  the  road  between 
Rimini  and  Cesena.  “  On  horseback,  in  the  open  air,  Caesar  all  night 
long  pondered  the  weighty  question  of  submission  or  resistance.  At 
daybreak  his  anxious  soldiers  found  him  still  riding  to  and  fro,  deep 
sunk  in  thought.  At  length  he  cried,  The  die  is  cast!  gave  his  horse 
the  spur,  and  sprang  across  the  stream,  followed  by  his  troops.”  All 
Italy  received  him  with  joy.  The  senate  retired  with  their  army  into 
Greece ;  and  in  sixty  days  the  submission  of  the  whole  peninsula  show¬ 
ed  the  emptiness  of  Pompey ’s  boast,  that  with  a  single  stamp  of  his 
foot  he  could  raise  legions.  Entering  Rome,  the  governor  of  Gaul 
seized  upon  the  treasury,  and,  leaving  Antony  and  Lepidus  as  his  lieu¬ 
tenants,  he  marched  into  Spain,  where  the  hostile  forces  surrendered 
without  a  blow.  Returning  to  Marseilles,  which  had  shut  her  gates 
upon  him,  he  punished  the  inhabitants  with  great  severity.  Without 
loss  of  time,  he  crossed  the  sea,  and  hastened  to  meet  Pompey,*  whe 

*  Ocior  et  cseli  flammis  et  tigride  feeta  : 

Dum  se  deesse  Deis,  et  non  si bi  Numina  credit. 


ANClHJVT  HISTORY. 


aad  already  collected  a  numerous  army,  and  most  of  the  high-born  youth 
of  the  day,  who  had  been  finishing  their  education  at  Athens,  enrolled 
themselves  among  his  troops.  But  the  activity  of  Caesar  deranged  his 
plan  of  protracting  the  war ;  for  after  some  trivial  successes,  he  was 
utterly  defeated  at  Pharsalia,  48  b.  c.,  and  was  assassinated  on  the 
Egyptian  shore,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nile.  Caesar  followed  up  the 
scattered  relics  of  the  party,  and  reducing  Egypt,  bestowed  it  on  Cleo¬ 
patra.  Cato  the  younger,  who  still  dreamt  of  a  republic,  had  assembled 
in  Africa  a  small  body  of  men  of  like  sentiments  with  himself,  but 
being  vanquished  and  reduced  to  despair,  he  fell  by  his  own  hand.  A 
second  campaign  in  the  Spanish  peninsula  completed  the  annihilation 
of  Caesar’s  enemies,  and  the  conqueror  entered  Rome  in  triumph,  where 
he  was  made  perpetual  dictator,  and  saluted  with  the  title  of  Father  of 
his  Country.  Statues  were  erected  in  his  honour,  as  to  a  god,  and  a 
festival  with  thanksgiving  of  forty  days  was  decreed.  Four  times  in 
the  course  of  one  month  he  appeared  in  triumphal  processions  represent¬ 
ing  his  victories  over  Gaul,  Egypt,  Pontus,  and  Africa.  Sixty  thou¬ 
sand  talents  of  silver  and  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  twenty-two 
crowns  of  gold  formed  part  of  the  splendid  show7.  Immense  largesses 
in  money  and  land  wTere  distributed  to  his  faithful  veterans,  while  public 
banquets  and  distributions  of  corn,  meat,  and  oil,  wfith  a  diminution  of 
their  rents,  won  the  hearts  of  the  people.  Gladiatorial  combats,  thea¬ 
trical  representations,  races,  Trojan  games,  and  military  shows,  were 
seen  in  all  parts  of  the  city.  But  amidst  this  general  intoxication, 
Caesar  did  not  forget  more  important  cares.  He  aided  in  the  reform  of 
the  Calendar,  a  work  undertaken  by  Sosigenes;  passed  laws  against 
treasonable  attempts ;  increased  the  number  of  magistrates ;  colonized 
many  parts  of  Italy,  as  well  as  Carthage  and  Corinth ;  and  awarded  the 
rights  of  citizenship  to  all  professors  of  medicine  and  of  the  liberal  arts. 

Death  of  C^dsar. — The  peaceful  administration  of  one  man,  who 
had  triumphed  over  the  great  parties  in  the  state,  and  w7ho  by  his  exam¬ 
ple  was  advancing  the  cause  of  literature  and  the  arts,  seemed  destined 
to  heal  the  numerous  wounds  in  the  Roman  dominions.  But  false  ideas 
of  patriotism,  and  visionary  notions  of  republican  virtue,  which  nev&r 
could  be  realized  again  in  Rome,  armed  some  of  the  noblest  and  best 
of  men  against  Caesar.  At  their  head  w7ere  Brutus  and  Cassius,  wThom 
he  had  generously  pardoned.  He  fell  under  their  daggers  in  the  senate- 
house,  March  15,  forty-four  years  before  the  Christian  era.  44  The 
tyrant  is.  dead,  but  tyranny  still  lives,”  said  Tully.  The  murder  of  the 
dictator  introduced  a  new  period  of  anarchy  and  civil  wTar,  during  which 
the  v7hole  wrorld  wTas  trodden  down  and  desolated  by  conflicting  armies. 
The  conspirators  wTere  unable  to  profit  by  the  advantage  which  they  had 
obtained.  They  trembled  at  the  crime  they  had  committed,  and  talked 
while  they  should  have  acted. 

Character  of  Caesar. 

Lord  Bacon  thought  Julius  Caesar  to  be  the  most  complete  character  of  all 
antiquity.  Nature  seems  incapable  of  such  extraordinary  combinations  as  com¬ 
posed  his  versatile  capacity,  which  was  the  wonder  even  of  the  Romans  them¬ 
selves.  The  first  general  —  [he  fought  50  battles,  in  which  1,192,000  men 
fell]  —  the  only  triumphant  politician  —  inferior  to  none  in  eloquence  —  com¬ 
parable  to  any  in  the  attainments  of  wisdom,  in  an  age  made  up  of  the  greatest 
commanders,  statesmen,  orators,  and  philosophers,  that  ever  appeared  in  the 


FIRST  CENTURA  B.  C. 


121 


world  —  an  author  who  composed  a  perfect  specimen  of  military  annals  in  his 
travelling  carriage  —  [he  wrote  as  he  fought,  said  Quinctilian]  —  at  one  time  in 
a  controversy  with  Cato,  at  another  writing  a  treatise  on  punning,  and  collect¬ 
ing  a  set  of  good  sayings — fighting  and  making  love  at  the  same  moment,  and 
willing  to  abandon  both  his  empire  and  his  mistress  for  a  sight  of  the  fountains 
of  the  Nile.  Such  did  Julius  Caesar  appear  to  his  contemporaries  and  to  those 
of  the  subsequent  ages  who  were  the  most  inclined  to  deplore  and  execrate  his 
fatal  genius. — Childe  Harold,  Note  to  Canto  IV. 

Third  Civil  War. —  Meanwhile,  Antony  seized  upon  the  contents 
of  the  treasury,  between  five  and  six  millions  sterling,  and  with  this 
money  bought  many  influential  men,  the  veterans  and  the  people. 
Cicero  exhausted  the  stores  of  his  eloquence  in  vain,  for  the  other 
steadily  pursued  his  ambitious  course.  The  senate  opposed  to  him  the 
young  Octavianus  (afterwards  called  Augustus),  who  already  possessed 
all  the  coolness,  subtleness,  and  relentless  determination  of  purpose 
which  characterized  the  latter  portion  of  his  career.*  A  war  now  broke 
out,  and  in  the  course  of  it  Antony  had  sufficient  address  to  withdraw 
him  from  Cicero’s  party,  and  with  Lepidus  to  form  the 

Second  Triumvirate,  43  b.  c. — The  horrors  of  the  former  triumvirate 
were  far  exceeded  by  this,  for  300  senators,  2000  knights,  the  best  and 
noblest  of  the  citizens,  were  proscribed.  Each  sacrificed  his  own  friends 
to  the  vengeance  of  his  colleagues,  and  Cicero,  who  had  long  manifest¬ 
ed  a  prophetic  consciousness  of  his  peril,  was  among  the  number.  With 
him  fell  the  liberties  of  Rome ;  but  it  was  not  so  much  patriotism  that 
pointed  the  sword  against  his  life,  as  the  personal  vindictiveness  of 
Antony  which  demanded  the  victim.  The  orator  had  no  longer  any 
power  to  save  or  destroy  the  government,  for  the  republic  had  passed 
away,  and  a  monarchy  alone  could  succeed.  Brutus  and  Cassius  were 
still  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army ;  but  a  doubtful  battle  at  Philippi, 
followed  by  the  death  of  the  two  generals,  relieved  the  triumvirs  of  all 
cause  of  fear,  42  b.  c.  The  unsuccessful  expedition  of  Antony  into 
Asia,  with  his  licentious  conduct  in  Egypt,  afforded  Octavianus  an 
excuse  for  declaring  him  a  public  enemy.  The  wily  triumvir,  armed 
with  the  specious  authority  of  the  senate,  went  against  his  former  asso¬ 
ciate,  whom  he  met  and  defeated  in  a  sea-fight  near  Actium,  31b.  c.f 

The  defeat  of  Sextus  Pompeius,  the  resignation  of  Lepidus,  and  the 
death  of  Antony,  placed  the  whole  government  in  the  hands  of  Caesar 
Octavianus,  now  called  Augustus,  27  b.  c.  To  supply  the  want  of 
money,  Sylla  had  introduced  the  system  of  military  colonies,  which  the 
new  ruler  extended  to  reward  the  services  of  his  troops.  The  Shepherd 
of  Virgil  was  not  the  only  victim  who,  in  the  bitterness  of  his  destitu¬ 
tion,  exclaimed — 

Nos  patriae  fines,  et  dulcia  linquimus  arva  : 

Nos  patriam  fugimus. 


*  A  recent  historian  thus  describes  him  : — He  was  a  youth  of  eighteen,  small  and  deli¬ 
cate,  often  sick,  frequently  halt  of  one  leg,  timid,  and  speaking  with  such  difficulty,  that 
later  in  life  he  used  to  write  beforehand  what  he  desired  to  say  to  his  wife  ;  so  indistinct 
and  feeble  was  his  voice  that  he  was  obliged  to  employ  another  to  speak  for  him  before 
the  people.  He  wanted  not  political  boldness,  for  he  must  have  had  much  to  venture  to 
Rome  to  claim  the  succession  of  Ca3sar,  as  his  nephew  and  heir  ;  other  courage  he  had 
none;  fearing  the  thunder,  darkness,  and  the  enemy,  and  implacable  tow'ards  all  who 
excited  his  fears. 

|  This  battle  gave  occasion  to  a  new  era,  called  the  Actian,  and  used  by  the  Egyp¬ 
tians.  It  began  with  the  29th  August  30  b.  c.,  the  first  day  of  their  year. 

11 


122 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Augustus,  now  emperor,  subdued  the  revolted  Spaniards,  made  peace 
with  Ethiopia,  compelled  the  Parthians  to  restore  the  standards  they 
had  taken  from  Crassus  and  Antony,  and  Germany  was  forced  to 
acknowledge  his  power.  The  Roman  empire  at  this  period  included 
the  fairest  portion  of  the  world  lying  around  the  Mediterranean,  enclosed 
by  the  Rhine,  Danube,  Euphrates,  and  the  sandy  deserts  of  Syria  and 
Africa.  Victorious  by  land  and  sea,  its  master  the  third  time  closed  the 
temple  of  Janus ;  and  it  was  in  this  moment  of  universal  peace  that 
Jesus  Christ  was  born,  four  years  before  the  common  account  called  a.,  d. 

SECOND  LITERARY  ERA  —  the  Augustan. 

The  history  of  Roman  literature  comprehends  a  space  of  seven  centuries ; 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  before  Christ,  till  the  taking  of 
Rome  by  the  Goths.  The  first  period,  from  the  end  of  the  first  Punic  war,  till 
the  death  of  Sylla  (241-78),  saw  the  formation  of  the  Latin  language,  and  the 
imitation  of  the  imperishable  creations  of  Greek  genius.  The  second  period 
(78  b.  c.  to  a.  d.  14),  forms  the  Augustan  or  Golden  age,  one  of  the  most  me¬ 
morable  epochs  in  the  history  of  literature.  The  third  period,  or  Silver  age 
(a.  d.  14—1 17),  is  remarkable  not  for  the  want  of  genius,  but  the  decline  of  taste. 
The  names  of  Tacitus,  Quinctilian,  the  younger  Pliny,  and  Q.  Curtius  adorn 
the  annals  of  this  century.  The  fourth  period,  or  the  Brazen  age,  extends  till 
a.  d.  410,  when  Rome  was  taken  by  the  Goths.  Eutropius,  Aurelius  Victor, 
and  Jerome  testify  at  once  to  the  feebleness  of  the  genius  and  the  depraved 
taste  of  these  three  centuries. 

The  genius  of  Pericles  was  revived  in  Augustus ;  a  more  impracticable 
language  than  the  Greek  was  about  to  give  fresh  laws  and  fresh  models  to 
posterity.  The  emperor  had  the  art  to  conciliate  the  literary  men  of  his  day, 
and  in  their  lavish  flatteries  we  almost  lose  sight  of  his  real  character.  He  was 
ably  seconded  by  his  prime  minister,  Maecenas,  whose  name  has  become  a 
proverb.  Among  the  distinguished  writers  in  this  age  we  may  remark,  in 

Eloquence:  Cicero,  d.  43;  Hortensius,  Caesar. 

Poetry:  Lucretius,  d.  51;  Virgil,  d.  27;  Tibullus,  d.  20;  Propertius,  d. 
16 ;  and  Horace,  d.  8 ;  of  whom  the  last  four  lost  their  estates  during  the  civil 
wars  ;  Catullus,  d.  49  ;  Ovid,  d.  a.  d.  17 ;  Lucan,  a.  d.  65  ;  Phaedrus,  Petro- 
nius,  d.  67. 

Tragedy:  Seneca,  d.  a.  d.  64. 

Comedy:  Plautus,  184  b.  c.  Terence,  159  b.  c. 

Satire:  Horace,  Perseus,  a.  d.  62;  Juvenal,  a.  d.  128. 

History  :  Caesar  ;  C.  Nepos,  d.  30  ;  Sallust,  d.  34  ;  Livy,  d.  a.  d.  19  ;  Cur¬ 
tius,  Tacitus,  a.  d.  99;  Valerius  Maximus. 

Philosophy:  Cicero,  Seneca,  Celsus,  d.  a.  d.  20. 

In  this  sketch,  the  limits  assigned  to  the  x4ugustan  era  have  been  exceeded, 
but  with  the  design  of  bringing  together  some  of  the  most  celebrated  names  in 
Roman  history.  There  are  others  who  wrote  in  Greek,  but  who  are  less 
worthy  of  mention,  as  their  works  had  no  direct  influence  on  Latin  Letters. 
They  are  Polybius  (124  b.  c.),  who  was  with  Scipio  when  Carthage  fell ; 
Diodorus  Siculus  and  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus;  Strabo;  Josephus;  and 
Plutarch. 

Prepare  :  Map  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

JUD7EA. 

Alexander  Jann^eus  succeeded  his  brother  Aristobulus  105  b.  c. 
He  was  perpetually  engaged  in  war,  and  by  rashly  provoking  the  king 
of  Egypt,  brought  his  country  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  His  enmity  to  the 
Pharisees  led  to  an  open  revolt,  which,  after  various  reverses,  was 
quelled  by  the  total  defeat  of  the  rebels,  whom  he  punished  with 


FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C. 


123 


remorseless  cruelty.  He  died  in  78,  and  the  government  was  adminis¬ 
tered  by  his  widow,  Alexandra,  who,  following  her  husband’s  dying 
counsels,  had  become  reconciled  to  the  Pharisees.  On  her  death  in  69, 
this  sect  and  the  army  severally  put  forward  their  favourites,  Hyrcanus 
II.  and  Aristobulus  II.  A  desultory  war  ensued,  which  was  terminated 
by  the  interference  of  the  Romans.  Pompey  decided  in  .favour  of  Hyr¬ 
canus,  and  having  captured  Jerusalem  in  63,  sent  Aristobulus  with  his 
family  prisoners  to  Rome.  The  escape  of  the  deposed  monarch  and  his 
sons  was  the  signal  for  another  insurrection,  which  was  soon  repressed 
by  the  vigour  of  Crassus.  Caesar,  after  defeating  his  rival  Pompey, 
confirmed  the  authority  of  Hyrcanus,  or  rather  of  the  crafty  Idumaean 
Antipater  under  his  name,  who  managed  to  procure  the  government  of 
Galilee  for  his  son  Herod.  After  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Herod  used  the 
favour  of  Antony  to  strengthen  his  own  power.  But  he  had  still  to  con¬ 
tend  with  enemies:  Antigonus,  the  son  of  Aristobulus,  renewed  the 
struggle  for  sovereignty,  and  compelled  Herod  to  flee  to  Rome.  Here 
he  obtained  from  Antony  and  Octavianus  the  crown  of  Judaea,  40,  and 
returning  to  his  dominions,  accomplished  the  prophecy  of  Jacob  fore¬ 
telling  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah  when  the  sceptre  should  depart 
from  Judah. 

Herod  having  overthrown  his  rival  Antigonus,  37  b.  c.,  became  con¬ 
firmed  as  king  of  Judaea,  and  by  the  friendship  of  Augustus  he  after¬ 
wards  added  to  his  dominions  Samaria,  Galilee,  Peraea,  Ituraea,  and 
Trachonitis,  with  Idumaea.  He  received  the  title  of  Great  from  the 
magnificence  with  which  he  rebuilt  the  temple ;  but  his  reign  was  so 
tyrannical  and  barbarous  that  he  was  universally  detested.  He  put  to 
death  his  beloved  wife  Mariamne,  whose  image  haunted  him  continually 
and  brought  on  temporary  derangement.  Among  his  other  victims  were 
her  mother,  brother,  grandfather,  uncle,  and  two  sons.  Our  Saviour 
was  born  in  the  last  year  of  his  reign.  Five  days  before  Herod  died, 
his  eldest  son  Antipater,  for  attempting  to  poison  him,  was  put  to  death  ; 
to  Archelaus  he  assigned  Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Idumaea;  and  to  Antipas 
the  government  of  Galilee  and  Peraea. 


HOUSE  OF  HEROD. 


m.  1.  Doris. 


Antipater  d.  43,  b.  c. 

Herod  the  Great,  d.  3,  b.  c. 
2.  Mariamne, 
one  of  the  Maccabees. 

- A - 


3.  Many  others. 


f -  -> 

Antipater  Alexander  Aristobulus  Archelaus,  Herod  Antipas,  Philip, 
d.  3  B.  C.  d  6  B  C.  d.  6  B.  C.  ethnarch,dep.  A  D.  8.  tetrarch,dep.  A.  D.  39.  tetrarch,d.  A.  D.  34, 

/■ - A - 77i.  Herodias. 

Herod  Agrippa,  d.  a.  d.  44. 

- _ A - - 


Herod  II.  Agrippa,  d.  a.  d.  100. 


124 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


CHRISTIAN  ERA. 


FIRST  CENTURA 

Rome. — 9,  Defeat  of  Varus. — Twelve  C^sars. — 79,  First  Eruption  [recorded] 
of  Vesuvius. 

Britain. — 43,  Claudius  in  Britain. — 85,  Agricola. 

Judjea. — 8,  Archelaus  banished. — 41,  Herod  Agrippa. — Roman  Procurators. 
— 70,  Jerusalem  destroyed. 

The  Church. — 30,  Crucifixion  of  Christ. — 40,  Name  of  Christians — 64,  First 
Persecution — 66,  Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. — 95,  Second  Perse 
cution. 

Inventions,  &c. — 16,  Introduction  of  Silk  Dresses  by  Tiberius. — 60,  Load* 
stone  discovered. 

Literature,  &c. — Phaedrus,  Celsus,  Q.  Curtius,  Persius,  Plutarch,  Epictetus, 
Lucan,  Martial,  Juvenal,  Seneca,  Quinctilian,  Tacitus,  Petronius,  the  two 
Plinys,  Valerius  Flaccus,  Josephus,  Dioscorides. 

ROME. 

Augustus. — The  Roman  empire  peaceably  submitted  to  the  superior 
talents  and  craft  of  this  fortunate  soldier.  Exhausted  by  the  civil  wars 
which  continued  nearly  a  whole  century,  repose  was  eagerly  sought  by 
all  parties,  and  a  population  of  120  millions  gladly  yielded  to  the 
dominion  of  one  man.  The  Roman  frontiers,  extending  from  the  Atlan¬ 
tic  to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  Rhine  to  the  African  deserts,  were  at 
peace,  broken  only  by  a  brief  war  with  the  Germans,  in  which  Varus 
and  three  legions  were  cut  to  pieces  by  Arminius,  a.  d.  9.  Augustus 
never  recovered  his  serenity  of  temper  after  that  defeat.  By  the  mild¬ 
ness  of  his  government  he  acquired  the  love  of  the  people,  and  by  his 
affected  submission  to  the  senate  he  gained  their  constant  support, 
although  he  had  stript  them  of  nearly  all  their  power.  Without  either 
superior  genius  or  extraordinary  attainments,  he  was  prudent  enough  to 
seize  upon  all  opportunities  of  advancing  his  ambitious  projects ;  and 
his  principles  improved  when  the  possession  of  unlimited  power  rendered 
crime  useless.  He  was  still  a  hypocritical  voluptuary ;  but  the  repose 
which  he  had  procured  to  the  empire,  the  flourishing  state  in  which  he 
left  it,  and  the  mild  exercise  of  his  authority,  covered  or  excused  his 
faults.  His  latter  days  were  not  happy.  The  profligacy  of  his  daughter 
Julia,  the  ambition  of  his  wife,  and  the  loss  of  his  adopted  child,  added 
poignancy  to  the  stings  of  a  guilty  conscience.  He  died  at  Nola,  a.d. 
14,  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age,  and  the  forty-first  of  his  reign. 

Read:  Blackwell’s  Court  of  Augustus. 

After  the  battle  of  Actium  and  the  death  of  Antony,  Augustus  was  desirous 
of  legitimatizing  his  power  by  concealing  it  under  legal  forms.  To  veil  his 
usurpation,  he  assumed  the  titles  of  the  principal  offices,  using  his  power  as 
rensor  to  clear  the  senate  of  many  personal  enemies.  All  the  acts  of  his 
triumvirate  were  annulled,  as  if  he  wished  to  show  that  he  was  now  influenced 


FIRST  CENTURY  A.  D. 


125 


by  different  motives ;  and  his  feigned  proposal  of  abdication  was  earnestly  com¬ 
bated  by  his  friends,  who  persuaded  him  to  prolong  his  power  during  ten  more 
years.  To  prove  his  disinterestedness,  he  shared  the  administration  of  the 
empire  with  the  senate,  leaving  to  it  the  fair  provinces  of  Italy  and  Sicily : 
while  he,  by  his  deputies,  governed  the  remainder.  He  assumed  no  unusual 
power ;  and  yet,  by  the  simple  means  of  uniting  all  offices  in  his  own  person, 
he  became  entirely  autocratical.  Corresponding  changes  in  the  administration 
of  the  state  ensued;  and  although  the  senate  still  remained  the  supreme  coun¬ 
cil,  there  was  another  and  more  important  one,  composed  of  his  particular 
friends,  such  as  Maecenas  and  Agrippa.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  this  body 
of  men  assumed  the  form  of  a  modern  cabinet  ( consistorium ),  being  increased 
by  the  addition  of  fifteen  senators,  and  one  of  each  magisterial  college.  They 
were  afterwards  divided  into  three  classes,  having  in  their  hands  the  entire 
government.  The  popular  assemblies  and  elections  still  remained ;  but  they 
were  empty  forms,  the  candidate  nominated  by  the  emperor  never  being  rejected. 
Many  salutary  laws  were  enacted  ;  the  public  edifices  and  roads  were  kept  in 
good  repair  ;  a  kind  of  police  and  night-watch  were  established  ;  and  commu¬ 
nication  between  distant  points  was  facilitated  by  the  establishment  of  regular 
posts  for  the  transmission  of  the  imperial  despatches.  The  finances  remained 
nearly  the  same  ;  there  were,  however,  two  treasuries,  that  of  the  prince  ( fis - 
cus) ,  the  other  of  the  senate  ( cerarium ).  Besides  introducing  a  regular  organi¬ 
sation  into  the  army.,  Augustus  divided  and  separated  the  twenty-five  legions, 
paid  them  regularly,  and  compensated  their  toils  by  money  instead  of  land. 
The  term  of  service  was  also  fixed,  and  the  soldiers,  instead  of  being  turbulent 
and  insolent,  as  in  the  civil  wars,  became  docile  and  peaceable.  The  entire 
body  was  distributed  along  the  frontiers  in  stationary  camps  ;  tranquillity  was 
maintained  in  the  interior  by  praetorian  and  urban  cohorts.  Two  fleets,  one  at 
Ravenna,  the  other  at  Misenum,  protected  the  commerce  of  the  Mediterranean; 
forty  vessels  guarded  the  Euxine  Sea,  and  armed  boats  secured  the  navigation 
of  the  Rhine  and  Danube. 

3.  Tiberius,  a.  d.  14-37. — The  reign  of  Augustus  appears  in  a  more 
favourable  light  when  contrasted  with  those  of  his  nearest  successors. 
Tiberius  was  fifty-six  years  old  when  he  ascended  the  throne,  professing 
great  unwillingness  to  take  upon  him  its  important  cares.  The  first 
victim  of  this  despotic  emperor  was  the  young  Agrippa  Posthumus,  in 
whom  he  feared  a  rival ;  and  all  restraint  being  now  removed,  the  tyrant 
gave  loose  to  his  cruel  and  sensual  passions.  He  soon  afterwards 
retired  from  Rome  to  Campania,  from  whose  luxurious  retreats  issued 
those  blood-stained  decrees  which  the  senate  was  so  ready  to  enregister ; 
and  we  may  read  in  Suetonius  and  Tacitus  of  the  murders  committed 
by  this  body,  in  compliance  with  the  imperial  edicts.  Sejanus,  com¬ 
mander  of  the  praetorian  guards,  and  favourite  of  the  monarch,  dared  to 
raise  his  thoughts  to  the  highest  station;  and,  to  clear  his  way  to  the 
throne,  got  rid  of  all  those  whose  claims  were  nearer  than  his  own. 
Germanicus,  the  son  of  Drusus,  was  poisoned ;  his  widow,  Agrippina, 
was  exiled  to  Pandataria,  an  island  noted  as  the  place  of  Julia’s  banish¬ 
ment;  his  eldest  son,  Nero,  committed  suicide  to  avoid  the  torture;  and 
Drusus,  the  second  son,  perished  of  hunger  in  prison.  But  Tiberius 
suddenly  awoke  to  the  treachery  of  his  minister,  and  he  who  had  filled 
all  Rome  with  mourning  was  surrendered  to  the  popular  fury.  From 
this  period  the  emperor,  exasperated  by  the  dangers  with  which  he  had 
been  threatened,  indulged  in  fresh  cruelties.  The  wealthy  inhabitants 
of  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Greece,  were  condemned  to  death  for  the  merest 
trifles,  that  their  riches  might  augment  the  royal  treasures.  His  latter 
years  were  passed  in  scenes  of  infamous  debauchery  at  Capreae,  and  his 
death  was  hastened  by  the  hands  of  a  freedman,  a.  d.  37. 

11* 


126 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


During  this  odious  reign,  Jesus  Christ  accomplished  on  the  cross 
his  divine  mission  ;  and  then  arose  from  Calvary  that  new  and  pure 
gospel  which  was  destined  to  regenerate  the  world. 

Foreign  Wars. — Tiberius  imitated  the  policy  of  Augustus  by  engag¬ 
ing  in  no  wars  unnecessarily.  In  Gaul,  two  revolts,  the  result  of 
excessive  taxation,  were  with  difficulty  subdued  ;  while,  in  the  East,  the 
imperial  ministers  found  safety  in  the  troubles  they  excited  among  the 
tributary  Persian  states.  Germany,  however,  in  the  days  of  Augustus, 
had  been  the  scene  of  important  military  operations.  The  wife  and 
infant  son  of  Arminius  ( Hermann )  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans,  to  rescue  whom  all  the  neighbouring  tribes  rose  in  arms. 
Germanicus,  eager  to  anticipate  the  terrible  blow  impending  over  his 
country,  assumed  the  offensive,  attacked  and  defeated  several  detached 
bodies  of  the  enemy,  and  in  the  end  had  nearly  gained  a  complete  vic¬ 
tory.  A  bloody  campaign  led  to  no  decisive  result;  the  Germans  could 
make  no  permanent  impression  on  the  well-disciplined  legions,  and  the 
Romans  were  compelled  to  retire  by  sea,  when  a  fearful  tempest  destroyed 
a  great  part  of  the  fleet  and  army.  Shortly  after  this,  Arminius,  who 
has  been  praised  by  Tacitus  as  the  liberator  of  Germany  from  the  domi¬ 
nion  of  Rome  when  in  the  height  of  her  power,  was  assassinated  at  the 
age  of  thirty  seven,  eleven  years  after  his  triumph  over  Varus. 

4.  Caligula,  a.  d.  37-41,  began  to  reign  with  mildness,  but  a  severe 
malady  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  disordered  his  intellect,  after  which 
his  cruelty  knew  no  bounds.  His  excesses  can  only  be  excused  by 
supposing  his  mind  to  have  been  affe.  ted.  He  fancied  himself  at  one 
time  a  male,  at  another  time  a  female,  deity ;  raised  his  wife  and  his 
horse  to  the  consulate ;  and  fed  his  wild  beasts  with  the  bodies  of 
citizens  and  captives.  A  violent  death  freed  Rome  from  this  frantic 
monster. 

5.  Claudius,  a.  d,  41-54.— -The  senate,  immediately  upon  the  demise 
of  Caligula,  began  to  deliberate  on  the  choice  of  a  successor;  but  the 
praetorians,  amounting  to  10,000  men,  instituted  as  a  body-guard  by 
Augustus,  and  kept  in  various  garrisons  throughout  Italy,  now  took 
advantage  of  their  being  collected  in  Rome,  to  proclaim  the  supremacy 
of  the  army.  They  elected  Claudius,  during  whose  impotent  rule  35 
senators  and  300  knights  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  executioner.  He  was 
quite  a  puppet  under  the  management  of  his  favourites  Messalina  and 
Agrippina,  Pallas  and  Narcissus.  In  this  reign,  the  conquest  of  South 
Britain  was  partly  effected,  a.  d.  43. 

The  first  act  of  Claudius’  government  was  to  publish  a  general  am¬ 
nesty,  from  which  the  murderers  of  his  predecessor  were  alone  excepted. 
He  repealed  all  Caligula’s  edicts,  showing  the  greatest  deference  for 
the  senate  and  magistrates.  He  himself  presided  daily  at  the  tribunal 
of  justice,  enacted  many  wise  laws,  annulled  the  cruel  statutes  against 
high-treason,  diminished  the  taxes,  checked  usury,  and  encouraged 
marriage.  It  is  not  one  of  his  smallest  claims  to  the  title  of  benefactor 
of  his  people,  that  he  abolished  in  Gaul  the  blood-stained  religion  of  the 
Druids.  The  principal  inhabitants  of  that  province  were  selected  to  fill 
the  vacant  seats  in  the  senate-house,  the  censorship  was  re-established, 
the  circumference  of  Rome  enlarged,  and  a  new  port  constructed  at 
Ostia,  for  the  reception  of  the  African  and  Egyptian  corn-vessels.  But 


FIRST  CENTURY  A.  D. 


127 


the  empire  required  the  firm  hand  of  a  master,  while  Claudius  was 
feeble  and  uxorious.  His  death  by  poison  was  effected  by  his  second 
wife  and  an  infamous  sorceress  Locusta,  a.  d.  54. 

6.  Nero,  a.  d.  54-68,  reigned  mildly  five  years,  guided  by  the  ex¬ 
perience  of  Burrhus  and  Seneca,  after  which  he  was  seized  with  a 
hereditary  madness.  He  murdered  his  mother  Agrippina,  his  brother, 
his  tutor,  and  the  poet  Lucan.  He  set  fire  to  Rome,  and,  while  the  city 
was  burning,  mounted  a  lofty  tower,  where,  accompanying  the  words 
with  the  music  of  the  harp,  he  sung  his  own  poem  on  the  fall  of  Troy. 
He  appeared  as  a  sinf e|  on  the  public  stage,  and  contended  as  a  herald 
or  crier  at  Olympia.  Tne  people  at  last  grew  weary  of  his  cruelty  and 
debauchery;  and  he  perished  by  the  sword  of  his  freedman.  But  his 
private  vices  were  less  dangerous  to  the  state  than  his  exactions  in  the 
provinces  whence  he  drew  the  means  of  supporting  his  extravagance, 
and  of  keeping  his  subjects  in  a  continual  state  of  intoxication.*  With 
him  the  Julian  family  became  extinct;  and  in  consequence  of  the  dis¬ 
puted  succession,  four  emperors  arose  in  less  than  two  years. 

7.  Galba,  a.  d.  68,  69,  was  elected  to  the  throne  during  Nero’s  life, 
but  endeavouring  to  check  the  licentiousness  of  the  army  and  praetorians 
who  had  raised  him  to  so  dangerous  an  eminence,  he  was  murdered  by 
the  soldiers,  after  a  reign  of  seven  months. 

8.  Otho,  a.  d.  69,  who  had  plotted  against  the  life  of  his  predecessor, 
did  not  long  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  treason.  This  companion  of  the 
early  debaucheries  of  Nero  had  been  sent,  during  that  monarch’s  life, 
into  the  honourable  banishment  of  the  Spanish  quaetorship,  in  which 
office  he  gained  over  the  army,  by  whom  he  was  invested  with  the 
purple.  But  he  was  scarcely  acknowledged  at  Rome  before  the  legions 
of  Germany  elected  a  competitor.  Supported  only  by  the  praetorians 
and  an  undisciplined  crowd,  he  was  defeated  by  Vitellius,  his  rival,  and 
committed  suicide,  after  reigning  three  months  and  five  days. 

9.  Vitellius,  a.  d.  69,  trod  in  the  steps  of  his  patron  Caligula. 
Although  he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  he 
was  severe  toward  his  enemies.  He  was  put  to  death  while  preparing 
to  meet  Vespasian,  who  had  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  Syrian 
army.  Thus  in  the  space  of  a  single  year,  Rome  had  seen  three 
monarchs  elected  by  the  respective  armies  of  Italy,  the  Rhine,  and 
Spain,  and  who  all  met  with  violent  deaths. 

10.  Vespasian  was  declared  emperor  by  the  soldiers  whom  he  was 
leading  against  the  Jews,  a.  d.  69.  This  people,  excited  by  false  pro 
phets  and  oppressed  by  the  severity  of  their  governors,  broke  out  into 
open  revolt.  In  other  parts  of  the  empire  the  peace  was  similarly  dis¬ 
turbed  ;  blood  was  shed  in  the  streets  of  Rome  in  civil  tumult;  the 
splendid  temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol  was  consumed  by  fire  ;  Gaul 
was  in  rebellion ;  the  frontiers  were  threatened  by  the  Germans  on  the 
Rhine,  and  by  the  Parthians  on  the  Euphrates.  Vespasian  restored 
peace  to  the  world,  and  during  nine  years  used  his  extensive  power  with 


*  It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  Nero’s  memory  was  long  cherished  among  the 
lower  classes.  During  many  years  his  tomb  was  decorated  with  flowers.  His  death  was 
considered  a  fabrication,  and  no  less  than  three  false  Neros  appeared  in  the  East.  At 
the  close  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  it  was  a  popular  belief  that  he  would  appear 
at  the  end  of  the  world  as  Antichrist. 


128 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


moderation.  Under  his  orders  the  Jewish  war  was  terminated  ;  and  his 
son  Titus,  whom  he  had  left  at  the  head  of  the  army,  utterly  destroyed 
the  people  of  Jerusalem  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  and  rased  the  city 
to  the  ground.  A  medal  was  struck  commemorative  of  the  event,  bear¬ 
ing  on  one  side  a  veiled  female  figure  sitting  under  a  palm-tree,  with 
the  inscription  Judxa  Capta .  Vespasian  died  in  the  midst  of  many 
valuable  reforms,  and  left  the  empire  to  the  conotueror  of  the  Jews. 

11.  Titus,  a.  d.  79-81,  called  The  Delight  of  Mankind ,  from  his 
amiable  and  generous  disposition,  enjoyed  a  reign  of  only  two  years, 
which  was  marked  by  calamities.  He  was  compelled  to  quit  Berenice, 
a  Jewish  princess  whom  he  tenderly  loved ;  a  great  part  of  Rome  was 
consumed  by  fire ;  this  was  followed  by  a  raging  pestilence;  and  an 
eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  buried  the  towns  of  Herculaneum,  Pompeii, 
and  Stabise  beneath  showers  of  ashes,  August  24,  a.  d.  79. 

12.  Domitian,  a.  d.  81-96,  who  succeeded  his  brother,  manifested  the 
disposition  of  Nero.  He  embellished  the  city  with  magnificent  build¬ 
ings,  and  engaored  in  useless  and  unsuccessful  wars  ;  South  Britain  was 
however  subdued  in  his  reign  by  Agricola,  85,  whose  death  he  is  said 
to  have  occasioned.  He  banished  literary  men  from  Rome,  degraded 
the  senate,  and  persecuted  all  who  were  noble  and  good.  He  arrogated 
divine  honours  to  himself,  put  to  death  many  men  of  rank  for  the  most 
trifling  causes,  and  at  last  fell  by  an  assassin’s  dagger,  a.  d.  96.  Thus 
perished  the  last  of  the  twelve  Caesars,  of  whom  only  four  deserve  the 
respect  of  posterity  :  Julius,  Augustus,  Vespasian,  and  Titus. 

Gibbon  thus  characterizes  the  unworthy  successors  of  Augustus  : — 
“  Their  unparalleled  vices,  and  the  splendid  theatre  on  which  they  were 
acted,  have  saved  them  from  oblivion.  The  dark,  unrelenting  Tiberius, 
the  furious  Caligula,  the  feeble  Claudius,  the  profligate  and  cruel  Nero, 
the  beastly  Vitellius,  and  the  timid,  inhuman  Domitian,  are  condemned 
to  everlasting  infamy.  During  fourscore  years  (excepting  only  the 
short  and  doubtful  respite  of  Vespasian’s  reign),  Rome  groaned  beneath 
an  unremitting  tyranny,  which  exterminated  the  ancient  families  of  the 
republic,  and  was  fatal  to  almost  every  virtue  and  every  talent  that 
arose  in  that  unhappy  period.” 


JUDiEA. 

Archelaus  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father  Herod, 
3  b.  c.,  but  his  administration  was  so  despotic  and  unpopular,  that  he 
was  deposed  and  banished  to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  a.  d.  8,  when  Judsea 
became  a  Roman  province,  dependent  on  the  prefecture  of  Syria,  under 
the  procurator  Coponius.  On  one  occasion  this  cruel  monarch  caused 
3000  citizens  to  be  massacred  in  the  Temple.  Pontius  Pilate,  who  was 
governor  from  a.  d.  26  to  36,  was  a  man  cf  stern  and  inflexible  temper, 
utterly  disregarding  the  religious  feelings  of  the  people.  Twice  he 
nearly  caused  a  revolt  by  introducing  into  the  city  the  Roman  ensigns, 
on  which  were  the  images  of  the  emperor,  and  by  the  consecration  of 
the  golden  bucklers  in  the  palace  of  Herod.  The  part  which  he  took 
in  the  condemnation  of  our  Lord  is  too  well  known  to  rtquire  comment. 
He  was  soon  afterwards  recalled,  and  banished  to  Vienne,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  perished  by  his  own  hand,  a.  d.  38. 


Domitius  Nero,  t  a.  d.  68. 

.  Octavia.  2.  Popoaea  Sabina. 


FIRST  CENTURY  A.  D. 


129 


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130 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Herod  Agrippa. — The  Jewish  kingdom  was  again  reconstructed  from 
its  several  tetrarchies  by  Claudius,  and  bestowed  upon  Herod  Agrippa, 
grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  a.  d.  41.  Educated  at  Rome,  he  was  the 
friend  of  the  Emperors  Tiberius,  Caligula,  and  Claudius  ;  and  after 
many  years,  full  of  the  most  striking  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  he  became 
one  of  the  greatest  princes  of  the  East,  and  governed  the  Jews  three 
years  in  such  a  manner  as  to  become  extremely  popular.  His  death, 
which  was  sudden,  may  be  ascribed  to  the  immediate  judgment  of  God 
for  his  impiety.  On  a  day  of  festival,  when  he  appeared  in  the  theatre 
of  Caesarea,  the  brilliant  light  of  the  sun  glancing  on  ms  silver  robes 
struck  the  people  with  admiration.  Fawning  parasites  addressed  him 
as  a  god  :  —  ,4Be  thou  merciful  unto  us,  for  although  we  have  hitherto 
received  thee  only  as  a  man,  yet  henceforth  we  shall  regard  thee  as 
superior  to  mortal  nature.5’  He  neither  rebuked  nor  rejected  this  impi¬ 
ous  flattery,  when  he  was  immediately  smitten  with  violent  pains  in  his 
bowels.  Turning  to  his  attendants,  he  cried,  44  Behold  your  god  is  now 
condemned  to  die !”  Five  days  he  lingered  in  the  most  excruciating 
tortures,  when  he  expired,  having  attained  only  the  fifty-fourth  year  of 
his  age,  and  the  seventh  of  his  reign  as  tetrarch  of  Galilee.  Under  the 
frequent  change  of  governors  and  prefects,  the  Jews  experienced  alter¬ 
nate  changes  of  gentleness  and  severity.  False  Messiahs  appeared  on 
every  side,  and  a  ferocious  sect  arose,  which,  adopting  tne  opinions  of 
Judas  the  Gaulonite,  put  itself  in  open  hostility  to  the  Roman  govern¬ 
ment.  Under  Claudius  Felix,  who  trembled  at  the  simple  truths  uttered 
by  St.  Paul,  the  country  began  to  be  filled  with  robbers  and  murderers. 
Gessius  Florus,  a.  d.  64,  the  worst  of  the  Roman  governors,  was  tyran¬ 
nical,  cruel,  and  insatiably  avaricious.  He  murdered  3000  people  in 
Jerusalem,  20,000  at  Caesarea,  2000  at  Ptolemais,  and  2500  at  Ascalon* 
but  when  he  carried  his  insolence  so  far  as  to  attempt  to  enter  the  tem¬ 
ple  with  his  soldiers,  the  whole  inhabitants  rose  in  arms  against  him. 
The  nation  was  unfortunately  divided  into  two  parties,  one  proposing 
submission,  the  other  desirous  to  continue  the  revolt.  The  country  now 
became  a  scene  of  bloodshed,  and  the  flame  of  insurrection  spread  to 
Syria,  Egypt,  and  the  neighbouring  states.  Cestius  Gallus,  prefect  of 
Syria,  who  endeavoured  to  recover  the  capital,  was  defeated  with  great 
loss.  The  Christians,  remembering  the  prophecy  of  Christ,  took  ad¬ 
vantage  of  the  retreat  of  the  Roman  army,  and  withdrew  to  Pella, 
beyond  the  Jordan,  where  they  lived  in  peace,  free  from  the  horrors  of 
the  wTar  raging  around  the  holy  city. 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  70. — Ananus,  or  Annas,  the  high 
priest,  was  raised  to  the  civil  command  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  historian 
Josephus  was  at  the  head  of  the  armies  of  Galilee  and  Gamaia.  Ves¬ 
pasian  was  sent  with  60,000  men  to  crush  the  rebellion,  a.  d.  67.  After 
subduing  the  revolted  provinces,  he  was  spreading  his  toils  around  the 
devoted  city,  when,  as  already  noticed,  he  was  elected  emperor,  a.  d.  69  ; 
and  departing  for  Rome,  left  his  son  Titus  to  continue  the  campaign. 
The  Jews  had  neglected  to  profit  by  this  season  of  delay.  The  ravages 
of  war  without  were  far  less  fatal  than  the  murderous  rage  of  the  fac¬ 
tions  within  the  walls.  44  The  holy  city  had  become  the  nest  of  all 
uncleanness,  a  horrid  den  of  robbers,  and  a  hateful  cave  of  murderers.” 
Eleazar,  with  a  band  of  Zealots  (a  horde  of  robbers  who  had  assumed 
the  name  without  the  principles  of  the  sect),  possessed  the  inner  court 


FIRST  CENTURY  A.  D. 


131 


of  the  Temple ;  while  John  of  Gischala,  who  had  obstinately  resisted 
die  Romans  in  Galilee,  occupied  the  rest  of  the  building,  now  converted 
into  a  fortress.  When  Titus  advanced  to  the  siege,  Jerusalem  was 
crowded  with  people  from  all  quarters,  tvho  had  come  up  to  celebrate 
the  passover;  and  they  soon  became  a  prey  to  the  most  horrible  famine 
recorded  in  history,  so  that  vermin,  grass,  and  leather,  were  held  a 
luxury,  and  sold  at  a  high  price.  From  the  middle  of  April  to  the  first 
of  July,  not  fewer  than  115,880  dead  bodies  were  flung  out  at  one  gate 
of  the  city ;  the  whole  number  thus  disposed  of  is  reckoned  at  600,000; 
and  after  an  unexampled  siege  of  six  months,  the  city  was  reduced,  a. 
d.  70.  “The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  exceeded  all  which  God  or  man 
ever  brought  upon  the  world.”  Exclusive  of  those  who  perished  in 
caves  and  woods,  and  in  the  vaults  of  Jerusalem,  1,364,000  are  com¬ 
puted  by  Lipsius  to  have  fallen  in  the  war ;  97,000  were  taken  prison¬ 
ers ;  and  11,000  sullenly  starved  themselves  to  death.  Titus,  we  are 
told,  called  God  to  witness  that  he  was  not  the  author  of  their  calami¬ 
ties.  In  perusing  the  melancholy  details  of  Josephus,  it  is  impossible 
to  resist  the  conviction,  that  in  these  awful  transactions  the  hand  of  the 
Almighty  was  punishing  a  guilty  people,  and  requiring  from  them  the 
righteous  blood  of  Christ,  which  they  had  invoked  upon  their  heads, 
crying — “  His  blood  be  on  us,  and  on  our  children  !” 

Read:  Milman’s  History  of  the  Jews  ;  Hide’s  History  of  the  Jews. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

The  Messiah. —  During  a  season  of  profound  peace,  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  when  there  was  a  general  expectation  that  some  great  per¬ 
sonage  was  about  to  appear,  the  time  arrived  for  the  redemption  of  the 
human  race, — promised  at  the  fall  of  man,  predicted  by  all  the  prophets, 
typified  by  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  ancient  law,  and  earnestly  desired 
by  all  just  men.  In  the  “  fulness  of  time”  Jesus  Christ  was  born  at 
Bethlehem.  He  escaped  from  the  murderous  rage  of  Herod,  and  for 
nearly  thirty  years  lived  an  obscure  life  at  Nazareth.  At  length,  enter¬ 
ing  on  his  public  ministry,  he  began  to  teach,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
throughout  all  Judaea,  confirming  his  divine  mission  by  the  purity  of  his 
life,  the  sublimity  of  his  doctrines,  and  his  miraculous  powers.  The 
Jews,  who  had  looked  for  an  earthly  conqueror,  refused  to  listen  to  the 
lowly  Galilean,  and  procured  his  condemnation  and  execution  as  a 
criminal,  3d  April,  a.  d.  30. 

After  the  resurrection  and  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  the  Christian 
religion  spread  rapidly  under  the  ministry  of  the  apostles  and  their  con¬ 
verts,  They  preached  throughout  all  the  Roman  empire  the  sublime 
truths  revealed  to  them  by  their  divine  Master,  and  established  churches 
in  three  quarters  of  the  world.  The  name  of  Christian  was  first  used 
at  Antioch,  a.  d.  40.  The  four  gospels  contain  the  history  of  the  Re¬ 
deemer’s  life  and  doctrines,  and  were  written  in  the  order  in  which  they 
stand,  between  a.  d.  37  and  98. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

The  first  Christian  societies  or  churches  were  formed,  as  far  as  circumstances 
would  permit  on  the  model  of  the  synagogue,  were  governed  by  deacons ,  and 
sometimes  deaconesses ,  who  were  charged  with  the  distribution  of  alms;  elders 


132 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


(presbyters  or  priests)  exercised  a  right  of  censure  over  private  individuals,  bu\ 
their  functions  originally  were  not  connected  with  religious  instructions;  and 
bishops  (episcopi,  overseers ),  the  associates  in  the  labours  and  the  successors  of 
the  apostles.  1'he  bishop  administered  the  sacraments  and  maintained  the  dis¬ 
cipline  of  the  church,  superintended  the  daily  increasing  religious  ceremonies, 
directed  the  funds,  and  arbitrated  in  the  disputes  of  the  faithful.* 

Persecution  forced  the  different  communities  to  unite  each  round  the  nearest 
centre,  generally  some  populous  and  neighbouring  town ;  such  was  the  origin 
of  a  diocese.  The  same  necessity  compelled  the  bishops  of  the  country  towns 
to  unite  with  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  thus  a  metropolis  was  formed. 
This  institution  confirmed  a  custom  which  dates  from  the  end  of  the  second 
century,  that  of  synods  or  councils ,  provincial  meetings  held  in  spring  and 
autumn. 

First  Persecution,  a.  d.  64. — The  progress  of  the  new  doctrines 
brought  down  upon  their  professors  the  rage  of  the  Jews  and  the  cruel 
torments  of  Nero.  The  year  a.  d.  64  was  an  eventful  epoch  in  the 
Christian  Church.  The  dreadful  conflagration  which  threatened  with 
ruin  the  Eternal  City  was  considered  as  the  judgment  of  offended 
deities,  to  appease  whom  the  followers  of  the  Christian  religion  were 
exposed  to  the  severest  tortures.  u  Some  of  them  (says  the  pagan  Taci¬ 
tus)  were  covered  over  with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  that  they  might 
be  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs;  some  were  crucified,  while  others,  having 
been  daubed  over  with  combustible  materials,  were  set  up  for  lights  in 
the  night-time,  and  thus  burnt  to  death.”  The  apostles  Peter  and  Paul 
suffered  martyrdom  in  this  persecution,  which  appears  to  have  been 
principally  confined  to  the  capital,  where  the  latter  of  these  faithful  men 
became  the  victim  of  imperial  rage,  j- 

Second  Persecution. — For  nearly  30  years  after  the  death  of  Nero, 
the  Christians  were  allowed  to  live  undisturbed  ;  and  their  numbers  had 
multiplied  considerably,  when  the  gloomy  tyrant  Domitian  began  the 
second  persecution,  a.  d.  95.  It  is  probable  that  the  emperor  acted 
through  fear,  since  there  is  a  singular  story  related  of  an  edict  issued  by 
him  fc  the  extermination  of  the  whole  family  of  David.  Some  de¬ 
scendants  of  our  Lord’s  brethren  still  survived,  and  were  brought  before 
the  tribunal  of  the  procurator  of  Judaea,  but,  after  examination,  they 
were  dismissed  as  too  humble  to  be  dangerous  to  the  authority  of  Rome. 
The  apprehensions  of  Domitian  were  aroused  by  the  appearance  of 
danger  from  a  nearer  quarter.  One  of  his  cousins-german,  the  consul 
Flavius  Clemens,  being  suddenly  accused  of  atheism  and  Jewish  man¬ 
ners,  the  common  charge  against  Christians,  was  put  to  death,  and  his 
wife,  Domitilla,  the  emperor’s  niece,  was  banished.  Tertullian  relates 
that  St.  John  was  miraculously  delivered  unhurt  from  a  vessel  of  flaming 
oil,  into  which  he  had  been  cast  by  the  orders  of  the  tyrant.  He  was 
afterwards  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patinos,  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  where  he  committed  to  writing  his  sublime  Book  of  Revelation. 

*  The  apostolic  succession  of  the  bishops  app°ars  to  be  undeniable,  but  the  extent  and 
nature  of  their  authority  are  altogether  uncertain.  It  should,  moreover,  be  observed  that 
the  term  “  successors  of  the  apostles”  can  be  applied  to  them  in  a  very  limited  significa¬ 
tion  only. 

t  Count  Stolberg,  a  Romanist  writer,  brings  Peter  to  Rome  at  the  beginning  of  Nero’s 
reign,  but  denies  that  the  apostle  founded  the  Christian  church  in  that  city.  It  is,  how¬ 
ever.  more  than  questionable  if  St.  Peter  ever  was  at  Rome.  Lightfoot  positively  asserts 
that  he  lived  and  died  in  dial  laea.  Milman  endeavours  to  reconcile  testimony  and  tra¬ 
dition  by  the  theory  of  two  churches,  a  Petrine  and  a  Pauline,  a  Judaising  and  a  Hel 
lenising  community. 


FIRST  CENTURY  A.  D. 


33 


Ten  great  persecutions  of  the  early  Christian  church  are  recorded  jy  msto- 
rians  ;  we  shall  treat  of  them  as  they  occur,  but  it  may  be  convenient  to  arrange 
their  epochs  together  : — 

3d  Persecution,  a.d.  106,  under  Trajan. 

4th  Persecution,  a.  d.  166,  under  Marcus  Aurelius. 

5th  Persecution,  a.  d.  202,  under  Severus. 

6th  Persecution,  a.  d.  235,  under  Maximin. 

7th  Persecution,  a.d.  250,  under  Decius. 

8th  Persecution,  a.  d.  258,  under  Valerian. 

9th  Persecution,  a.  d.  272,  under  Aurelian. 

10th  Persecution,  a.  d.  303,  under  Diocletian  and  Maximian. 

Read :  Milman’s  Hist,  of  Christianity  ;  Milner’s  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ 

TABLE  OF  THE  PERSECUTIONS. 


|  No.  of 

Perse¬ 

cution. 

Year. 

In  what 
Countries. 

'  Name  of  Emperor, 
&c. 

Principal  Sufferers,  and 
when. 

a 

BRITAIN. 

In  the  years  55  and  54  b.  c.,  Julius  Caesar  invaded  this  island,  but  his 
two  campaigns  were  indecisive,  and  the  country  maintained  its  inde¬ 
pendence  until  a.  d.  43,  when  the  Emperor  Claudius  in  person,  and 
afterwards  the  generals  Plautius  and  Vespasian,  compelled  various 
tribes  to  acknowledge  the  majesty  of  Rome.  The  last  of  these  com¬ 
manders  fought  thirty  battles  before  he  could  subdue  the  inhabitants, 
and  Caractacus  opposed  Plautius  during  five  years  with  varying  suc¬ 
cess.  This  brave  chief  of  the  Silures  being  without  allies,  his  army 
was  at  last  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  and  he  himself  taken  prisoner 
and  carried  to  Rome.  Suetonius  endeavoured  to  destroy  the  Druids 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  isle  of  Anglesey,  and  quelled  a  formidable 
insurrection  headed  by  the  celebrated  Boadicea,  a.d.  61,  which  cost  the 
lives  of  150.000  men.  In  the  course  of  seven  years,  78-85,  the  power 
of  the  empire  was  firmly  established  by  Agricola :  he  subdued  the 
natives  as  far  north  as  the  Forth,  and  also  defeated  Galgacus  and  his 
Caledonians  at  the  foot  of  their  native  Grampians.  Rutilius  has  said, 
with  equal  beauty  and  truth,  that  Rome  embraced  the  wThole  world  in 
her  legislative  triumphs,  causing  all  to  live  under  a  common  bond  ;  that 
she  blended  discordant  nations  into  one ;  and  that,  by  offering  to  the 
conquered  a  full  companionship  in  her  privileges,  she  made  the  earth 
one  united  city.  With  these  principles  Agricola  endeavoured  to  civilize 
the  island,  by  inspiring  the  barbarians  with  a  love  of  letters,  and  by  the 
introduction  of  the  Roman  dress,  language,  and  luxurious  manners. 
Four  legions  wrere  stationed  in  Britain,  and  as  many  great  roads  facili¬ 
tated  the  communication  between  distant  points. 

The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country  appear  to  have  been  the 
Cymrv,  from  whom  the  Welsh  are  descended  ;  and  these  w~ere  followed 
12 


134 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


by  colonies  of  Celts  from  Gaul,  being  themselves,  like  the  first  settlers, 
of  Cimmerian  origin.  But  not  by  rude  emigrants  alone  was  the  island 
visited,  for  the  Phoenicians,  and  after  them  the  Carthaginians,  frequented 
its  south-western  shores  in  search  of  tin.  Numerous  tribes,  of  which 
forty-five  have  been  designated,  were  spread  over  its  surface ;  and  the 
Belgae,  a  people  of  Gothic  origin,  occupied  the  south-eastern  coast. 
They  all  lived  in  such  a  state  of  primitive  simplicity  as  might  be  wit¬ 
nessed  at  present  in  the  woods  of  North  America,  or  in  New  Zealand. 
Their  food  was  milk  and  flesh,  skins  their  clothing,  and  to  strike  terror 
into  their  enemies  in  battle  the  exposed  limbs  were  stained  blue.  Their 
houses  were  constructed  of  timber  and  reeds ;  their  towns  were  situated 
in  the  depths  of  forests,  the  access  to  which  was  protected  by  ditches 
and  barriers  of  trees.  Money  was  little  used,  and  was  commonly  rings 
of  iron  or  copper  of  a  certain  weight.  Their  army  was  chiefly  composed 
of  infantry;  but,  like  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war,  their  chiefs  fought 
from  chariots  armed  with  scythes.  Their  religion  was  that  of  the  fierce 
and  sanguinary  Druids ;  a  system  which  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
Britain,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  Gaul.  Its  principal  doctrines 
were  the  immortality  and  transmigration  of  souls ;  its  chief  maxims — to 
worship  the  gods,  to  do  no  evil,  and  to  behave  heroically.  To  appease, 
by  cruel  rites,  their  offended  deities,  huge  images  of  wickerwork  were 
filled  with  human  victims,  who  were  burned  alive,  and  from  their 
quivering  limbs  the  priests  predicted  future  events.  The  mistletoe, 
wherever  it  was  found  upon  the  oak,  itself  a  sacred  tree,  was  cut  with 
great  ceremony,  and  used  as  a  charm  to  cause  fecundity  or  to  counteract 
poison.  The  Druidical  order  was  divided  into  three  classes:  1.  The 
Druids,  who  were  their  dignitaries ;  2.  The  Bards,  poets  or  musicians ; 
and,  3.  The  Ouates,  the  lowest  rank  of  sacrificers  and  diviners.  Of  their 
monuments  we  have  no  remains,  unless  we  consider  as  such  the  remark¬ 
able  ruins  of  Stonehenge  and  Abury. 

Read :  Turner’s  Anglo-Saxons,  book  i.  chap.  iv. 


SECOND  CENTURY. 

Rome. — 96,  Nerva. — 98,  Trajan. — 117,  Adrian. — 138-180,  The  Antonines.^- 
180,  Commodus. — 193,  Didius  Julianus. 

The  Church. — Third  and  Fourth  Persecutions. 

Discoveries. — Astronomical  System  of  Ptolemy. 

Literature,  &c. — Lucian;  Ptolemy;  Justin  Martyr ;  Apuleius;  Suetonius; 
Florus  ;  Justin  ;  Symmachus  ; — The  Targurn  and  Mischnah.* 

ROME. 

The  Five  Good  Emperors.  —  Nerva,  a.d.  96-98,  began  his  short 
but  happy  reign  by  the  diminution  of  taxes.  He  was  of  Cretan  extrac¬ 
tion,  and  elected  by  the  senate  at  the  age  of  sixty-five  to  support  the 


*  The  Tarspim  is  a  Chaldee  paraphrase  of  the  five  books  of  Moses  by  Onkelos  :  its  date 
is  uncertain.  The  Mischnah  is  a  compilation  of  traditional  Jewish  laws  by  Rabbi  Judah  ; 
its  commentary,  the  Gemarah ,  is  divided  into  two  parts,  viz.  1st,  The  Talmud  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  compiled  in  the  third  century;  and  2d,  The  Talmud  of  Babylon,  compiled  in  the 


SECOND  CENTURY  A. D. 


135 


state  already  inclining  to  its  fall.  Alarmed  at  the  insurrections  excited 
by  his  reforms,  he  adopted  the  valiant  Trajan,  then  commanding  the 
armies  of  Lower  Germany,  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  though  of  Roman 
descent.  The  news  of  his  elevation  at  once  quieted  all  dissensions,  and 
his  soldiers,  when  he  returned  to  Rome  as  emperor,  after  the  death  of 
Nerva,  were  never  known  to  give  cause  for  complaint  by  their  insolence 
or  irregularity.  Trajan’s  palace  was  open  to  all,  and  with  the  studied 
modesty  of  Augustus  he  visited  among  his  former  friends  like  a  private 
citizen.  He  introduced  order  and  economy  into  the  imperial  household, 
constructed  numerous  public  monuments,  and  also  formed  that  great 
road  which  traversed  the  empire  from  Gaul  to  the  Euxine  Sea.  These 
and  other  peaceful  cares  did  not  prevent  him  from  watching  the  bar¬ 
barous  nations  already  hovering  on  the  Roman  frontiers.  He  attacked 
the  Dacians,  and  notwithstanding  the  skilful  tactics  of  their  chief  Dece- 
balus,  drove  them  by  repeated  defeats  to  their  capital,  the  ruins  of  wrhich 
may  still  be  seen  in  Transylvania,  and  compelled  them  to  purchase 
peace,  a.  d.  103.  The  war  wras  next  transferred  to  the  Euphrates,  and 
Trajan  penetrated  into  Armenia,  wThich  he  mastered,  threatened  Parthia, 
and  advanced  to  the  Tigris,  always  marching  on  foot  at  the  head  of  his 
troops.  In  another  expedition  he  reached  the  shores  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  sighing  that  his  age  prevented  him  from  imitating  the  exploits 
of  Alexander.  While  he  was  thus  engaged  in  distant  expeditions,  a 
horrible  revolt  broke  out  at  home.  In  Gyrene,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt,  the 
Jews  rose  and  murdered  all  the  Romans  they  could  discover,  inflicting 
on  them  the  most  frightful  tortures.  Some  were  sawn  asunder  ;  others 
torn  to  pieces  by  heated  pincers ;  and,  if  we  may  credit  the  historians, 
the  murderers  even  devoured  the  flesh  of  their  victims.  In  the  midst  of 
these  events  Trajan  died,  lamenting  that  his  labours  for  the  public  good 
had  proved  so  ineffectual.  He  was  just  and  upright  in  his  conduct  both 
public  and  private,  and  his  warlike  reign,  by  exciting  in  the  barbarous 
nations  a  sense  of  Roman  vigour,  was  eminently  useful  to  the  empire. 
His  persecution  of  the  Christians  is  a  great  blot  on  his  character. 
Though  his  life  came  to  a  close  in  Cilicia,  his  body  was  conveyed  to 
Rome,  and  over  his  tomb  was  raised  the  lofty  column  which  still  bears 
his  name.  For  nearly  three  centuries  after  his  death  it  was  usual  to 
salute  each  new  emperor  with  a  prayer  that  he  might  be  more  fortunate 
than  Augustus,  and  more  virtuous  than  Trajan. 

Adrian,  a.  d.  117-138,  was  in  many  respects  unequal  to  his  great 
predecessor.  Relinquishing  the  conquests  of  Trajan,  he  wisely  reduced 
the  empire  to  the  limits  sanctioned  by  the  wisdom  of  Augustus — to  the 
barriers  formed  by  the  Euphrates,  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  the  ocean. 
He  travelled  through  all  his  dominions  to  investigate  and  remedy  more 
promptly  the  disorders  which  prevailed.  He  settled  a  colony  at  Jeru¬ 
salem,  rebuilt  the  walls  of  that  city,  and  called  it  JElia  Capitolina. 
Many  useful  reforms  were  introduced  by  him;  the  annual  laws  of  the 
praetors  were  replaced  by  a  perpetual  edict,  so  that  the  principles  of  the 
administration  of  justice  no  longer  varied  with  each  year.  The  condi- 


fifth  century.— While  speaking  of  eastern  writings  we  may  here  observe,  that  the  Sacon - 
tala  (translated  by  Sir  W.  Jones  with  the  title  of  the  Fatal  Ring),  and  various  other 
Indian  dramas  and  poems  by  Calvlas ,  belong  to  this  century.  Of  greater  but  uncertain 
antiquity  are  the  U-King  of  the  Chinese  ;  the  Vedas  or  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos  :  the 
Mahd-bhdrata,  the  great  Hindoo  epic  ;  and  the  Sanscrit  Puranas. 


136 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


tion  of  the  slaves  was  also  greatly  ameliorated ;  their  masters  were  no 
longer  allowed  to  exercise  an  absolute  power  of  life  and  death  over 
them,  and  the  private  prisons  were  closed.  An  insurrection,  which 
broke  out  under  the  impostor  Barchochebas,  who  announced  that  he  was 
the  Messiah,  was,  after  two  years,  extinguished  in  the  blood  of  many 
thousand  Jews,  135.  The  latter  portion  of  Adrian’s  reign  was  darkened 
by  the  murder  of  persons  suspected  of  conspiring  against  him,  and  he 
died  of  a  lingering  disease,  repeating  Plato’s  well-known  lines  on  the 
nature  of  the  soul. 

Antoninus  Pius,  a.  d.  138-161,  the  second  Nunia,  the  father  of  his 
country .  was  a  rare  combination  of  virtue  and  philosophy.  His  pacific 
government  of  twenty-three  years  is  marked  by  no  striking  events,  the 
storms  and  tempests  of  nature  alone  attracting  the  notice  of  the  histo¬ 
rian.*  Bv  one  celebrated  edict  he  declared  all  the  free  inhabitants  of 
%/ 

the  empire  to  he  citizens  of  Rome, — a  measure  originating  as  much  in 
political  prudence  as  in  a  philosophic  love  of  liberty,  for  they  thereby 
became  liable  to  taxes  from  which  as  provincials  they  were  exempted. 

Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  a.  d.  161-180,  surnamed  the  Philoso¬ 
pher,  was  prevented  from  treading  in  the  tranquil  steps  of  his  predecessor 
by  disturbances  on  the  German  and  Syrian  frontiers.  The  Parthians 
were  driven  back  with  great  loss  by  his  colleague  Verus,  165;  and  he 
himself  defeated  the  Sarmatians ,  the  Quadi ,  and  the  Marco manni ,  a.  d. 
174.  Famine  and  the  plague  desolated  several  provinces  during  this 
reign.  The  Tiber  rose  above  its  banks  and  swept  away  all  the  public 
granaries  situate  near  it,  the  loss  of  which  caused  the  most  melancholy 
sufferings.  Britain  and  Belgium  were  in  confusion;  three  legions  were 
cut  off  in  the  East ;  the  victorious  army  on  its  return  from  the  Euphrates 
brought  with  it  a  pestilence  which  ravaged  the  whole  empire  to  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  city  of  Rome  in  particular,  so  that  the 
dead  bodies  were  carried  out  promiscuously  in  wagons.  The  want  of 
food  aggravated  the  previous  miseries ;  fresh  wars  broke  out  simul¬ 
taneously  on  all  sides,  to  supply  troops  for  which  even  the  gladiators 
were  enrolled  in  the  legions.  The  attacks  of  the  barbarians  of  the  north 
upon  the  frontier,  during  this  reign,  were  the  first  symptom  of  that  great 
migration  of  the  fierce  tribes  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Caspian, 
who  ultimately  overran  the  fairest  provinces  of  the  empire. 

Commodus,  at  the  death  of  his  father  Aurelius,  was  actively  engaged 
on  the  banks  of  the  Danube ;  but  growing  weary  of  a  military  life,  he 
concluded  a  hasty  peace  with  the  barbarians,  and  returning  to  Rome, 
abandoned  the  reins  of  government  to  Perennis,  the  head  of  the  prae¬ 
torian  guard,  that  he  might  better  enjoy  the  luxuries  of  his  station.  His 
life  was,  however,  soon  endangered  by  the  jealousy  of  his  sister  Lucilla. 
This  plot  was  followed  by  another,  in  which  the  military  chief  endea¬ 
voured  to  dethrone  his  master,  but  was  detected  and  executed.  The 
freedman  Oleander,  a  person  of  Thracian  origin,  being  next  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  favourite,  carried  his  audacity  almost  to  madness,  inscribing 
newly  manumitted  slaves  on  the  roll  of  the  senate,  and  electing  twenty- 
five  consuls  in  a  single  year.  He  was  put  to  death  by  the  monarch  to 
quiet  a  sedition  of  the  populace.  The  mistrust  and  cruelty  of  Commo- 


*  Another  reason  for  the  historical  silence  may  be  the  loss  of  the  book  of  Dion  Cassius 
which  contained  the  history  of  his  reign. 


SECOND  CENTURY  A.  D. 


137 


dus  gradually  reached  such  an  excess  that  he  would  put  confidence  in 
no  one;  and  his  chief  delight  was  to  descend  armed  into  the  public 
arena  and  contend  with  wild  beasts,  or  with  gladiators  whose  only  pro¬ 
tection  was  a  sword  of  lead.  The  people  were  so  changed,  that  while 
the  emperor  declared  by  his  edicts  that  his  reign  was  the  age  of  gold, 
Rome  itself  assumed  the  name  of  Colonia  Commodiana.  and  the  senate 
that  of  Commodianus.  At  length  he  styled  himself  the  son  of  Jupiter, 
the  Roman  Hercules,  and  on  his  coins  assumed  the  name  and  attributes 
of  this  demigod.  He  perished  by  assassination,  a.  d.  193. 

Didius  Julianus,  a.  d.  193. — The  praetorian  bands,  in  their  camp  on 
the  Quirinal  Hill,  now  decided  the  fate  of  the  world.  After  the  death 
of  Pertinax,  who  had  succeeded  Commodus  in  193,  and  whose  reign 
lasted  scarcely  three  months,  they  exposed  the  empire  to  public  sale, 
and  it  was  purchased  by  a  wealthy  senator,  Didius,  who  promised  a 
gratuity  of  more  than  ,£200  to  each  soldier.  The  people  were  discon¬ 
tented,  and  the  legions,  regretting  the  loss  of  a  commander  who  had 
often  led  them  to  victory,  refused  to  ratify  the  ignominious  transaction. 
The  three  armies  of  Britain,  Syria,  and  Pannonia,  elected  respectively 
Albinus,  Niger,  and  Severus.  The  last  immediately  marched  into  Italy, 
when  the  reigning  sovereign,  being  deserted  by  the  praetorians,  was  con¬ 
demned  and  executed  by  order  of  the  senate,  a.  d.  193,  after  a  reign  of 
sixty-six  days. 

The  misfortunes  of  Aurelius  and  the  extravagant  propensities  of  Commodus 
had  begun  to  weaken  the  empire ;  still  the  traces  of  decay  were  not  strikingly 
manifest,  and  in  spite  of  them  it  maintained  a  contest  with  ruin  during  200  years. 
The  provinces  were  not  as  yet  impoverished  ;  the  cities  flourished,  and  foreign 
and  internal  commerce  spread  the  luxuries  of  the  East  over  the  Roman  domi¬ 
nions.  But  had  the  nation  been  possessed  of  moral  virtue  also,  it  never  would 
have  submitted  to  the  tyranny  of  Commodus  nor  to  the  yoke  of  the  legions. 
The  military  despotism  of  this  period  was  most  dangerous  to  those  who  relied 
upon  it.  It  was  only  by  large  donatives  that  the  fidelity  of  the  prgetorian  guards 
could  be  purchased  or  maintained.  Severus  well  knew  their  power  by  the 
maxim  he  left  to  his  son — to  enrich  the  soldiers,  and  hold  the  rest  for  nothing. 


THE  CHURCH. 


Although  the  spread  of  the  Christian  religion  was  opposed  by  all  the 
power  of  the  idolatrous  government,  churches  were  early  founded  in 
Rome,  Corinth,  Crete,  Antioch,  Asia  Minor,  Britain,  and  Spain,  and  the 
number  of  converts  daily  increased.  It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  so 
remarkable  a  change  should  escape  the  notice  of  the  emperors,  who 
providentially,  by  their  moderation  and  humanity,  averted  the  arm  of 
persecution.  The  vigorous  mind  of  Trajan  appears  to  have  immediately 
comprehended  the  nature  of  the  struggle  between  the  gospel  and 
paganism. 


Third  Persecution,  a.  d.  106. — From  the  younger  Pliny,  at  that 
time  governor  of  Bithynia,  we  have  an  interesting  account  of  this  per¬ 
secution.  His  letter  to  Trajan,  a.  d.  107,  shows  that  death  was  imme¬ 
diately  inflicted  upon  every  one  who  was  convicted  of  belonging  to  the 
Christian  sect.  Women  were  tortured  to  elicit  a  confession  ;  and  their 
meeting  at  daybreak  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  to  praise  God  and  to 
take  the  sacrament,  was  reckoned  an  evil  practice.  The  new  belief  had 
already  spread  like  a  contagion  in  city  and  country,  and  the  temples 


12  * 


138 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


began  to  be  deserted.  The  emperor,  in  his  reply  to  this  epistle,  ordered 
all  those  who  persevered  in  their  faith  to  be  led  to  execution  in  obedience 
to  the  existing  laws,  meaning  those  only  who  should  be  brought  judi¬ 
cially  before  the  governor.  No  new  edict  was  published,  and  informa¬ 
tions  against  believers  do  not  appear  to  have  been  countenanced.  Adrian 
prohibited  the  Christian  converts  from  being  proceeded  against  by  cla¬ 
morous  petitions.  To  the  lions  with  the  Christians!  had  been  a  populai 
cry  in  the  time  of  public  shows,  till  it  was  thus  checked. 

Among  the  sufferers  in  this  persecution  was  Simeon,  bishop  of  Jeru¬ 
salem.  At  the  advanced  age  of  120  years,  he  supported  the  c  *uel  tor¬ 
ment  of  the  cross  with  unflinching  courage.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  was 
questioned  by  Trajan  himself,  who  condemned  him  to  be  exposed  to 
wild  beasts  in  the  Roman  amphitheatre,  a.  d.  110. 

The  Fourth  Persecution,  a.  d.  166,  began  at  Smyrna.  The  defenders 
of  the  Gospel  now  boldly  appealed  to  the  government  as  well  as  to  the 
public ;  and  many  Apologies  were  published  in  its  vindication.  The 
most  ancient  of  those  which  have  reached  our  times  is  that  of  Justin 
Martyr,  a  philosopher  converted  at  the  age  of  thirty,  and  who  after¬ 
wards  sealed  his  testimony  with  his  blood.  Under  the  contemplative 
Marcus  Aurelius,  the  persecutions  were  renewed  with  more  rigour. 
The  unshaken  faithfulness  of  the  sufferers  excited  the  astonishment  of 
the  heathen ;  and  even  Epictetus,  the  moralist,  was  led  to  ask  what 
were  the  motives  that  could  change  selfishness  into  charity,  and  over¬ 
come  the  natural  desire  of  life.  It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the 
early  history  of  the  Christian  faith  that  the  reign  of  the  wisest  and  most 
humane  of  the  heathen  emperors  was  the  most  fatal  to  it:  Marcus 
“polluted  every  year  of  a  long  reign  with  innocent  blood.” 

But  it  must  be  observed  that  the  position  of  Christianity  with  regard 
to  Paganism  was  much  altered.  It  had  spread  into  every  quarter  of  the 
empire,  and  an  intimate  bond  of  union  was  maintained  between  all  the 
churches,  while  polytheism  was  becoming  more  philosophical  under  the 
teaching  of  a  superior  class  of  writers.  Believers  were  found  in  every 
rank  of  society,  and  in  all  occupations ;  slaves  were  admitted  freely  into 
the  churches,  and  by  that  very  act  became  manumitted.  While  view¬ 
ing  the  rapid  progress  of  the  new  religion,  the  Roman  people  dreaded 
that  the  fall  of  the  ancient  worship  would  involve  that  of  their  power ; 
and  the  Christians,  by  their  interpretations  of  the  apocalypse,  appeared 
to  justify  such  an  opinion.  The  doctrine  of  the  millennium,  implying 
the  visible  throne  of  Christ,  was  still  generally  entertained  ;  and  in  the 
gloomy  aspect  of  the  times,  the  foreign  and  civil  wars,  inundations, 
earthquakes,  famine,  and  pestilence,  the  affrighted  citizens  saw  the 
anger  of  the  avenging  gods,  to  propitiate  whom  the  Christians,  their 
avowed  enemies,  once  more  became  the  victims.  The  principal  of  these 
were : —Polycarp  of  Smyrna,  who  had  been  the  disciple  of  St.John, 
and  was  burnt  alive  at  the  age  of  86 ;  Justin  Martyr,  who  was  behead¬ 
ed  ;  and  Pothinus  of  Lyons,  who,  on  the  verge  of  ninety  years,  died  in 
prison  from  the  ill  usage  he  had  received  from  the  populace.  One  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  these  sufferers  was  Blandina,  a  female  slave, 
who,  after  undergoing  the  cruelest  tortures,  was  transfixed  by  a  spear. 
From  these  and  other  judicial  murders  the  martyrdom  of  Vienne  has 
oecome  a  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Church. 

Read:  Milman’s  History  of  Christianity,  book  ii.  c.  7. 


THIRD  CENTURY  A.  D. 


139 


THIRD  CENTURY. 

Rome. — 193,  Septimius  Severus. —  211,  Caracalla. —  218,  Heliogabalus.— 222, 
Alexander  Severus. — 235,  Maximin. — The  Thirty  Tyrants. —  273.  Aurelian 
defeats  Zenobia. — 284,  Diocletian. — The  Empire  invaded  by  Goths,  Franks, 
and  Germans. 

Palmyra. — Odenathus  and  Zenobia. 

Persia. — 226,  The  Sassanides. — 260,  Sapor  captures  Valerian. 

The  Church. — Persecutions. 

Literature,  &c. — Dion  Cassius,  Origen,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Longinus. 

ROME. 

Septimius  Severus,  a.  d.  193-211,  who  was  a  native  of  Africa,  had 
risen  steadily  to  the  highest  honours.  In  less  than  four  years  he  van¬ 
quished  his  two  competitors,  Albinus  and  Niger,  and  defeated  numerous 
armies,  each  of  which  was  equal  to  his  own.  Although  addicted  to 
craft  and  dissimulation,  he  did  not  neglect  the  interests  of  the  people  ; 
but  the  calm  of  peace  and  prosperity  was  accompanied  by  an  increased 
relaxation  of  military  discipline.  The  praetorians  were  augmented  four¬ 
fold,  and  relying  upon  the  support  of  these  devoted  soldiers,  Severus 
destroyed  many  of  the  senators  and  their  families.  Renewing  the  cruel¬ 
ties  of  Marius  and  Sylla,  he  put  to  death  the  wife  and  children  of 
Albinus, — who  had  killed  himself  after  an  ineffectual  struggle  in  Gaul, 
—  and  threw  their  bodies  into  the  Tiber.  He  then  immolated  all  who 
had  embraced  the  party  of  his  antagonist,  confiscation  of  their  property 
following  in  every  case.  Forty-one  senatorial  families,  men,  women, 
and  children,  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  executioner.  The  new^s  of  an 
irruption  of  the  Caledonians  into  the  British  province  hurried  him  again 
to  the  field,  when  a  brief,  yet  not  very  successful  campaign  put  an  end 
to  the  war.  He  died  at  York,  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age,  and  the  18th 
of  his  reign,  a.  d.  211. 

Caracalla,  a.  d.  211-217,  had  attempted  to  shorten  his  father’s  life, 
and  to  excite  a  mutiny  among  the  troops ;  but  the  mercy  shown  to  him 
by  the  emperor  proved  fatal  to  Rome.  He  commenced  his  reign  by  the 
murder  of  his  brother  and  colleague  Geta,  who  was  slain  in  the  arms 
of  his  mother.  The  stings  of  a  guilty  conscience  urged  him  to  acts  of 
greater  ferocity,  and  it  is  computed  that  20,000  persons  of  both  sexes 
perished  because  they  wrere  friends  of  that  prince.  Every  province  of 
the  empire  became  the  scene  of  his  cruelty ;  the  two  Gauls  especially 
were  ruined  in  order  to  pay  his  troops  and  purchase  a  cessation  of  hos¬ 
tilities  from  the  barbarians  on  the  frontiers.  Many  thousands  were 
massacred  at  Alexandria,  by  the  orders  and  under  the  eyes  of  this 
“  savage  beast  of  Ausonia.”  But  he  continued  a  favourite  with  the 
army,  professing  to  make  the  great  Alexander  his  model.  At  length  a 
centurion  of  the  body-guard*  named  Martialis  stabbed  him  during  an 
expedition  against  the  Parthians,  a.  d.  217. 


*  The  captain  of  the  ppetorian  guards  became,  from  the  time  of  Severus,  one  of  the 
most  important  officers  in  the  state.  To  his  military  command  he  united  the  control 
of  the  finances  and  an  extensive  criminal  jurisdiction. 


140 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


The  brief  reign  of  Macrinus  prepared  the  throne  for  Heliogabalus, 
a.  d.  218-2*22.  This  youth,  whose  character  was  stained  by  every  kind 
of  vice,  had  been  a  priest  in  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Emesa  in  Syria. 
He  brought  with  him  to  Rome  all  the  luxury  and  effeminacy  of  Eastern 
monarchs ;  his  wife  had  a  place  in  the  senate,  and  slaves  and  eunuchs 
became  first  ministers.  His  profligate  conduct  raised  discontents  even 
among  a  licentious  soldiery;  hence  he  perished  in  a  sedition  of  the 
guards,  and  his  body  was  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  a.  d.  222.  The  cor¬ 
rupt  lives  of  the  emperors  had  already  sunk  the  scale  of  morals  to  a 
low  degree;  but  luxury  and  licentiousness  reached  their  height  under 
this  Syrian  ruler. 

Alexander  Severus,  a.  d.  222-235,  was  raised  by  the  praetorians  to 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  17;  and  under  his  wise  and  moderate  adminis¬ 
tration  the  Roman  world  enjoyed  an  auspicious  calm  of  thirteen  years. 
Too  young  himself  to  rule,  he  left  the  public  cares  to  the  skill  of  his 
mother  Mammaea,  and  of  sixteen  ancient  senators,  among  w*hom  was 
the  famous  lawyer  Ulpian,  to  whose  presence  in  the  council  we  may 
attribute  the  greater  regularity  in  the  executive,  the  abolition  of  many 
vexatious  laws,  and  the  more  legal  conduct  of  the  government.  But 
this  milder  sway  came  too  late ;  the  attempt  to  enforce  the  laws,  for 
three  days  filled  Rome  with  civil  strife,  and  devastated  the  city  with 
fire.  Alexander  resisted  the  inroads  of  the  Germans,  who  had  been 
tempted  by  the  decline  of  the  empire  ;  but  was  not  equally  successful 
against  the  Persians.  His  efforts  to  revive  the  military  discipline  of  the 
republic  w~ere  fatal  to  his  life.  The  epithet  of  Severus,  added  to  his 
name  by  the  army,  shows  that  the  soldiers  were  not  masters  of  the 
empire,  as  they  had  been  under  the  two  preceding  monarchs.  He 
proved  a  feeble  support  to  the  declining  city ;  but  the  fierce  barbarians 
of  the  North  and  East  were  more  than  a  match  for  the  Roman  legion¬ 
aries  ;  in  Persia  his  armies  met  only  with  partial  success,  and  on  the 
Rhine  peace  was  procured  by  money  rather  than  by  the  sword.  In  the 
meanwhile,  the  spread  of  a  new  religion  was  uprooting  the  foundations 
of  polytheism  and  the  state  of  society  founded  upon  it. 

Maximin,  a.  d.  235-238,  a  Thracian  peasant,  distinguished  for  his 
uncommon  strength  and  valour,  was  elected  by  the  army  to  the  throne, 
left  vacant  by  the  murder  of  his  predecessor.  His  mind  was  as  uncul¬ 
tivated  as  his  body  was  gigantic,  for  he  could  scarcely  pronounce  a  few 
unconnected  Latin  words,  while  his  dark  and  sanguinary  career  was  not 
unworthy  of  his  birth.  Confiscation,  exile,  and  death,  were  considered 
lenient  punishments  against  those  who  excited  his  suspicions  or  his 
fears.  Some  were  beaten  to  death  with  clubs,  others  were  sewed  up  in 
the  skins  of  animals  and  exposed  to  wild  beasts.  Magnus,  a  senator 
and  4000  of  his  supposed  accomplices,  were  put  to  death  in  one  day 
The  province  of  Africa  having  revolted,  elected  the  two  Gordians,  and 
»he  choice  was  approved  by  the  senate,  who  at  the  same  time  declared 
Maximin  and  his  son  to  be  public  enemies.  The  emperor’s  lieutenants 
were  successful  over  his  rivals,  and  the  senators  were  already  anticipat¬ 
ing  the  execution  of  his  horrible  threat  that  he  would  slay  them  all  and 
distribute  their  property  among  his  soldiers,  when  they  were  relieved 
of  their  fears  by  his  murder  at  the  siege  of  Aquileia.  The  coalition  of 
the  opposing  parties  procured  the  elevation  of  an  amiable  youth,  Gor¬ 
dian  III.,  whose  reign  lasted  six  years,  238-244.  He  ascended  the 


THIRD  CENTURY  A.  D. 


141 


throne  under  favourable  circumstances ;  beloved  by  all  good  men  for 
his  virtues;  endeared  to  the  senate  by  his  illustrious  birth,  for  he  was 
the  grandson  of  the  elder  Gordian,  and  to  the  army  from  his  being  their 
adopted  child.  Aided  by  the  superior  talents  of  his  father-in-law  Misi- 
theus,  he  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Sapor. 

Philip,  the  Arabian  freebooter,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army, 
and  the  title  of  Augustus  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  senate.  He 
favoured  the  Christians,  and  granted  them  permission  to  raise  temples 
and  exercise  their  worship  in  public.  He  celebrated  the  secular  games, 
a.  d.  248  (April  21),  when  Rome  had  attained  its  thousandth  year. — 
Decius,  after  a  reign  of  two  years  and  a  half,  lost  his  life  in  battle 
against  the  Goths,  251. —  Gallus,  Hostilian,  Volusian,  and  jEmili- 
anus,  were  succeeded  by  Valerian  at  the  age  of  sixty  years,  253,  who 
associated  Gallienus  with  him  in  the  government.  Marching  to  repel 
the  aggressions  of  the  Persian  monarch,  he  was  vanquished  and  made 
prisoner,  a.  d.  260 ;  after  wdiich  he  suffered  every  indignity,  till  life 
sunk  under  the  weight  of  shame. — Gallienus,  a.  d.  260-268,  the  luxu¬ 
rious  son  of  Valerian,  passed  his  time  in  the  most  ridiculous  trifling. 
Pretenders  started  up  in  every  province ;  hence  this  period  is  usually 
known  as  that  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants ,  although  the  names  of  nineteen 
only  are  recorded.  Many  of  these  shortlived  monarchs  were  models  of 
virtue,  and  possessed  vigour  and  ability;  but  they  were  chiefly  of 
obscure  birth,  and  elevated  on  the  field  of  battle.  Not  one  died  a 
natural  death.  The  servile  wars  were  renewed  in  Sicily ;  the  streets 
of  Alexandria  were  polluted  with  blood ;  while  famine  and  pestilence, 
which  lasted  fifteen  years,  250-265,  ravaged  every  section  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Gallienus  fell  in  a  nocturnal  tumult  before  the  walls  of  Milan, 
in  which  he  was  besieging  Aureolus,  the  most  formidable  of  his  rivals ; 
and  the  dying  wishes  of  the  emperor  raised  Claudius,  a.  d.  268,  to  the 
throne.  By  the  most  signal  victories  he  delivered  Italy  from  the  Goths ; 
yet  the  same  pestilence  which  had  thinned  the  ranks  of  the  barbarians, 
also  carried  off  their  conqueror.  His  short  but  glorious  reign  lasted 
only  two  years. —  Aurelian,  a.  d.  270-275,  the  son  of  a  Pannonian 
peasant,  originally  an  adventurer  and  common  soldier,  repelled  the 
Gothic  invaders,  chastised  the  Germans  who  had  entered  Italy,  recover¬ 
ed  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  from  the  usurper  Tetricus,  and  destroyed 
the  monarchy  which  Queen  Zenobia  had  erected  in  the  East  on  the 
ruins  of  the  empire,  273.  He  died  by  the  hands  of  his  officers — regret¬ 
ted  by  the  army,  detested  by  the  senate,  but  universally  acknowledged 
as  a  wise  and  fortunate  prince. — Tacitus,  a.  d.  275,  owed  his  elevation 
to  a  friendly  contest  which  had  arisen  between  the  army  and  the  senate 
for  the  choice  of  an  emperor;  and  he  was  elected  by  the  latter  from 
their  own  number,  at  the  age  of  75.  He  drove  the  bands  of  the  Alani 
out  of  Asia  with  great  slaughter,  but  sunk  under  the  fatigues  of  his 
office,  a.  d.  276. — Florian  yielded  to  the  better  fortune  of  Probus,  a.  d. 
276-282,  who  vanquished  the  Germans  on  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube, 
and  restored  peace  and  order  to  every  province.  To  check  the  invasions 
of  the  barbarians,  Probus  built  a  stone  wall  nearly  200  miles  in  length, 
from  the  Danube  to  the  Rhine;  recruited  the  Roman  armies  from  the 
German  nations ;  settled  foreign  colonies  in  various  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  taught  them  the  science  of  agriculture.  He  perished  in  a  mutiny 
of  his  troops. 


142 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


With  Maximin  began  the  race  of  Barbarians  who  successively  mounted  the 
imperial  throne :  with  Claudius  II.  commenced  what  has  been  called  the  mili¬ 
tary  despotism.  However  glorious  the  reigns  of  this  monarch  and  his  succes¬ 
sor  Aurelian,  they  were  far  from  healing  the  wounds  of  the  state.  Though 
great  warriors,  and  men  whom  the  circumstances  of  Rome  required,  they  did 
little  more  than  delay  the  fail  of  the  empire-  In  the  period  between  the  Anto- 
nines  and  Diocletian,  it  was  divided  into  two  great  parts,  which  were  almost 
distinct  worlds,  the  civil  and  the  military.  The  people,  the  immense  majority 
of  the  population,  have  no  share  in  the  history  of  these  times ;  they  paid  their 
taxes,  cultivated  the  soil,  and  passed  their  lives  without  troubling  themselves 
about  the  occupations  of  the  legions.  So  profound  was  this  apathy,  that  not  a 
single  revolt  took  place  among  the  numerous  inhabitants  of  the  capital.  But 
in  the  army  all  was  changed.  The  soldier-citizen  of  the  republic  was  unknown  ; 
the  ancient  discipline  was  lost;  the  modern  warrior  had  no  home  but  his  camp, 
and  no  respect  for  any  authority  but  that  of  his  officers.  As  they  defended  the 
empire,  they  claimed  the  right  of  nominating  its  chiefs,  and  of  deposing  them 
at  will.  Each  army  insisted  upon  electing  an  emperor,  whose  authority  was 
to  be  maintained  by  arms  and  civil  strife.  The  successful  competitor  was 
acknowledged  by  the  senate,  and  saluted  with  the  usual  adulations.  With  the 
frequent  alterations  necessarily  resulting  from  this  military  despotism,  the  face 
of  the  country  varied  little  ;  and  but  for  the  excessive  contributions  raised  in 
the  provinces  to  support  the  troops,  the  internal  condition  of  the  empire  would 
have  been  very  flourishing.  This  state  of  affairs  continued  to  the  time  of  Dio¬ 
cletian,  who  introduced  some  modifications,  and  to  the  days  of  Constantine, 
who  in  his  turn  effected  many  great  reforms. 

Diocletian,  a.  d.  284-306,  who  succeeded  the  shortlived  monarchs, 
Cams,  Carinus,  and  Numerian,  was  born  in  an  obscure  town  of  Dal¬ 
matia.  On  his  elevation  to  the  purple,  a  remarkable  change  took  place 
in  the  form  of  government.  Finding  that  the  extent  of  frontier  was 
too  great  to  be  defended  by  one  person  against  the  repeated  attacks  of 
daring  and  enterprising  enemies,  he  selected  a  colleague  in  the  person 
of  Maximian,  to  whom  he  committed  the  charge  of  the  West,  while  he 
retained  the  East.  These  two  bore  the  title  of  Augustus ,  and  each 
appointed  a  lieutenant  with  the  title  of  Caesar .  The  seat  of  government 
was  removed  from  Rome, —  Maximian  residing  at  Milan,  Diocletian  at 
Nicomedia, —  an  arrangement  which  contributed  greatly  to  the  support 
of  the  empire.  Carausius,  who  had  made  himself  independent  in  Bri¬ 
tain,  was  defeated  in  293  ;  Gaul  was  delivered  from  the  Germans ;  and 
the  Persians  were  compelled  to  cede  five  provinces  beyond  the  Tigris. 
After  a  glorious  reign  of  twenty-one  years,  Diocletian  abdicated  the 
throne,  a.  d.  305,  and  Maximian  resigned  at  Milan  on  the  same  day. 

The  abdication  of  monarchs  has  always  been  matter  of  embarrassment  to 
historians ;  and  the  fact  of  a  prince  voluntarily  divesting  himself  of  supreme 
power,  without  any  apparent  motive,  is  a  phenomenon  well  worthy  of  exami¬ 
nation.  Diocletian’s  relinquishment  of  the  purple  has  been  variously  explain¬ 
ed  ;  some  pretending  that  it  was  in  fulfilment  of  an  oath  made  with  Maximian 
at.  his  ascension  ;  others,  that  he  was  grieved  at  his  unsuccessful  struggle  against 
Christianity ;  others,  that  he  feared  the  troubles  which  he  saw  impending ;  and 
many,  that  he  entertained  a  supreme  contempt  for  all  human  grandeur.  The 
last  two  motives  influenced  beyond  a  doubt  his  resolution  ;  but  his  fears,  and 
the  threats  of  Galerius  his  son-in-law,  with  his  inability  to  resist  him,  were  the 
principal  causes.  At  the  age  of  sixty  years  he  retired  into  private  life,  and 
lived  esteemed  and  happy  at  Salona.  His  latter  days  were  saddened  by  the 
exile  and  persecution  of  his  wife  and  daughter,  and  the  ingratitude  of  those 
whom  he  had  elevated. 


THIRD  CENTURY  A.  D. 


143 


PALMYRA. 

Queen  Zenobia  was  a  Jewess  by  birth,  the  wife  of  Odenathus, 
prince  of  the  Saracens  of  the  Euphrates,  who  had  raised  himself  to  the 
dominion  of  the  East,  and  by  his  victories  over  the  Persian  king  avenged 
the  injuries  of  the  Romans  and  become  their  ally.  On  his  death,  hav¬ 
ing  been  cut  off  by  domestic  treason,  his  widow  filled  the  vacant  throne, 
and  governed  Syria  with  great  wisdom.  Palmyra  (lat.  34°  2(y  N., 
long.  38°  3 O'  E.),  her  capital,  the  Tadmor  of  Solomon,  was  situated  in 
an  oasis  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  desert  of  sand,  on  one  of  the  great  caravan 
routes  to  the  Euphrates,  and-  its  magnificent  ruins  still  ornament  that 
portion  of  the  wilderness.  Zenobia  began  her  reign  by  throwing  off  the 
protection  of  the  senate  and  conquering  Egypt.  Aurelian  marched 
against  her,  took  Antioch,  and  in  a  terrible  battle  in  its  vicinity  routed 
her  mail-clad  cavalry  and  skilful  archers.  After  experiencing  a  second 
defeat  near  Emesa,  she  sought  refuge  in  her  capital,  which  was  besieged 
by  the  emperor,  and  reduced  after  a  long  resistance,  a.  d.  273.  Two 
years  afterwards,  the  unfortunate  queen  was  led  in  triumph  through  the 
streets  of  Rome.  Covered  with  diamonds,  she  walked  alone  before  her 
victor’s  car,  a  slave  holding  the  chain  of  gold  which  had  been  placed  on 
her  neck.  The  name  and  fate  of  the  critic  Longinus  both  honour  her 
reign  and  reproach  her  weakness,  if  it  be  true  that  she  exposed  him  to 
the  vengeance  of  Aurelian  to  save  her  own  life. 


PERSIA. 

Sassanides,  a.  d.  226. — We  have  seen  that  Arsaces  founded  the  Par¬ 
thian  kingdom  in  the  third  century  b.  c.,  and  that  with  him  began  the 
line  of  Arsacidan  kings.  His  valour  and  genius  gained  the  affections 
of  his  people ;  and  his  successes  against  the  Romans  often  terrified  the 
imperial  city.  The  history  of  the  several  dynasties  is  obscure  during 
470  years,  till  we  come  to  the  reign  of  Artabanus,  the  last  of  the  family 
just  named,  when  this  formidable  power,  which  had  spread  from  India 
to  Syria,  was  subverted  by  Artaxerxes  ( Jlrdeschir  Babegan).  He 
founded  the  family  of  the  Sassanides ,  so  called  from  his  father  Sassan, 
which  governed  Persia  till  the  Arab  invasion  in  632.  Artaxerxes  was 
a  distinguished  soldier,  driven  to  rebellion  by  royal  ingratitude :  three 
times  he  defeated  the  Parthians,  and  their  monarch  perished  in  the  last 
battle.  In  the  plain  of  Ormuz  he  was  saluted  by  the  army  with  the 
lofty  title  of  King  of  Kings .  He  restored  the  ancient  religion  of  the 
Magi ,  or  Fire  Worshippers,  founded  by  Zoroaster  in  the  seventh  cen¬ 
tury  b.  c.,  re-established  the  royal  authority,  and  began  a  successful  war 
against  the  Romans,  a.  d.  230.  His  reign  of  fourteen  years  forms  a 
memorable  era  in  the  history  of  the  East  and  of  Rome.  He  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Sapor,  a  man  of  gigantic  form,  inured  from  infancy  to  war, 
and  who  preserved  the  strictest  discipline  in  his  army,  while  he  encour¬ 
aged  agriculture  as  a  nursery  for  hardy  soldiers.  Eagerly  desirous  of 
founding  a  powerful  monarchy,  he  attacked  the  Romans,  and  devastated 
both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  defeating  the  emperor  Valerian,  who  had 
marched  against  him.  He  next  overran  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Cappadocia, 
but  was  compelled  to  retreat  before  Odenathus,  prince  of  Palmyra, 
A.  D.  261. 


144 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Chosroes,  sovereign  of  Armenia,  who  had  resisted  in  his  native 
mountains  with  invincible  courage  during  thirty  years,  fell  at  last  by 
the  intrigues  of  the  Persian  court.  The  Armenian  satraps  immediately 
implored  the  help  of  Rome  in  favour  of  his  son,  the  young  Tiridates; 
but  the  imperial  city  being  distant,  Sapor  soon  incorporated  this  state 
with  his  vast  dominions. 

Tiridates  escaped  from  the  assassins  employed  by  the  conqueror  to 
murder  him  and  his  father,  and  was  brought  up  among  the  Romans. 
After  his  country  had  borne  a  foreign  yoke  twenty-six  years,  he  was 
invested  with  the  monarchy  of  Armenia  by  Diocletian.  His  appearance 
on  the  frontier  was  welcomed  with  rapture ;  the  nobles  and  people  flew 
to  his  standard ;  but  the  Persians  still  maintained  their  ascendency,  and 
it  was  not  till  a.  d.  297  that  the  success  of  the  Roman  arms  was  con¬ 
firmed  by  a  treaty,  which  established  him  on  the  throne. 

BARBARIAN  INVASIONS. 

During  this  century,  the  Northern  Hive ,  as  it  was  called,  began  to 
pour  down  its  swarms  upon  the  Roman  empire. 

The  Goths,  a.  d.  250,  passed  the  Danube  and  invaded  the  Roman 
provinces  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Decius.  This  great  nation 
was  of  Asiatic  origin, — part  of  the  Indo-Teutonic  race  which  had  spread 
irregularly  towards  the  north  of  Europe.  7'heir  migration  in  that  direc¬ 
tion  took  place  before  the  period  of  authentic  history ;  and  when  they 
first  attract  our  notice,  they  form  part  of  the  Suevian  branch,  settled 
along  the  southern  and  eastern  shores  of  the  Baltic.  Their  language 
forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  Sanscrit  and  the  modern  Teutonic 
dialects.  Their  religion,  preserved  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Eddas, 
was  barbarous  and  sanguinary.  Odin,  “the  Mohammed  of  the  North,’’ 
was  at  once  their  supreme  deity  and  legislator.  The  daring  invasions 
of  these  people  met  with  various  success,  but  as  yet  had  produced  no 
lasting  effect. 

The  province  of  Gaul  was  invaded  by  the  Franks  or  Freemen,  a.  d. 
256,  a  confederation  of  many  German  tribes  on  the  Rhine  and  the 
Weser.*  The  former  river  proved  an  imperfect  barrier  to  their  enter¬ 
prising  spirit.  At  length  they  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  even  in  the 
fifth  century  the  ruins  of  magnificent  cities  recorded  their  destructive 
hostilities. 

The  Allemanni,  a.  d.  259,  were  formed  at  the  Tencteri  and  Usipetae 
( iVestphali ).  They  were  well  trained  to  fight  on  horseback,  and  from 
their  renown  became  a  centre  around  which  gathered  a  multitude  of 
German  tribes.  This  united  people  are  supposed  to  be  included  under 
the  different  names  of  Suevi ,  Marcomanni ,  and  Allemanni.  Having 
invaded  Gaul  and  Italy,  they  displayed  their  banners  within  sight  of 
Rome ;  but  the  vigour  of  the  senate  compelled  them  to  retreat,  though 
they  returned  to  their  own  country  laden  with  booty. 

THE  CHURCH. 

So  early  as  the  end  of  the  second  century  or  the  beginning  of  the 
third,  the  Christian  faith  had  gradually  spread  to  the  middle  and  highei 
ranks, — when  broke  out  the 

*  The  tribes  were  these: — 1.  The  Chauci ;  2.  The  Sicambri ;  3.  The  Attuari ;  4.  Bruc 
teri  •  5  The  Chamavij  ;  6.  The  Catti  ;  7.  The  Salii  and  Cherusci. 


THIRD  CENTURY  A.  D. 


145 


Fifth  Persecution,  a.  d.  202. — The  Emperor  Severus  was  at  first 
not  unfavourable  to  the  believers;  but  probably  considering  them  as 
much  political  enemies  as  religious  schismatics,  he  published  his 
sanguinary  edicts  against  them,  which  forbade,  in  a  particular  manner, 
all  assemblies,  public  or  private.  While  thus  occupied,  he  celebrated 
the  secular  games,  which,  like  most  other  pagan  festivals,  were  followed 
by  violent  explosions  of  fury  against  the  Christians.  In  Alexandria 
especially  the  persecution  raged  ;  almost  all  the  clergy  in  that  city  being 
massacred  or  compelled  to  flee.  Origen,  as  yet  quite  young,  was  alone 
charged  with  the  continuance  of  the  sacred  functions  ;  nor  was  his  office 
without  trouble  and  danger,  since  he  was  more  than  once  on  the  point 
of  receiving  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  At  Carthage,  Rome,  and  Lyons, 
the  faithful  were  severely  afflicted  ;  though  it  should  be  observed  that 
the  traces  of  this  persecution  in  the  West  are  not  distinct. 

Sixth  Persecution,  a.  d.  235. — The  church  enjoyed  a  period  of 
repose  twenty-four  years,  but  the  accession  of  the  brutal  Maximin  was 
the  signal  for  new  trials.  A  promiscuous  massacre  of  the  Christians, 
including  every  rank  and  both  sexes,  lasted  during  the  whole  of  his  reign. 

Seventh  Persecution,  a.d.  250. — The  most  formidable  enemies  of 
the  Church  were  the  heretics,  who  in  the  second  and  third  centuries 
were  very  numerous.  The  Marcionites,  the  Manicheans,  and  the  Arians, 
raised  those  important  questions  which  long  divided  the  Christian  world, 
and  are  in  some  respects  perpetuated  to  our  times. 

Philip,  the  Arabian,  among  some  writers  passed  for  a  convert,  but  his 
successor  Dec-ius,  alarmed  by  the  miseries  of  the  empire  and  his  own 
precarious  station,  thought  that  the  gods  would  strengthen  his  crown  if 
he  restored  to  their  deserted  altars  the  honours  which  had  surrounded 
them  in  more  prosperous  days.  For  this  purpose  he  began  a  bloody 
persecution,  which  extended  over  the  whole  empire.  Christianity  had 
already  gained  such  strength,  and  its  partisans  were  so  numerous,  that 
the  struggle  between  it  and  paganism  assumed  almost  the  appearance 
of  a  civil  war.  The  old  creed  had  still  on  its  side  the  majority  of  the 
population,  the  army,  and  the  public  authorities;  but  although  many 
Christians  apostatized,  others  were  not  wanting  to  seal  their  testimony 
with  their  blood,  and  fortify  by  their  courage^  the  trembling  hearts  of 
their  brethren.  Carthage  and  Alexandria,  in  particular,  were  the  scene 
of  much  suffering ;  but  Origen  escaped,  and,  in  the  midst  of  cruel  tor¬ 
tures  prolonged  during  several  days,  gloried  in  the  pains  which  proved 
his  sincerity. 

J 

Eighth  Persecution,  a.d.  258. — Valerian’s  persecution  was  brief, 
for  he  had  begun  his  reign  by  acts  of  clemency,  and  when  holding  the 
office  of  censor,  expressed  his  opinion  that  Christianity  exercised  a 
favourable  influence  on  public  morals.  His  changed  conduct  must  be 
attributed  to  the  sorcerer  Macrianus,  who  had  a  complete  mastery  over 
his  mind.  The  first  edict  left  the  community  in  peace,  but  subjected  all 
nonconforming  bishops  to  the  penalty  of  death,  as  also  the  confiscation 
of  their  churches  and  endowments.  Among  the  victims  were  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  St.  Stephen,  and  St.  Cyprian  of  Carthage. 

Ninth  Persecution,  a.  d.  272. — Aurelian  was  arrested  in  his  career 
— while  in  the  act  of  signing  an  edict  against  the  Christians — by  the 
falling  of  a  thunderbolt  at  his  feet.  But  the  end  of  his  reign  witnessed 

13 


146 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


many  severities  against  the  new  sect  in  consequence  of  his  orders,  and 
St.  Denis  of  France  was  put  to  death. 

Tenth  Persecution,  or  the  Era  of  Martyrs,  a.  d.  285. — A  final 
and  vigorous  effort  was  made  to  crush  the  new  religion  by  Diocletian, 
whose  wife  and  daughter  are  said  to  have  been  converted.  The  first 
edict  against  the  Christians  w7as  published  24th  February  303.  By  it 
the  churches  were  ordered  to  be  demolished,  and  the  sacred  books  to  be 
delivered  up,  under  pain  of  death,  and  publicly  burnt.  All  assemblies 
for  religious  worship  were  prohibited,  the  property  of  the  church  was 
confiscated,  and  its  members  w~ere  put  beyond  the  protection  of  the  law. 
In  subsequent  edicts  he  declared  his  intention  of  abolishing  the  name  of 
Christian  ;  but  he  contributed  only  to  its  further  propagation.  The 
Caesar  Galerius  was  the  instigator  of  these  cruel  measures,  which  wrere 
much  increased  by  an  accidental  fire  that  broke  out  in  the  palace  at 
Nicomedia.  Galerius,  the  most  implacable  enemy  of  Christianity, 
having  been  raised  to  the  throne  of  the  East  in  consequence  of  the 
abdication  of  Diocletian,  the  persecution  was  continued  writh  unmitigated 
severity.  But  the  fervent  spirit  of  religion  wTas  far  from  yielding  to  this 
violent  shock.  The  believers  still  assembled  regularly  in  private  meet¬ 
ings  ;  and  though  they  wrere  deprived  of  the  most  eminent  of  their  body, 
their  numbers  preserved  them  from  extermination.  In  the  seventh  year 
of  his  reign,  Galerius  was  smitten  with  a  loathsome  disease,  the  lower 
region  of  his  body  being  consumed  by  a  fetid  ulcer,  or  in  the  language 
of  scripture,  44  he  was  eaten  of  worms,”  like  Herod  the  Great,  and,  in 
later  times,  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Physicians,  oracles,  and  even  the  god 
of  medicine  himself,  were  applied  to  in  vain;  no  remedy  could  diminish 
the  virulence  of  a  malady  w7hich  had  already  reached  the  vitals.  Ha¬ 
rassed  by  the  recollection  of  the  tortures  he  had  inflicted,  he  thought  to 
allay  the  anguish  of  his  body  by  recalling  the  edicts  against  Christianity, 
and  by  allowing  the  free  and  public  exercise  of  its  ceremonies  ;  but  the 
hand  of  death  was  upon  him,  and  in  a  few  days  he  expired,  311.  The 
heathens  themselves,  it  is  said,  were  astonished  at  this  signal  interposi¬ 
tion  of  the  Almighty  in  favour  of  his  worshippers.  In  the  dominions  of 
Maximin  the  persecution  was  still  continued,  nor  did  it  stop  until  shortly 
before  his  decease,  wThen  his  people  had  been  diminished  by  famine  and 
pestilence,  and  his  power  wras  threatened  by  Constantine.  In  the  death 
of  this  monarch  also  the  Christians  of  that  age  beheld  the  finger  of  God, 
for  he  expired  in  the  most  excruciating  torments,  his  body  being  con¬ 
sumed  by  an  internal  fire,  313. 

It  is  impossible  to  calculate  the  number  of  victims  who  perished  in 
this  persecution :  a  whole  legion,  consisting  of  six  thousand  men,  are 
said  to  have  suffered  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alps. 

Diocletian’s  fiery  sword 

Work’d  busy  as  the  lightning  :  then  was  Alban  tried, 

England’s  first  martyr. 

A  multitude  of  the  believers,  who  took  refuge  among  the  German 
tribes,  wTere  received  wffth  kindness  ;  and  the  Goths  wrnre  said  to  have 
been  indebted  to  a  young  female  captive  for  their  first  knowledge  of  the 

Read:  Milman’s  History  of  Christianity,  book  ii.  c.  9. 


FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


147 


FOURTH  CENTURY. 

Rome. — 306,  Constantine. — 330,  Constantinople. — 361,  Julian. — 364,  Division 
of  the  Empire  between  Valens  and  Vaientinian. — 378,  Battle  of  Adrianople. 
— 379,  Theodosius  the  Great. — 391,  Eugenius,  Emperor. 

The  Church. — Establishment  of  Christianity. — 318,  Arian  Heresy. — 325,  Ni- 
cene  Council. — 390,  Theodosius  prohibits  Paganism. 

Inventions. — 385,  Saddles.  —  398,  Aerometers  by  Hypatia. — 400,  Gothic 
Architecture  (?). 

Literature,  &c.  —  Eusebius,  Chrysostom,  —  L.  Lactantius,  Augustin, — 
Claudian. 

ROME. 

Constantine,  a.  d.  306. — After  the  abdication  of  Diocletian,  Con¬ 
stantins  and  Galerius  ascended  the  vacated  thrones;  the  former  govern¬ 
ing,  under  his  new  title  of  emperor,  the  provinces  of  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
Britain  ;  the  latter  retaining  those  of  the  East.  Two  new  Caesars  were 
appointed,  Maximin  and  Severus ;  and  according  to  the  arrangement  of 
Diocletian,  the  latter  should  have  recognised  the  authority  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  of  the  West.  But  he  was  entirely  devoted  to  Galerius,  who, 
reserving  for  himself  the  countries  lying  between  Italy  and  Syria, 
exerted  an  equal  influence  over  him  and  Maximin,  and  by  their  means 
became  master  of  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  empire. 

Constantine,  the  son  of  Constantius,  was  a  Dacian  by  birth,  and  had 
attained  eighteen  years  when  his  father  was  nominated  Caesar.  Fie  did 
not  immediately  profit  by  this  elevation,  but  followed  Diocletian  and 
signalized  himself  in  the  Egyptain  wars,  in  which,  besides  rising  to  the 
station  of  tribune  of  the  first  order,  he  so  far  enjoyed  the  good  will  of 
the  army  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  Galerius.  Proceeding  to  Britain, 
he  rejoined  his  father,  on  whose  death  at  York,  in  306,  he  was  pro¬ 
claimed  Augustus  by  the  soldiers,  which  title  however  was  not  confirmed 
by  the  emperor,  but  that  of  Caesar  substituted,  with  full  authority  over 
all  the  transalpine  provinces.  Shortly  after  the  elevation  of  Constantine, 
an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Rome  on  the  imposition  of  additional  taxes; 
when,  encouraged  by  the  connivance  of  the  senate  and  the  weakness  of 
the  civic  guards,  the  populace  elected  Maxentius,  the  son  of  Maximian, 
in  place  of  the  absent  Galerius,  almost  without  opposition.  This  change 
drew  the  father  from  his  retreat  to  aid  Maxentius,  by  his  counsels,  and 
thereby  to  strengthen  his  party.  Severus,  who  wished  to  assert  the 
authority  of  Galerius,  was  besieged  in  Ravenna,  and  soon  afterwards 
suffered  death  ;  and  the  latter  was  forthwith  compelled  to  retire  from 
Italy,  which  he  had  unsuccessfully  invaded.  Licinius  was  now  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  Augustus,  with  the  government  of  Illyria,  while  Maximin, 
envious  of  those  new  honours,  assumed  the  same  dignity  in  Africa, 
when  was  seen  the  strange  circumstance  of  six  emperors  presiding  at 
once  over  the  Roman  world.*  Maximian  was  the  first  to  lose  the  title, 
his  son  being  unwilling  to  see  the  exercise  of  power  controlled  by  his 
father.  Galerius  passed  his  time  in  useful  improvements  throughout  his 


*  Maximian,  Maxentius,  Maximin,  Licinius,  Galerius,  and  Constantine. 


148 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


dominions,  having  wisely  abandoned  the  design  of  uniting  the  empire 
in  his  own  hands;  but  scarcely  had  he  expired  when  the  two  emperors, 
whom  he  had  invested  with  the  purple,  shared  his  territory;  the  pro¬ 
vinces  of  Asia  falling  to  Maximin,  and  those  of  Europe  augmenting  the 
government  of  Licinius.  Maxentius,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  purple 
by  the  zeal  of  the  senate  and  people,  soon  forgot  how  he  had  obtained 
his  crown,  and  conducted  himself  even  in  Rome,  in  a  tyrannical 
manner.  His  cruelty  was  especially  manifested  after  the  fall  of  the 
usurper  Alexander,  who,  having  revolted  in  Africa,  was  speedily  van¬ 
quished.  That  province  was  mercilessly  ravaged  in  punishment  for 
the  insurrection,  and  at  home  the  emperor’s  exactions  and  unjust  con¬ 
demnations  were  greatly  multiplied.  Constantine  freed  Italy  from  this 
despot,  whom  he  defeated  at  the  gates  of  the  capital,  and  who  was 
drowned  in  the  Tiber  as  he  fled  from  the  field  of  battle,  312.* 

The  conqueror  entered  Rome  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people  and 
senate,  who  assigned  him  by  decree  the  first  place  among  the  Jhigusti . 
Some  time  after.  Licinius,  his  ally,  added  new  provinces  to  those  he 
already  possessed.  Having  been  attacked  by  Maximin  during  the 
winter  of  313,  the  promptitude  and  superior  skill  of  Licinius  gave  him 
the  advantage  ;  and  his  enemy,  who  was  defeated,  gained  more  cele¬ 
brity  by  the  swiftness  of  his  flight  than  by  his  courage  in  the  field. 
Twenty- four  hours  after  his  discomfiture,  Maximin  was  seen  pale  and 
trembling,  and  stripped  of  his  imperial  ornaments,  at  Nicomedia,  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  scene  of  his  ruin.  Licinius  did 
not  imitate  Constantine  in  the  use  he  made  of  his  victory,  but  stained  it 
by  putting  to  death  men,  women,  and  children,  partisans  of  the  van¬ 
quished  prince.  The  Roman  people  now  had  but  two  masters ;  yet 
from  the  disposition  of  each  it  was  not  possible  that  there  could  be  any 
rest  until  one  should  be  destroyed.  Constantine  was  young,  active,  and 
ambitious,  and  would  not  have  waited  for  an  opportunity  to  begin  the 
war,  even  had  not  the  other  afforded  one  by  engaging  in  a  conspiracy 
against  him.  Two  battles  lost  at  Cibalae  and  Mardia  compelled 
Licinius  to  yield  five  provinces,  and  to  be  satisfied  with  Thrace  and  the 
East,  allowing  Illyria  to  pass  over  to  the  victor,  314.  Nine  years  after, 
he  was  entirely  deprived  of  his  power  and  banished  to  Thessalcnica, 
where  he  was  put  to  death  ;  and  his  rival  wrho  had  publicly  embraced 
Christianity  ten  years  before,  became  sole  master  of  the  empire,  323. 
After  his  victory,  the  successful  monarch  had  to  contend  against  the 
Goths  and  Sarmatians,  the  former  of  whom  were  bound  to  furnish  a  body 
of  40,000  auxiliaries.  But  one  of  the  most  important  results  of  this 
reign  was  the  foundation  of  a  new  capital.  A  Christian  court  might 
seem  to  be  misplaced  in  Pagan  Rome,  besides  which  the  necessity  of 
strengthening  the  frontiers  against  the  Goths  and  Persians,  while  it  made 
some  change  necessary,  seemed  to  indicate  the  position  of  Con¬ 
stantinople. 

The  latter  part  of  the  life  of  Constantine  was  unhappy  :  his  son 
Crispus  was  put  to  death  on  the  accusation  of  his  step-mother  Fausta, 
who  was  herself  not  long  after  convicted  of  adultery  and  suffocated  in  a 


*  While  Constantine  was  marching  to  Rome,  previous  to  the  decisive  battle  iust 
mentioned,  a  cross  is  said  to  have  appeared  in  the  heavens  at  noon-day,  on  which  was 
the  inscription,  In  hoc  signo  vinces  In  commemoration  of  this  event,  the  cross  or 
labarum  became  the  sacred  standard  of  the  army. 


FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


149 


bath.  Two  years  before  his  demise  the  monarch  divided  the  empire 
among  his  three  sons,  Constantine  II.,  Constantius,  and  Constans. 
His  two  nephews  Dalmatius  and  Annibalianus,  received,  the  former 
the  rank  of  Caesar,  the  latter  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  title 
of  king.  A  short  time  afterwards,  Sapor  II.,  king  of  Persia,  sent  to 
demand  of  the  emperor  the  provinces  which  Narses  had  ceded  to  Dio¬ 
cletian.  The  Roman  sovereign  replied  that  he  would  bear  his  own 
answer,  and  was  in  the  midst  of  his  preparations  for  war  when  he  fell 
ill  at  Nicomedia,  and  died  after  receiving  baptism  by  the  hands  of  the 
Arian  bishop  Eusebius,  337. 

FAMILY  OF  CONSTANTINE. 

Constantius  I.,  Chlorus,  f  306. 
m.  1.  Helena.  2.  Theodora. 


Constantine  I.  the  Great,  Constantia. 
f  337,  m.  1.  Minervina.  || 

2.  Fausta.  Val.  Licinius, 

- * - \  Caesar,  |324. 

1  2  , - * - 

Crispus,  Constantine,  II.,  FI.  Val.  Lici- 
t  326.  f  340.  nius,  f  326. 

Constantius  II., 

13.1. 

Constans,  f  350. 

Imperial  Administration, 

Constantine  was  the  founder  of  a  new  order  of  things,  which  Diocletian  had 
endeavoured,  although  imperfectly,  to  establish  before  him  :  for  the  previous 
military  despotism  he  substituted  that  of  the  court  and  of  a  numerous  hierarchy. 
Henceforward  all  ambition  found  a  place  around  the  sovereign  ;  and  the  gene¬ 
rals  no  longer  saw  an  open  path  by  which  any  of  them  might  advance  to  the 
imperial  title.  The  former  state  of  things,  which  had  given  rise  to  so  many  re¬ 
volts,  was  altered  :  step  by  step  each  of  the  commanders  might  rise  to  the  foot  of 
the  throne,  but  the  power  of  an  hereditary  principle  checked  his  farther  progress. 
Besides  the  court,  there  was  a  sacred  body  of  men  everywhere  present,  guiding 
and  influencing  all  minds.  Since  the  year  313,  Constantine  had  embraced  the 
true  faith ;  but  as  the  church  had  long  previously  possessed  its  hierarchy,  he  did 
little  more  than  consecrate  and  sanction  its  organization. 

In  the  regulation  of  the  court  the  plan  of  Diocletian  was  closely  followed. 
The  sovereign  was  no  longer  visible  to  his  subjects,  and  access  to  him  was 
allowed  only  after  a  troublesome  ceremonial.  Below  the  seven  domestics  of 
the  court,  or  rather  the  great  officers  of  the  state,  were  four  classes  of  nobility, 
all  exempt  from  the  various  taxes,  except  that  imposed  on  land,  which  was 
paid  by  every  one,  even  the  emperor.  Under  the  superior  generals  of  the  army 
were  the  counts  and  dukes  ;  the  legions  were  reduced  from  6000  to  1500  men, 
and  the  whole  army  was  classed  in  three  divisions, — household  troops,  garri¬ 
sons  for  the  wealthy  cities  of  the  empire,  and  frontier  guards,  all  of  whom  were 
more  or  less  exempted  from  taxation.  But  these  soldiers  were  now  entirely 
mercenary  ;  a  law  of  Diocletian  expressly  forbidding  the  enlistment  of  any  mail 
possessed  of  twenty-five  acres  of  land. 

Finances. — The  taxes  payable  by  Roman  citizens  were  —  a  poll-tax,  a 
property-taxor  census,  customs  or  duties  on  merchandise  imported  or  exported, 
varying  from  one-eighth  to  one-fortieth  ad-valorem ,  tithes  on  the  farming  of  the 
public  lands,  a  legacy-tax,  and  one-twentieth  on  all  manumissions.  The  public 
revenues  of  the  empire  have  been  calculated  at  nearly  forty  millions  of  our 
money:  This  amount  varied  little  till  the  time  of  Constantine,  or  rather  Dio¬ 
cletian,  who  substituted  a  simple  and  direct  tax,  called  the  Indiction ,  in  the 
stead  of  all  preceding  contributions.*  All  the  lands  of  the  state,  including  the 


*  This  annual  tax,  if  not  Introduced,  was  at  least  entirely  regulated  under  Constan¬ 
tine,  and  assessed  according  to  a  register  of  all  the  landed  estates.  As  this  register  was 

13* 


Jul.  Constantius.  Annibalianus. 

/ - A - / - A - > 

If  |f  Dalmatius,  Anniba- 

Galla.  Basilina.  Caesar,  lianus. 

|  |  |  339.  f  338. 

Gallus,  Julian, 
t  354.  t  363. 


150 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


patrimony  of  the  emperor,  were  subjected  to  this  impost,  and  the  least  prevail 
cation  in  the  account  given  in  by  each  proprietor  was  punishable  by  death. 

The  death  of  the  emperor  was  the  signal  for  internal  disturbances, 
which  were  settled  for  a  time  by  the  division  of  his  dominions  among 
the  three  princes.  Constantine,  the  eldest,  obtained  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
Britain;  Constantius  ruled  over  Thrace  and  the  East;  and  Constans 
was  the  sovereign  of  Italy  and  Africa.  Constantius,  337,  was  soon 
called  to  the  Persian  war,  where  he  soon  found  himself  unable  to  resist 
the  skill  and  valour  of  Sapor.  It  is  true  he  succeeded  in  restoring 
Chosroes,  son  of  Tiridates  to  his  paternal  throne,  but  this  effeminate 
prince  consented,  as  the  price  of  peace,  to  pay  a  heavy  tribute,  and  re¬ 
store  the  excluded  province  of  Atropatene.  Scarcely  three  years  had 
elapsed  after  the  partition  of  the  empire,  before  Constantine  became 
dissatisfied  with  his  share,  and  crossed  the  Alps  to  attack  Constans,  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  and  killed  :  his  possessions  were  added  to  those 
of  his  conqueror  who  himself  ten  years  afterwards  met  with  a  violent 
death  at  the  hands  of  some  of  the  troops  of  Magnentius.  After  the  demise 
of  his  two  brothers,  Constantius  was  involved,  by  the  revolutions  of  the 
West,  in  a  civil  contest  with  the  usurper  just  named,  in  which  he  was 
ultimately  successful,  and  became  sole  emperor,  353.  The  two  nephews 
of  Constantine,  Gallus  and  Julian,  who,  at  the  death  of  their  uncle,  had 
escaped  from  the  ruin  of  their  family,  were  long  confined  in  prison,  till 
the  emergencies  of  the  state  invested  the  former  with  the  title  of  Caesar, 
351.  His  cruelty  and  imprudence,  together  with  his  mean  submission 
to  his  blood-thirsty  wife  Constantina,  were  the  cause  of  his  disgrace  and 
untimely  end,  354.  Julian  now  alone  survived,  and  was  passing  his 
hours  in  studious  retirement  at  Athens,  when  he  was  unwillingly  de¬ 
clared  Caesar,  355,  and  appointed  to  the  provinces  of  Gaul.  His  retired 
and  scholastic  education  had  not  disqualified  him  for  more  active  pur¬ 
suits.  He  defeated  the  Gauls  and  Franks ;  made  three  expeditions 
beyond  the  Rhine ;  and  while  his  victories  suspended  the  inroads  of  the 
barbarians,  his  civil  administration  alleviated  the  distresses  of  the  people. 
Meantime  Constantius  was  feebly  making  head  against  the  irruptions  of 
Sapor ;  and  to  quiet  the  seditious  comparisons  between  himself  and  the 
Caesar,  he  ordered  into  the  East  four  legions  of  the  army  of  Gaul;  but 
his  commands  were  disobeyed,  and  the  discontented  soldiers  proclaimed 
Julian  emperor.  No  time  was  to  be  lost,  and  the  new  monarch,  by  a 
hasty  march,  with  a  small  army  of  veteran  soldiers,  took  possession  of 
the  capital  a  month  after  the  death  of  Constantius,  361. 

Julian,  surnamed  the  Apostate  from  having  abandoned  the  Christian 
religion  in  which  he  was  educated,  had  embraced  the  mythology  of 
paganism,  as  subtilized  by  the  New  Platonic  school ;  but  while  he 
wrote  against  Christianity,  and  endeavoured  to  establish  a  reformed 
polytheism  in  place  of  the  gospels,  it  would  be  unjust  to  deny  his 
tolerant  principles.  In  the  year  36*2,  desirous  of  proving  the  fallacy  of 
the  prophecies,  he  determined  to  rebuild  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem;  but 
“  horrible  balls  of  fire  breaking  out  near  the  foundations,  rendered  the 
place  inaccessible  to  the  scorched  and  blasted  workmen.”  His  chief 


reviewed  every  fifteen  years,  it  gave  rise  to  the  Cycle  of  Indictions,  which  became  the 
common  era,  beginning  with  the  first  September,  a.  d.  313. — To  find  the  Indiction,  ado 
3  to  the  given  year,  because  Christ  was  born  in  the  year  answering  to  the  fourth  of 
this  cycle,  and  divide  the  sum  by  35 ;  the  remainder  will  be  the  year  of  the  Indiction. 


FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  t>. 


151 


political  cares  were  the  punishment  of  informers,  who  had  been  the 
scourge  of  the  previous  reign,  and  reforming  the  abuses  of  the  court,  in 
which  were  to  be  seen  thousands  of  the  most  useless  menials.  He  was 
thus  enabled  at  once  to  reduce  the  taxes  by  one-fifth,  and  to  indulge  in 
greater  magnificence  in  the  state  ceremonials.  Superstitious  to  excess, 
he  sacrificed  on  every  occasion,  and  performed  with  scrupulous  anxiety 
the  functions  of  sovereign  pontiff.  He  had  been  scarcely  six  months  at 
Constantinople  before  he  set  out  on  his  Persian  expedition,  in  which  he 
wras  at  first  successful ;  but,  allowing  himself  to  be  misled  by  a  deserter, 
he  was  surrounded  by  the  army  of  Sapor,  and  fell  mortally  wounded,  in 
the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age,  363. 

With  the  accession  of  Julian  paganism  was  restored  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  had  been  blinded  by  the  prejudices  of  a  mind 
too  much  preoccupied  to  perceive  the  luminous  point  to  which  the  world  was 
verging ;  he  erred,  and  to  be  mistaken  in  such  a  manner,  when  the  destinies 
of  a  kingdom  depend  upon  the  decision  of  its  ruler,  is  the  greatest  of  misfor¬ 
tunes.  During  a  reign  of  eighteen  months,  part  of  which  was  taken  up  with 
his  expedition  against  the  Persians,  he  could  not  effect  all  the  good  or  evil  that 
has  been  attributed  to  him.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  violently  opposed 
Christianity,  but,  on  the  contrary,  to  have  allowed  its  followers  full  liberty  of 
assembling,  and  to  have  permitted  entire  freedom  of  conscience.  The  gravest 
infraction  of  religious  tolerance  that  can  be  attributed  to  this  emperor  is  the 
law  of  362,  forbidding  Christians  to  teach  the  faculties  of  rhetoric  and  belles- 
lettres.* 

Jovian,  a.  d.  363,  a  fervent  Christian,  succeeded  Julian,  and  by  ac¬ 
cepting  the  conditions  offered  by  Sapor,  was  allowed  to  withdraw  the 
Roman  army.  All  the  conquests  of  Diocletian  were  restored,  and  Ar¬ 
menia  was  to  he  entirely  abandoned.  Eight  months  after,  the  new 
ruler  was  carried  off  by  disease,  and  the  army  then  assembled  at  Nicaea 
chose,  as  his  successor,  Valentinian,  who  selected  Yalens  for  his 
colleague,  and  the  empire  was  divided  between  them.  The  latter 
governed  the  East,  from  the  Danube  to  the  Persian  frontiers ;  the  former 
reserving  to  himself  the  rest  of  the  empire,  from  the  extremity  of  Greece 
westward  to  the  ocean. 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 

Yalens,  a.  d.  364. — The  government  of  this  prince  was  disturbed  by 
the  insurrection  of  Procopius,  365,  though  the  next  year  witnessed  the 
defeat  and  death  of  the  rebel.  The  emperor  now  began  a  violent  perse¬ 
cution  of  the  orthodox  Christians,  and  the  martyrdom  of  the  venerable 
Athanasius  was  one  of  his  first  acts.  But  Yalens  did  not  neglect  the 
commercial  interests  of  his  subjects,  and  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign  he 
reduced  the  taxes  one-fourth.  The  Persian  contest  still  continued  ; 
Sapor  invaded  Armenia,  and  the  city  of  Artageras  was  taken  after  a  siege 
of  fourteen  months,  and  a  loss  of  nearly  17,000  lives  by  famine,  369. 
The  conclusion  of  the  Gothic  war  allowed  the  eastern  emperor  to  spend 
several  years  at  Antioch,  disturbed  only  by  religious  dissensions.  But 
in  375,  Bishop  Ulphilas,  with  other  ambassadors  from  the  Goths, 
solicited  his  assistance  against  the  Huns, — an  oriental  people,  Calmucks 
or  Mongols,  closely  allied  to  the  Finnish  stock. 


*  Abridged  from  the  “  Histoire  de  la  Destruction  du  Paganisme by  Mr.  Arthur  Beug- 
not,  which  contains  a  luminous  criticism  of  the  character  of  Julian,  enhanced  by  a 
vigorous  style  and  extensive  learning. 


152 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Battle  of  Adrianople,  a.  d.  378. — The  Goths,  to  the  number  of 
nearly  a  million,  were  transported  across  the  Danube,  and  settled  on  the 
southern  bank  of  that  river.  Roman  avarice  and  treachery  drove  them 
to  revolt ;  but  they  were  kept  in  check  by  the  lieutenants  of  Valens,  and 
their  forces  wasted  by  famine.  The  emperor  hastened  in  person  from 
the  East,  and  on  the  9th  August  378,  attacked  the  invaders  near  Adria¬ 
nople,  where  he  suffered  a  terrible  defeat,  losing  two-thirds  of  an  army 
of  300,000  men.  He  fled  wounded  from  the  field,  and  took  refuge  in  a 
peasant’s  hut,  to  which  the  victors  set  fire,  not  knowing  that  the  monarch 
lay  concealed  within.  The  inexperience  of  the  Goths  prevented  them 
from  taking  advantage  of  their  triumph  otherwise  than  by  ravaging 
Thrace,  and  carrying  their  predatory  expeditions  to  the  walls  of  Con¬ 
stantinople. 

When  Gratian,  the  Western  Emperor,  received  the  news  of  these 
events,  he  called  Theodosius  from  his  estate  in  Spain,  to  which  he  had 
retired  on  the  death  of  his  father,  and  raised  him  to  the  Eastern  throne, 
as  being  the  only  man  capable  of  bearing  the  heavy  weight  of  power, 
379.  Nor  were  the  general  expectations  disappointed,  for,  by  his  pru¬ 
dence,  he  delivered  the  Roman  provinces  from  the  Goths,  and  taking 
advantage  of  their  dissensions,  compelled  them  to  capitulate,  382,  so 
that,  until  his  death,  the  empire  did  not  lose  a  single  province.  His 
reign  was  not  less  devoted  to  religion  than  to  politics ;  for,  while  he 
crushed  the  barbarians,  he  endeavoured  also  to  eradicate  the  Arian 
heresy,  even  at  the  price  of  blood.  During  the  civil  wars  of  the  West, 
he  made  two  campaigns  in  Italy,  where  his  success  was  equal  to  the 
justice  of  his  cause.  After  the  defeat  and  death  of  the  usurper  Eugeni  us, 
he  became  sole  emperor  of  the  world,  a  title  which  he  enjoyed  only  a  few 
months,  as  he  died  at  Milan  in  395.  He  was  the  last  who  ruled  over 
the  whole  Roman  empire,  which,  torn  and  distracted  as  it  was,  his  two 
sons  divided  between  them.  Arcadias,  as  emperor  of  the  East,  reigned 
at  Constantinople ;  and  Honorius  in  the  West  preferred  Ravenna  to  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  empire. 

By  the  moderation  which  characterized  the  victories  of  Theodosius,  by  the 
wisdom  of  his  laws,  and  the  success  of  his  arms,  he  justly  merited  the  title  of 
Great.  Friends  and  enemies,  Pagans  and  Christians,  have  alike  given  theii 
testimony  to  his  talents  and  virtues.  He  preserved  on  the  throne  the  simple 
manners  of  his  early  life,  and  the  splendour  of  the  diadem  never  made  him 
forget  that  he  was  a  father,  husband,  and  friend.  His  good  qualities  were,  how¬ 
ever,  tarnished  by  his  momentary  impetuosity  and  his  occasional  cruelty  when 
under  the  influence  of  excited  passion,  as  in  those  melancholy  instances  when 
the  inhabitants  of  Antioch  and  of  Thessalonica  rose  in  revolt  against  him. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

Valentinian,  a.  d.  364,  preserved  a  strict  impartiality  and  toleration 
during  this  age  of  religious  contention,  his  mind  being  occupied  by  other 
subjects.  The  Alemanni  invaded  and  ravaged  Gaul,  but  the  brave 
Jovinus,  after  a  severe  conflict,  drove  them  across  the  Rhine,  366.  In 
Britain  the  inroads  of  the  Scots  and  Piets  were  repeatedly  checked  by 
the  vigorous  exertions  of  Theodosius,  father  of  the  emperor  of  that  name. 
The  same  brave  general  afterwards  recovered  Africa,  which  had  joined 
the  rebellious  standard  of  Firmus  the  Moor,  373.  The  Goths,  despising 
the  two  obscure  princes  who  were  raised  to  the  throne,  passed  the 


FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


153 


Danube,  to  the  number  of  30,000  men ;  but  after  a  sanguinary  war  of 
three  years,  they  were  glad  to  accept  peace.  The  Quadi  followed,  with 
still  worse  success;  and  it  was  while  receiving  their  ambassadors  that 
Valentinian  broke  into  a  furious  passion  which  caused  his  death,  375. 

Gratian  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father.  His  first 
exploit  in  arms  was  the  defeat  of  the  Alemanni  who  had  crossed  the 
Rhine,  in  378.  Unable  to  resist  alone  the  tempest  of  barbarians  who 
threatened  to  burst  over  the  provinces,  he  invested  Theodosius  with  the 
empire  of  the  East,  379.  The  preference  he  manifested  for  his  Scythian 
body-guard  naturally  excited  the  discontent  of  the  Roman  troops. 
Maximus,  who  commanded  in  Britain,  availed  himself  of  these  mur¬ 
murs  to  assume  the  purple,  and  Gratian  perished  by  the  hand  of  an 
assassin,  383.  Not  satisfied  with  possessing  the  provinces  westward 
of  the  Alps,  the  usurper  invaded  Italy,  which  was  governed  by  Valen¬ 
tinian  II.,  a  brother  of  the  late  monarch.  Theodosius  supported  the 
Italian  prince,  and  Maximus  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Aquileia,  388; 
but,  notwithstanding,  Valentinian  perished  by  the  hand  of  the  Frank 
Arbogastes,  before  he  had  completed  his  twentieth  year,  392.  The  rhe¬ 
torician  Eugenius,  secretary  of  the  barbarian  general,  was  raised  to  the 
vacant  throne,  and  for  tw~o  years  Theodosius  durst  not  attack  him, 
defended  as  he  was  by  the  skill  of  his  master  and  the  numerous  Franks 
he  had  collected  around  him.  The  battle  which,  in  394,  put  an  end  to 
the  reign  and  life  of  Eugenius,  was  fought  by  foreigners  alone :  the 
troops  of  Theodosius  being  Goths,  under  the  command  of  their  native 
chiefs,  and  their  antagonists  Franks  and  Allemanni. 

The  history  of  the  Western  Empire  now  rapidly  approaches  its  close.  The 
luxury  which  pervaded  the  cities,  and  the  relaxation  of  military  discipline 
prepared  its  fall.  Ministers,  soldiers,  and  generals  were  chosen  from  the  bar¬ 
barous  tributaries  of  Rome ;  and  the  incorporation  of  the  Goths  and  other  tribes 
was  a  fatal  injury  to  the  internal  government  of  the  state.  The  court  was  given 
up  to  idle  pomp  and  ceremony  ;  women  and  eunuchs  directed  the  affairs  of  the 
world  ;  corruption,  injustice,  and  oppression,  famine  and  pestilence,  completed 
the  gloomy  picture. 


BARBARIC  MIGRATIONS. 

The  fourth  century  was  marked  by  an  incident  of  great  importance, - 
the  appearance  of  the  Huns  in  Europe;  an  event  which  led  to  the  grea 
migrations  that  followed,  and  finally  brought  on  the  destruction  of  tl  e 
Roman  Empire  in  the  West. 

The  name  of  German  comprehends  all  those  tribes  which,  from  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar,  were  established  between  56°  N.  latitude  and  the 
Danube,  and  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Vistula.  One  of  these  nations, 
the  Goths,  being  driven  from  the  mouths  of  the  latter  river  by  others 
w’ho  dwrelt  farther  to  the  east,  sought  refuge  on  the  frontiers  of  Dacia, 
where  Caracalla  found  them  in  213.  Aurelian  permitted  them  to  settle 
along  the  Euxine  Sea,  when  they  became  divided  into  Eastern  or  Ostro¬ 
goths — from  the  Don  to  the  Dniester,  and  Western  or  Visigoths — from 
the  Dniester  to  the  Danube.  About  the  year  374  the  barbarous  horde 
of  the  Hiong-nu ,  or  Huns,  appeared  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Don. 
They  wrere  a  nomad  people  who  wandered  over  the  mountains  and  pas¬ 
ture-grounds  of  Upper  Asia,  particularly  in  the  countries  lying  between 
Siberia  and  India.  The  first  historical  notice  of  them  is  found  in 


154 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Chinese  documents  of  the  age  of  Domitian.  Their  khan  or  tanjou, 
Tchun  Goei,  had  founded  a  powerful  empire  beyond  the  northern  edge 
of  the  desert  of  Kobi,  by  whose  successors  the  Manchoos  or  Eastern 
Tartars  w^ere  subdued.  The  Chinese,  who  vainly  opposed  their  great 
wall  to  check  these  incursions,  were  reduced  by  the  Tanjous;  but  for¬ 
tune  changing,  the  Emperor  Vou-ti  expelled  them  from  his  country,  and 
the  Manchoos  also  threw  off  their  yoke.  A  prey  to  dreadful  famine  and 
intestine  wars,  the  Huns  abandoned  the  steppes  of  Tartary,  and  in  two 
great  bodies  marched  to  the  westward.  The  white  Huns,  or  Nept’na- 
lites,  settled  in  Transoxiana,  whence  they  annoyed  the  Persians  ;  while 
the  other  tribes  to  the  north  of  the  Caucasus,  and  between  the  Volga 
and  the  Don,  encountered  the  Alani,  a  people  almost  as  savage  as  them¬ 
selves.  These  they  carried  along  with  them  in  their  course,  and  the 
two  hordes,  now  confounded  in  one,  arrived  on  the  borders  of  the  Ostro¬ 
goths.  They  did  not  force  the  vanquished  inhabitants  to  quit  their 
lands,  but  compelled  them  to  supply  a  certain  number  of  guides  to  lead 
them  to  the  attack  of  the  Visigoths.  These  latter  tribes,  at  the  approach 
of  this  terrible  scourge,  fled  in  multitudes  towards  the  Danube,  and  sup¬ 
plicated  Valens,  376,  to  receive  and  protect  them  on  the  right  bank; 
promising  that  when  they  were  once  sheltered  by  this  barrier,  they 
would  consecrate  their  services  to  the  defence  of  the  empire.  How  the 
declarations  of  this  million  of  suppliants  were  kept,  the  reader  will  find 
detailed  elsewhere. 


THE  CHURCH. 

The  Christian  religion,  although  severely  persecuted,  resembled  the 
herb  that  flourishes  best  when  most  trodden  upon.  The  blood  of  the 
martyrs  was  the  seed  of  the  Church,  and  hence  converts  rapidly  spread 
over  the  empire,  and  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  world.  Heresy  and 
schism,  no  doubt,  arose  simultaneously  with  the  propagation  of  the 
Gospel;  nevertheless,  within  three  centuries,  Paganism  was  entirely 
abolished.  But  the  Arian  controversy  threatened  more  serious  danger 
than  external  persecution;  the  believers  were  for  a  long  period  dis¬ 
united,  and  the  bond  of  evangelical  brotherhood  was  broken.  W  ith  the 
death  of  Constantine  began  the  two  principal  innovations  which  still 
divide  the  Catholic  (or  Universal )  Church,  and  which  have  proved  the 
source  of  all  the  corruptions  that  have  degraded  Christianity :  by  the 
one  the  doctrine  was  contaminated,  and  by  the  other  the  government  of 
the  independent  Episcopal  churches  was  destroyed.  It  ought  to  be 
remembered  that  every  church  was  a  society  complete  in  itself,  govern¬ 
ed  in  all  its  branches  by  one  episcopal  head,  who  wras  liable  to  be 
deposed  if  he  violated  the  faith, — even  the  patriarchs  of  the  three  royal 
cities,  Antioch,  Rome,  and  Alexandria,  with  those  of  Constantinople 
and  Jerusalem,  scarcely  forming  an  exception  to  the  general  rule.  Cer¬ 
tain  large  ecclesiastical  provinces,  such  as  Persia,  Armenia,  and  Abys¬ 
sinia,  which  lay  beyond  the  limits  of  the  empire,  had  also  their  patri¬ 
archs  or  catholics.  Lastly,  there  were  in  it  a  few  provinces  united  with 
a  metropolitan,  who  took  the  name  of  archbishop,  as  Canterbury  in 
England,  Vienne  in  Gaul,  Seville  in  Spain,  and  Milan  in  Italy.  As  to 
the  bishops  or  overseers  ( episcopi ),  their  establishment  dates  from  the 


FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


155 


first  ages  of  Christianity  :  elected  by  the  people  and  clergy  of  their 
diocese,  their  spiritual  authority  was  equal  to  that  of  the  metropolitans 
and  patriarchs,  on  whom,  from  the  exigencies  of  the  times,  the  church 
had  conferred  certain  exterior  privileges.  Below  the  bishops  were  the 
elders  (presbyters  or  priests),  charged  by  them  with  the  exercise  of  a 
spiritual  authority  over  those  members  of  their  diocese  whom  they  them¬ 
selves  could  not  reach.  The  deacons  or  servants  were  destined  to  per¬ 
form  the  humbler  functions  of  the  ministry.  The  equality  of  this 
spiritual  republic  was,  nevertheless,  modified  by  its  discipline ;  for  the 
priest  was  inferior  to  the  bishop,  and  both  to  the  provincial  council  in 
which  the  metropolitan  presided. 

The  errors  of  Arius,  318,  convulsed  the  church  during  three  centuries. 
Rejecting  the  plain  declaration  of  the  Bible  and  the  evidence  of  an¬ 
tiquity,  he  taught  that  Jesus  Christ  was  essentially  distinct  from  the 
Father,  and  only  the  first  and  noblest  of  created  beings.  These  here¬ 
tical  tenets  led  to  the  summoning  of  the  general  councils  of  the  bishops 
and  doctors  of  the  church, —  at  Nice,  325;  Constantinople,  381; 
Ephesus,  431  ;  Chalcedon,  451, — by  which  the  opinions  of  the  primi¬ 
tive  Christians  were  confirmed  on  the  subject  of  the  person  of  Christ, 
of  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  and  the  Atonement.*  But  the  savage 
inroads  of  the  barbarians,  the  extinction  of  learning,  and  an  almost 
universal  mental  abasement,  prepared  the  way  for  the  establishment  of 
Popery  and  Mohammedanism — the  rival  enemies  of  pure  religion  in  the 
West  and  East. 

The  church  "of  Rome  began  early  to  assume  authority  over  the  others, 
as  well  from  the  number  and  wealth  of  its  converts  as  from  its  position 
in  the  capital  city.  Many  circumstances,  especially  the  Athanasian 
controversy  and  its  results,  concurred  to  augment  the  influence  of  its 
bishop,  although  his  usurpation  and  ambition  were  for  a  time  vigorously 
repelled.  Irenaeus  of  France,  in  195:  reproved  the  presumption  of 
Victor  of  Rome,  who  had  excommunicated  the  Asiatic  churches  which 
did  not  observe  Easter  after  his  fashion.  The  Romish  mandates  were 
peremptorily  rejected  by  the  African  church,  250 ;  and  Spain  a  few 
years  afterwards  refused  to  submit  to  the  pontiff.  The  transference  of 
the  seat  of  power  to  Constantinople  increased  the  authority  of  the 
western  church,  by  conferring  the  chief  magistracy  on  the  bishop.  To 
this  must  be  added  the  sanction  given  by  Gratian  and  Valentinian  to 
the  custom  of  appeals  to  Rome,  the  frequent  pilgrimages  to  the  tombs 
of  St.  Peter, f  St.  Paul,  and  other  martyrs. 


*  The  Council  of  Constantinople  was  convoked  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  and  the 
patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  Constantinople  presided  in  succession.  St.  Gregory  of 
Nazianzuin  was  among  the  number.  The  symbol  of  the  mass,  afterwards  received  by 
the  whole  Romish  church,  was  here  proposed.  The  Council  of  Ephesus  was  convoked 
by  Theodosius  the  younger.  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  presided  ;  the  Nestorians  and 
IViagians  were  condemned  The  Council  of  Chalcedon  was  convoked  by  the  Emperor 
Mercian.  One  of  the  canons  then  enacted,  by  which  Constantinople  ought  to  enjoy  the 
same  advantages  as  Rome  in  the  ecclesiastical  order,  was  the  germ  of  schism  which 
afterwards  separated  the  Greek  from  the  Western  church. 

t  'Hie  most  magnificent  temple  in  the  world  was  raised  over  the  traditionary  tomb  of 
St.  Peter  ;  but  whatever  may  be  the  decisions  of  the  critics  as  to  his  visit  to  Rome  and 
martyrdom  in  that  city,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  neither  he  nor  St.  Pauk 
was  the  founder  of  the  Christian  church  in  that  metropolis. 


156 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


GENERAL  TABLE  OF  COUNCILS. 


r—- - 

Council. 

Whpn. 

Where. 

By  whom 
Summoned. 

President. 

Why  ? 

Results. 

1 

_ 

325 

Nice. 

Constantine. 

Osius. 

To  settle 
the  Arian 
disputes. 

Nicene  Creed ;  re¬ 
cognition  of  con- 
substantiality  of  the 
Son  of  God  with 
God  the  Father. 

The  teacher  should  furnish  the  pupil  with  the  particulars  from  Milner, 
Mosheim,  or  any  more  authentic  source. 


Remarks  on  the  Establishment  of  Christianity  by  Constantine. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  faith  or  patriotic  philanthropy  induced  the  Roman 
emperor  to  distribute  the  ministers  of  Christ  over  his  dominions,  and  to  assign 
.hem  a  territorial  revenue.  Contemporaneously  with  this  establishment  wa9 
the  progress  of  a  great  and  general  corruption  which  had  arisen  from  other 
causes  two  centuries  before.  Superstition  and  ignorance  had  invested  the 
ecclesiastics  with  a  power  which  they  exerted  to  their  own  aggrandizement, 
supplanting  the  authority  of  Scripture  by  a  discipline  and  doctrine  which  blind¬ 
ed  the  souls  of  men.  In  this  alone  —  which  the  establishment  should  have 
restrained  and  corrected  —  originated  the  despotism  of  priests,  and  by  it  they 
were  enabled  to  rule  at  will  over  the  consciences  of  their  deluded  votaries.  In 
consequence  of  the  new  arrangement,  the  religion  of  Christ  spread  from  the 
cities  and  towns  over  all  the  rural  districts,  and  the  Pagans  (i.  e.  villagers,  in  a 
literal  sense)  were  brought  into  the  Christian  fold.  An  unfailing  succession  of 
ministers  was  thus  secured  ;  a  refuge  during  the  dark  and  stormy  ages,  already 
impending  over  the  empire,  was  prepared  ;  virtue  found  a  safe  retreat  ;  and 
learning  was  sheltered  till  brighter  days  arose.  The  religion  of  the  Gospel 
could  never  have  perished  ;  but  the  sufferings  consequent  upon  the  barbarian 
invasions  would  have  been  increased  tenfold,  and  all  literature  and  science 
would  have  disappeared  in  the  wreck  of  the  governments. 

Heresies. — The  great  heresies  in  the  early  Christian  church  may  be  traced 
to  three  sources  : — 1.  Pagan  Philosophy;  2.  Opinions  as  to  the  Nature  of  Christ; 
and,  3.  Doctrines  in  regard  to  the  Human  Will  and  Original  Sin. 

I.  Philosophy. — The  Gnostics  rejected  the  law  of  Moses,  with  some  part9 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  regarded  Christ  as  an  intermediate  being  between 
God  and  man,  an  emanation  from  the  Pleroma,  or  fulness  of  the  Godhead,  sent 
into  the  world  to  deliver  the  human  being  from  the  empire  of  the  genii,  and  to 
withdraw  souls  from  the  malignant  influence  of  matter.  Some  abstained  from 
marriage,  and  by  fasting  and  maceration  endeavoured  to  free  the  soul  from  the 
fleshly  prison  to  which  it  was  confined  ;  others  of  the  Gnostics  indulged  in  every 
kind  of  vice,  as  they  attached  no  idea  of  good  or  evil  to  any  of  the  different 
modifications  of  matter.  ^ 

The  Manichees  derive  their  name  and  creed  from  the  Persian  Mani.  whose 
belief  was  a  mixture  of  Christianity  and  Sabaism.  founded  on  the  oriental  tra¬ 
dition  of  two  principles  of  Good  and  Evil.  He  rejected  the  Old  Testament, 
and  published  a  gospel  of  his  own,  meant  by  him  to  complete  the  imperfect 
revelation  of  Jesus.  He  identified  the  God  ot  the  Old  Testament  with  the  evil 
spirit;  rejected  all  religious  ceremonials;  and  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  me¬ 
tempsychosis,  with  the  triple  division  of  human  souls.  He  was  put  to  death  by 
order  of  Varanes  I.,  after  a  dispute  with  the  Magians,  and  his  skin,  stuffed  with 
straw,  was  placed  over  the  gate  of  the  city  of  Shahpoor.  275.  His  doctrines 
spread  even  to  Spain  ;  they  were  adopted  by  Priscilian,  bishop  of  Abyla,  who 
suffered  as  a  heretic — the  first  victim — at  Treves,  385. 


FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


157 


Carpocrates  founded  the  sect  which  bears  his  name.  He  taught  the  pre- 
existence  of  the  soul,  and  that  everything  was  a  matter  of  indifference,  except 
faith  and  charity.  By  this  he  appears  to  inculcate  the  contempt  of  all  laws,  and 
that,  as  our  passions  were  given  us  by  God,  we  should  satisfy  „hem  at  all  risks 
He  added  to  this  licentious  doctrine  the  principle,  that  excess  in  debauchery  is 
a  more  certain,  speedy,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  more  agreeable  method  of 
destroying  the  burdensome  body  than  the  practice  of  self-mortificati  n.  His 
creed  was  partly  Gnostic. 

Nicolas,  deacon  of  Jerusalem,  chief  of  the  Nicolaitans,  formed  a  sect  which, 
by  an  unlimited  extension  of  the  community  of  goods,  degraded  men  to  brutes, 
and  sapped  the  foundations  of  society. 

A  physician,  Montanus ,  desirous  of  perfecting  the  moral  precepts  of  Christ, 
proscribed  all  pleasures,  dress,  the  arts,  and  philosophy.  Rigorous  fasts  were 
enjoined  :  marriage  was  tolerated  as  a  necessary  evil,  but  second  nuptials  were 
considered  an  inexpicable  sin;  and  all  religion  was  resolved  into  an  inward 
emotion.  The  eloquent  Tertullian  was  one  of  his  proselytes.  His  followers 
were  called  Montanists. — The  Valesians  and  Origenists  went  to  still  greater 
excesses. 

II.  Opinions  as  to  the  Nature  of  Christ. — The  Macedonians,  Sahel - 
lians.  and  Monarchists  preceded  Arius ,  who  denied  the  proper  divinity  of  the 
Saviour.  This  heresy  was  first  taught  at  Alexandria,  in  a  spirit  of  opposition 
to  the  patriarch ;  it  gradually  divided  the  church,  and  was  formally  condemned 
by  the  Council  of  Nice,  325. 

The  Nestorians  imagined  a  useless  and  dangerous  distinction  between  the 
human  and  divine  nature  of  Christ.  They  were  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
Ephesus,  431. — The  Eutychians ,  called  also  Jacobites ,  fell  into  the  opposite 
error,  and  were  censured  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  451. 

III.  Doctrines  in  regard  to  the  Human  Will  and  Original  Sin. — 
Two  monks,  Pelagius,  a  Briton,  and  the  Irish  Celestius,  wholly  rejected  the 
doctrine  of  original  sin,  and  of  the  influence  of  divine  grace,  and  asserted  the 
entire  freedom  of  the  will.  St.  Augustin  was  the  great  champion  of  orthodoxy 
against  these  opinions. 

The  Donatists  and  Iconoclasts  belong  to  a  different  class.  They  did  not 
object  to  the  Nicene  creed  ;  their  errors  were  not  doctrinal ;  they  were  rather 
schismatics  or  rebels.  The  first  sect  arose  out  of  the  disputes  concerning  the 
succession  to  the  bishopric  of  Carthage.  The  opinions  of  Donatus  were  con¬ 
demned  by  the  conference  at  Carthage,  411. — An  account  of  the  Iconoclasts 
is  given  in  the  history  of  the  eighth  century. 

The  preceding  brief  list  of  heresies  can  give  but  a  feeble  and  imperfect  idea 
of  the  numberless  and  unmeasured  aberrations  into  which  the  passion  of  dog¬ 
matizing  and  the  seductions  of  an  unsubstantial  glory  led  away  many  proud 
spirits.  Who  can  tell  what  sufferings  these  deep  wounds  inflicted  on  the  church  ! 
The  hand  of  God  had  supported  it  during  the  persecutions  of  the  Pagans ;  it 
found  in  its  own  ministers  men  armed  with  prudence  and  courage  to  defend  it 
from  internal  enemies.  At  first  it  opposed  to  its  misled  children  the  authority 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  pure  tradition  only;  but  when  the  princes  of  i  he 
earth  had  recognised  the  reign  of  Christ,  the  civil  power  lent  its  support  to  the 
laws  of  the  church.  The  mere  errors  of  conscience  were  assimilated  to  crimes, 
and  often  met  with  the  same  punishment. 


14 


158 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


FIFTH  CENTURY. 


FOUNDATION  OF  MODERN  STATES. 

Eastern  Empire.  —  395,  Alaric. — 408,  Theodosias  II. — 420,  Persia' 
War.-  -450,  Marcian. — 457,  Leo  the  Great. — 491,  Anastasius. 

Ro^e  J  I V ester  *  Empire. — 408,  Britain  relinquished. — 410,  Visigoths  at  Rome 
— Vandals,  Alani,  and  Suevi. — 414,  Franks,  Burgundians,  &c.,  in 
Gaul.  452,  Attila. — 476,  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire  — 
Odoacer  and  Theodoric. 

Venice. — 452,  Commencement  of  the  Republic. 

Gaul. — 420,  Pharamond. — 428,  Clodion. — 448,  Merovens. — 486,  Clovis. 

The  Church. — Monachism — Conversion  of  the  Barbarians. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 

Each  empire  was  now  divided  into  two  prefectures  ;  these  into  two  dioceses, 
and  subdivided  into  provinces.  The  cities  with  their  dependencies  formed  the 
lowest  division  in  this  political  scale. 


Prefectures. 

r 


Dioceses. 


cd 

i— i 

Ph 

£ 

w 

£ 

Pd 

w 

GQ 

<J 

w 


fl.  East. 


2.  Egypt. 


I. 

East. 


< 


II. 

Illyria  . 
("Eastern).^ 


Provinces. 

r 3  Palestmes,  Phoenicia. 

•?  2  Syrias,  Cyprus,  Arabia. 

(.2  Cilicias,  Mesopotamia. 

C  Egypt  Proper,  Thebais. 

£2  Lybias,  Augustamnica. 

{Pamphilia,  Hellespont. 

Lydia,  Lycaonia,  2  Phrygias. 

Lycia,  Caria,  the  Isles. 

{2  Galatias,  Bithvnia,  Pontus. 

2  Cappadocias,  *P aphlagonia. 

2  Armenias,  Helenopontus,  Polemonium. 
..  mi  C  Europe,  Thrace,  Rhodope. 

.  1  race.  £  Haemus,  2d  Moesia,  Scythia. 

~  rAchaea,  Macedonia. 

fl.  Macedonia.  Crete,  Thessaly. 

(.Epirus  (old  and  new). 


C  Dacia  ( Interior  and  Ripuarian ). 


W 

Pd 


w 

Pd 

H 

E- 

W 

£ 


i. 

Italy.  K 


< 


II. 

Gaul. 


•  q  r*\  •  A  1/  aLia  \Ji  fi/LC'i  tut  uiiu 

uacia.  ^ist  Moesia,  Dardania,  Proevalis. 
rl.  Italy  (sub-  f Venice,  Liguria,  2  Picentums. 
divided  into  Tuscany  and  Umbria,  Campania. 
the  Dioceses  \  Sicily,  Apulia,  Calabria. 
of  Italy  and S  Lucania  and  Bruttium,  Cottian  Alps. 

Rome.)  !  2  Rhaetias,  Samnium,  Valeria,  Sardinia,  Cor- 

L  sica. 

C2  Pannonias,  Savia. 

^Dalmatia,  Noricum. 

CTripolis,  Byzacium. 

£  Numidia,  2  Mauritanias. 

^-Boetica,  Lusitania,  Galicia. 

.2  Tarraconensis,  Carthaginiensis. 

(.Balearic  Isles,  Tingitania  (Africa). 
f  Narbonnensis  (2),  Vienne, 

•  Alps  (Maritime  and  Pennine). 
y  3  Aquitaines,  5  Lyonnais, 

(JBelgica  (2),  Germany  (2). 
r 2  Britains 


2.  Illyria 
( Western). 

3.  Africa. 


r\.  Spain. 


2.  Gaul. 


3.  Britain. 


(.F4aviaia  Caesariensis,  Valcntia. 
Prepare :  Maps  of  the  two  empires  with  the  preceding  divisions. 


FIFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


159 


EASTERN  EMPIRE. 

Invasion  of  Alaric. — Arcadius,  the  eldest  son  of  the  great  Theodo¬ 
sius,  seemed  to  impress  his  own  feebleness  on  that  empire  whose  history 
begins  with  his  reign,  a.  d.  395.  He  ruled  over  Thrace,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  Egypt,  Dacia,  and  Macedonia.  The  obscure  but  clever  Gascon 
Rufinus,  who  owed  his  elevation  to  the  father,  preserved  his  influence 
over  the  son ;  but  his  fall  and  death  were  brought  on  by  his  cruelties  in 
the  East,  and  by  the  marriage  of  the  sovereign.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Eutropius,  who  shortly  after  incurred  a  similar  fate.  Gainas,  the  leader 
of  the  barbarian  auxiliaries,  dissatisfied  at  the  frequent  changes  in  the 
state,  and  probably  moved  by  ambition,  meditated  the  destruction  of  the 
Greek  monarchy,  by  delivering  up  its  capital  into  the  hands  of  his 
fellow-countrymen;  but  the  plot  being  discovered,  he  was  compelled  to 
withdraw  beyond  the  Danube,  where  he  perished  in  battle  against  the 
Huns.  The  empire  escaped  from  these  dangers  only  to  encounter  still 
greater.  The  Visigoths,  on  the  refusal  of  Arcadius  to  pay  the  annual 
tribute,  poured  their  wild  bands  into  Thrace  and  Pannonia,  following 
the  guidance  of  Alaric,  a  chief  of  the  ancient  Balti.  From  the  Adriatic 
to  the  Bosphorus,  everything  was  devastated ;  and  the  Goths  penetrated 
as  far  as  Athens,  the  walls  of  which  were  vainly  defended  by  the  shade 
of  Achilles  and  the  powerful  aegis  of  Minerva.  They  escaped  from 
Stilicho,  the  minister  of  Honorius,  who  was  sent  against  them,  when 
the  feeble  counsels  of  Arcadius  promoted  the  invader  to  the  title  of 
Prefect  of  Illyricum,  398. 

Pulcheria. — The  intrigues  and  conspiracies  of  the  Eastern  court  are 
too  numerous  and  too  similar  to  deserve  particular  notice  ;  but  they  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  distress  of  the  country  by  the  consequent  impossibility 
of  employing  the  resources  of  the  empire  against  the  Barbarians. 
Pulcheria,  scarcely  fifteen  years  of  age,  was  put  at  the  head  of  affairs, 
and  intrusted  with  the  education  of  her  young  brother,  Theodosius  II., 
408.  During  this  minority  the  empire  enjoyed  internal  as  well  as 
foreign  peace ;  and  its  frontiers  were  extended  by  the  addition  of  part 
of  Armenia  in  441.  Theodosius,  celebrated  for  the  oldest  collection  of 
the  Roman  law  which  has  come  down  to  our  time,  was  succeeded  by 
Marcian,  a  soldier  of  great  merit,  who  was  invested  with  the  purple 
when  he  received  the  hand  of  Pulcheria,  450.  He  braved  the  menaces 
of  Attila,  and  by  his  firmness  restored  the  peace  of  the  church.  With 
the  death  of  his  wife,  in  the  year  453,  the  family  of  Theodosius  became 
extinct. 

The  successor  of  Marcian  was  Leo  the  Great,  a.  d.  457.  Proclaimed 
by  the  people,  the  army,  and  the  senate,  and  crowned  for  the  first  time 
by  the  patriarch,  this  simple  Thracian  soldier  appeared  to  revive  the 
long-disused  military  elections  of  the  empire.  The  Isaurian  guard  had 
for  some  time  displaced  the  praetorians,  whose  privileges  they  now 
seemed  desirous  of  assuming.  On  the  death  of  Leo,  they  invested  his 
son-in-law,  their  general  Zeno,  with  the  imperial  dignity.  A  revolution 
placed  Basiliscus  on  the  throne,  who  quitted  his  pleasures  only  to 
terminate  by  an  edict  of  union  the  quarrels  of  the  Orthodox  and  the 
Eutychians. 

On  the  death  of  Zeno,  Ariadne,  the  mother  of  Leo  II.,  married  a 
heretic,  Anastasius  the  Silentiary,  who  attained  the  sceptre  in  491. 


160 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


His  character  may  be  learnt  from  the  flattering  shout  which  greeted  his 
accession — Reign  as  you  have  lived  !  His  excessive  intolerance  towards 
the  orthodox  was  atoned  for  by  the  removal  of  many  oppressive  taxes, 
the  abolition  of  the  sale  of  offices,  the  prohibition  of  combats  between 
men  and  animals,  the  banishment  of  the  seditious  Isaurians,  and  other 
beneflcial  measures.  He  built  Dara  in  Armenia  to  cover  the  frontiers 
on  the  side  of  Persia,  and  erected  a  wall  fifty-four  miles  in  length  from 
the  Euxine  to  the  Propontis,  for  the  defence  of  Constantinople.  His 
long  reign  was  agitated  by  religious  quarrels,  which  in  one  instance 
cost  the  lives  of  100,000  inhabitants  of  the  capital.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Justin  I.,  a  Thracian  peasant,  518,  whose  throne,  nine  years  after¬ 
wards,  was  occupied  by  his  celebrated  nephew  Justinian. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

Battle  of  Pollentia. — Honorius  was  eleven  years  of  age  when  he 
succeeded  to  the  government  of  Italy,  Africa,  Gaul,  Spain,  Britain, 
Noricum,  Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia,  in  395.  His  minister,  the  intrepid 
and  sagacious  Stilicho,  himself  of  Vandal  origin,  supported  the  dignity 
of  the  Roman  name  in  the  West.  After  the  revolt  in  Africa  was  quelled, 
398,  he  was  sent  against  Alaric,  at  that  time  ravaging  Greece ;  but  he 
was  soon  called  to  defend  the  sacred  soil  of  Italy  itself  against  that 
daring  barbarian,  402.  The  Visigoths,  after  insulting  Milan,  and  being 
almost  shut  up  in  their  camp  at  Pollentia,  were  defeated  in  two  battles, 
and  compelled  to  leave  in  the  hands  of  their  conquerors  a  great  part  of 
the  booty  which  they  had  collected  in  Greece.  Honorius  enjoyed,  in 
Rome,  the  triumphal  honours  due  to  his  successful  general ;  and  after¬ 
wards  transferred  the  imperial  residence  to  Ravenna,  trusting  for  safety 
rather  to  the  waters  of  the  Adriatic  than  to  the  arms  of  his  soldiers. 
Alaric  retired  into  Pannonia,  but  the  season  of  calm,  which  the  Western 
Empire  enjoyed,  was  of  brief  duration.  Italy  was  again  overrun  by 
Radagaisus,  who  had  served  under  that  adventurer,  and  Rome  threatened ; 
but  the  manoeuvres  of  Stilicho  shut  him  up  in  the  mountains,  near 
Faesulse,  where  the  united  forces  of  the  Goths  and  Huns  were  starved 
into  surrender,  and  the  leader  himself  beheaded,  406.  Meantime  Gaul 
was  desolated  by  the  Vandals  from  modern  Lusatia,  by  the  Suevi  from 
between  the  Maine  and  the  Neckar,  and  by  the  Alani  from  the  banks  of 
the  Danube.  It  was  defended  by  Constantine,  who  had  usurped  the 
imperial  power,  and  whose  lieutenant  Constans  administered  the  affairs 
of  Spain. 

Capture  of  Rome.  —  Stilicho  fell  a  victim  to  the  intrigues  of 
Olympius,  an  officer  of  the  palace,  who  inspired  the  feeble  Honorius 
with  the  determination  of  getting  rid  of  a  powerful  minister,  who  was 
said  to  meditate  the  placing  of  his  own  son  on  the  imperial  throne. 
Thus  the  only  general  who  was  capable  of  defending  Italy  was  put  to 
death  in  408.  Alaric  immediately  resumed  his  projects  against  it, 
ostensibly  to  revenge  the  wrongs  of  his  principal  adversary ;  but 
neglecting  Ravenna,  he  marched  to  Rome,  which,  since  the  time  of 
Hannibal,  more  than  six  hundred  years,  had  seen  no  enemy  before  its 
gates.  A  close  blockade  soon  forced  it  to  capitulate,  on  condition  of 
paying  5000  pounds  of  gold,  30,000  of  silver,  4000  silk  dresses,  3000 
pieces  of  fine  scarlet  cloth,  and  3000  pounds  of  pepper,  the  last  an 


FIFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


161 


article  held  in  the  greatest  esteem.  The  obstinacy  and  treachery  of 
Honorius  compelled  Alaric  to  march  a  third  time  against  the  capital. 

At  midnight  a  band  of  slaves  in  his  interest  opened  the  Salarian  gate, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  roused  from  their  slumbers  by  the  sound  of  the 
Gothic  trumpet  in  their  streets.  Eleven  hundred  and  sixty-three  years 
after  its  foundation,  Rome,  which  had  subdued  the  greatest  part  of  the 
earth,  was  given  up  for  six  days  to  the  fury  of  Scythians  and  Ger¬ 
mans,  410.  The  piety  of  these  recently  converted  barbarians  respected 
the  basilics  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  Marching  to  the  south,  de¬ 
vastating  every  thing  upon  which  he  set  his  foot,  Alaric  was  surprised 
by  death  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  at  Consentia  ( Cosenza ),  while 
meditating  an  expedition  to  Africa. — He  was  succeeded  by  Ataulphus, 
with  whom  the  emperor  made  peace  by  giving  to  him  his  sister  Placidia 
in  marriage.  In  return,  he  led  his  followers  against  the  usurpers  Con¬ 
stantine,  Gerontius,  Jovinus,  and  Sebastian,  who  were  disputing  the 
sovereignty  of  Gaul.  The  first  was  made  prisoner  at  Arles  and  capitally 
punished;  the  second  put  himself  to  death;  the  other  two  were  con¬ 
quered  by  the  Visigoths,  and  perished  on  the  scaffold  at  Narbonne. 
Before  the  demise  of  Honorius  in  424,  several  barbarian  kingdoms  had 
been  established  :  the  Burgundian  in  413  ;  the  Suevian  in  Galicia,  and 
the  Visigoths  in  the  south  of  France,  419.  The  main  object  of  his 
government  was  the  extirpation  of  heresy  and  paganism ;  he  declared 
all  noncomformers  inadmissible  to  public  offices,  destroyed  the  temples 
with  their  idols,  and  endeavoured  to  abolish  all  gladiatorial  shows. 

Kingdom  of  Carthage,  a.  d.  439. — Honorius  leaving  no  children, 
the  inheritance  reverted  to  Theodosius  II.,  his  nephew ;  but  the  union 
of  the  crowns  of  the  East  and  West  was  no  longer  possible,  and  the  em¬ 
peror  wisely  transferred  his  rights  to  Valentinian  III.,  the  son  of 
Placidia,  424.  This  princess  defeated  John  the  Secretary,  who  had 
usurped  the  Italian  throne,  and  took  the  reins  of  state,  while  Pulcheria, 
sister  of  Theodosius,  ruled  in  the  east  in  the  name  of  her  brother.  Under 
the  new  reign  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire  proceeded  rapidly. 
Boniface,  the  governor  of  Africa,  when  on  the  point  of  falling  a  victim 
to  the  intrigues  of  the  powerful  minister,  iEtius,  proposed  to  Genseric  the 
Vandal,  in  return  for  his  assistance,  a  partition  of  the  wealthy  province 
of  Africa,  and  that  Mauritania  should  be  his  share.  The  court  of  Ra¬ 
venna  exerted  itself  in  support  of  the  governor,  but  he  was  unable  to 
defend  his  province,  and  in  435,  Valentinian,  that  he  might  save  Car¬ 
thage,  ceded  all  Roman  Africa.  Genseric,  four  years  later,  became 
master  of  this  great  and  populous  city,  plundered  the  treasures  of  the 
Catholic  churches,  and  being  installed  in  his  new  capital,  assumed  the 
title  of  King  of  the  Earth,  of  the  Sea,  and  of  the  Islands.  His  formi¬ 
dable  navy  had  reduced  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily,  the  Balearic  Isles, 
ravaged  the  northern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  threatened 
Constantinople. 

Attila. — The  tribes  of  Huns  established  in  the  countries  from  whence 
they  had  expelled  the  Goths,  between  the  Don,  the  Theiss,  and  the 
Volga,  were  united  under  this  single  chief,  denominated  the  Scourge  of 
God.  The  Byzantine  court  having  refused  the  payment  of  the  stipulated 
subsidy  to  his  people,  these  barbarians  crossed  the  frontiers,  ravaged 
Thrace  and  Illyria,  and  forced  Theodosius  not  only  to  pay  the  arrears, 
but  to  abandon  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  446.  The  emperor  did 
14* 


162 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


not  long  survive  this  humiliation.  His  successor  Marcian  opposed  the 
pretensions  of  Attila  with  a  firmness  not  unbecoming  the  Romans  of  an 
earlier  age,  and  the  barbarian  was  compelled  to  turn  his  views  towards 
the  West.  In  451,  he  marched  up  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  and 
arrived  at  Basle,  on  the  Rhine,  with  an  army  of  500,000  men.  At  the 
news  of  this  irruption,  .Etius  endeavoured  to  preserve  Gaul  for  his  em¬ 
pire  :  but  in  vain  did  the  Burgundians  dispute  the  passage  of  the  river. 
Attila  descending  its  left  bank  as  far  as  Mentz,  plundered  Treves  and 
Metz  ;  after  which  leading  his  troops  into  the  heart  of  Gaul,  he  pitched 
his  camp  before  Orleans.  At  the  very  moment  that  he  was  entering 
that  city  by  one  gate,  through  another  was  advancing  the  army  of 
Etius,  with  Theodoric  and  his  Visigoths,  and  Meroveus  with  the 
Franks.  The  Huns  were  driven  out  and  in  the  plains  of  Croisette, 
near  Chalons  on  the  Marne,  a  sanguinary  battle  was  fought,  in  which 
160,000  men  were  left  dead  upon  the  field,  and  the  invader  compelled  to 
return  to  Germany.  The  next  year  he  marched  on  Italy,  destroyed 
Aquileia,  took  Pavia  and  Milan,  and  ravaged  the  north-eastern  parts  of 
the  peninsula.  He  entered  Ravenna  through  a  breach  in  the  walls, 
which  the  people  had  beeen  obliged  to  make  in  token  of  their  submission 
to  his  will,  and  hither  the  venerable  pontiff  Leo  brought  presents  to 
conciliate  the  ferocious  conqueror.  The  wrath  of  the  latter  was  as¬ 
suaged,  and  he  retired  from  Italy  loaded  with  the  plunder  of  an  hundred 
unfortunate  cities.  His  death,  in  453,  was  not  less  extraordinary  than 
his  life.  Having  espoused,  in  addition  to  a  multitude  of  wives,  the 
beautiful  Hildichunde,  he  perished  in  the  night  of  his  marriage — intoxi¬ 
cated,  and  slain  in  a  drunken  fray,  according  to  one  account ;  a  sacrifice 
to  female  craft,  according  to  Agnellus ;  but  most  probably  of  apoplexy. 
The  custom  of  primogeniture  being  unknown,  the  estates  of  the  conqueror 
were  divided  by  lot  among  all  his  sons.* 

Taking  of  Rome  by  Genseric,  a.  d.  455. — Maximus  having  procured 
the  murder  of  Valentinian  III.  and  married  his  widow  Eudoxia,  had 
reigned  three  months,  when  the  fleet  of  Genseric  entered  the  port  of 
Ostia  to  take  vengeance  on  the  guilty  emperor,  who  was  torn  in  pieces 
by  the  exasperated  populace,  while  the  injuries  of  ancient  Carthage 
were  avenged  by  its  new  citizens.  Rome,  which  in  forty-five  years  had 
recovered  its  magnificence  and  forgotten  the  depredations  of  Alaric,  was 
given  up  during  fourteen  days  to  the  license  of  the  invaders.  On  the 
abolition  of  paganism,  the  capitol  had  been  abandoned,  but  the  statues 
of  the  gods  and  heroes  which  adorned  it  were  respected ;  all  of  which, 
with  the  celebrated  roof  of  gilded  bronze,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Genseric. 
The  golden  table  and  candlestick,  brought  from  Jerusalem  several  cen¬ 
turies  before,  were  transported  to  Carthage  by  a  barbarian  who  drew  his 
first  breath  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  Christian  churches  and  the 
treasures  of  the  imperial  palace  offered  a  rich  booty ;  but  the  vessel  loaded 
with  the  spoils  of  the  capitol,  the  most  precious  objects  of  art,  foundered 


*  Attila  was  buried  in  a  wide  plain  in  a  coffin  enclosed  in  one  of  gold,  another  of 
silver,  and  a  third  of  iron.  With  his  body  was  interred  an  immense  amount  of  booty, 
and  that  the  spot  might  be  for  ever  unknown,  all  those  who  had  assisted  at  the  burial 
were  deprived  of  life.  The  Goths  acted  nearly  in  a  similar  manner  on  the  death  of 
Alaric  in  410.  They  turned  aside  a  small  river  in  Calabria,  and  buried  him  in  a  grave 
formed  in  the  midst  of  the  channel.  After  restoring  the  stream  to  its  coarse,  they  put 
to  death  all  those  who  had  been  concerned  in  the  formation  of  so  singular  «  Dlao°  of  se¬ 
pulture. 


FIFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


163 


on  its  passage.  Thousands  of  Romans  of  both  sexes  whose  charms  or 
talents  might  contribute  to  the  pleasures  of  their  masters,  were  removed 
to  Africa,  where  they  furnished  Deogratias,  bishop  of  Carthage,  with  the 
opportunity  of  exercising  his  boundless  charity.  Eudoxia  herself,  who 
was  plundered  of  her  jewels  while  hastening  to  meet  her  liberator  and 
ally,  also  followed  the  Vandal  into  a  captivity  which  was  shared  by  her 
daughters. 

Genseric  during  twenty  years  was  the  terror  of  the  East  and  West. 
With  his  numerous  fleet,  which  he  always  commanded  in  person,  he 
desolated  all  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  After  his  death,  477,  the 
Vandal  kingdom  was  incessantly  agitated  by  religious  persecutions  or 
harassed  by  the  Moors,  until  Belisarius  reduced  Africa  once  more  under 
the  Byzantine  dominion,  534. 

End  of  the  Western  Empire.  —  During  the  twenty  years  which 
elapsed  from  the  death  of  Valentinian  in  455,  Italy  had  acknowledged 
the  rule  of  nine  successive  emperors.  Most  of  them  were  mere  puppets, 
managed  by  Ricimer,  the  commander  of  the  barbarian  mercenaries  in 
the  pay  of  Rome,  and  who  was  too  prudent  to  assume  in  his  own  person 
the  title  of  Augustus.  Of  all  these,  Majorian  was  the  only  one  who 
merited  title  and  station.  He  enacted  many  wise  laws,  reformed  the 
imposition  and  collection  of  taxes,  and  endeavoured  to  preserve  the 
monuments  of  the  city  from  destruction  at  the  hands  of  its  own  inhabi¬ 
tants.  Nor  while  thus  peacefully  occupied,  did  he  neglect  the  external 
relations  of  the  state.  The  Vandals  and  Moors  were  defeated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Liris,  and  Genseric’s  brother-in-law  was  amono-st  the 
slain.  With  a  brave  and  disciplined  army,  the  active  monarch  crossed 
the  Alps  in  the  middle  of  winter,  marching  on  foot  at  the  head  of  his 
legions,  sounding  the  depth  of  the  snow  and  encouragingby  his  example, 
the  barbarians,  who  complained  of  the  severity  of  the  cold.  His  inten¬ 
tion  wTas  to  pass  through  Gaul  and  Spain  into  Numidia,  and  to  overthrow 
the  Vandal  domination.  Gaul  submitted  to  his  arms,  Spain  again 
recognised  the  authority  of  the  empire,  and  a  fleet  of  three  hundred 
galleys  was  constructed  to  menace  the  African  shores.  But  Majorian 
saw  all  his  prospects  blighted;  his  ships  were  surprised  and  burnt  in 
the  port  of  Oarthagena,  and  he  himself  perished  by  the  hands  of  his  own 
soldiers,  460.  The  murderers  conferred  the  supreme  dignity  successively 
on  three  senators — Severus  III.,  Anthemius  and  Olybrius,  all  equally 
undeserving  of  the  throne.  These  wTere  followed  by  Glycerius  and 
Julius  Nepos,  wTho  were  deposed  in  their  turn,  and  ended  their  career, 
*he  one  in  the  honours  of  a  bishopric,  the  other  in  the  retirement  of 
Salona.  The  patrician  Orestes,  master-general  of  the  army  of  Italy, 
after  having  been  the  minister  of  Attila,  invested  his  son  Romulus 
Augustulus  with  the  purple  which  he  had  stripped  from  Nepos.  But 
the  barbarians  in  the  service  of  the  empire,  under  the  name  of  fede¬ 
rates,  not  succeeding  in  their  demand  for  one-third  of  the  lands  of  Italy, 
revolted  under  the  Herulean  Odoacer.  Orestes  was  defeated  and  killed 
at  Pavia,  and  the  youthful  emperor  w'as  banished  to  Lucullanum  in 
Campania,  where  he  soon  after  died. 

Odoacer,  a.  d.  476,  received  from  his  troops  the  title  of  King  of 
Italy ;  but  fearful  of  exciting  jealousy,  he  never  assumed  either  the  pur¬ 
ple  or  diadem.  His  offlce  was  without  power;  for  in  case  of  attack  he 
could  not  rely  on  the  zeal  of  the  population  whom  he  had  despoiled  ; 


164 


ANCIENT  HISTORY* 


while  his  army,  composed  of  men  of  every  race  and  tribe,  without  any 
national  tie,  and  enervated  by  a  long  sojourn  in  the  luxurious  peninsula, 
was  unable  to  defend  the  country  against  invasion.  Although  pro¬ 
fessing  the  Arian  doctrines,  he  tolerated  orthodox  believers  ;  he  strictly 
enforced  the  laws ;  caused  ancient  institutions  to  be  respected ;  re¬ 
established  the  consulate ;  and,  by  promoting  agriculture,  endeavoured 
to  obviate  those  frequent  famines  which  devastated  the  cities  of  Italy,— 
a  necessary  consequence  of  their  entire  reliance  on  supplies  from  Africa 
and  Egypt.  After  reigning  fourteen  years,  he  was  attacked  by  Theo- 
doric  the  Ostrogoth,  and  being  three  times  defeated,  was  driven  into 
Ravenna,  where  he  was  blockaded  nearly  three  years.  He  was  at  last 
compelled  to  surrender,  but  his  rival,  not  very  scrupulous  about  his 
plighted  word,  caused  him  and  his  faithful  companions  to  be  massacred 
in  the  midst  of  a  banquet,  493. 

Reflections. — With  the  banishment  of  Augustulus,  a.  d.  476,  ended  the 
Roman  empire,  1228  years  from  its  foundation.  Its  decline  was  the  necessary 
consequence  of  its  immoderate  greatness.  Prosperity  ripened  the  principles  of 
decay,  which  were  to  be  found  in  the  licentiousness  of  the  soldiery,  the  weak¬ 
ness  of  the  government,  and  the  irruptions  of  the  barbarians.  The  Queen  of 
Nations  fell  by  the  hands  of  a  tribe  unknown,  even  by  name,  in  the  days  of 
her  pride.  Her  fall  made  no  noise  ;  it  was  the  last  sigh  of  a  victim  expiring 
under  a  tedious  and  incurable  malady.  Her  monarchy  was  no  more  than  a 
name.  Britain  was  independent ;  in  Gaul  a  few  provinces  only  remained  faith¬ 
ful  ;  Goths  and  Suevi  disputed  Spain ;  the  Vandals  governed  Africa ;  Italy  was 
crowded  with  foreign  legions  ;  and  Germany  was  daily  sending  forth  her  swarms 
to  prey  on  the  riches  of  the  West. 

The  history  of  the  world  took  another  form.  Christianity  became  the  domi¬ 
nant  religion,  threatened  indeed  for  a  time  by  the  furious  invasion  of  Islam. 
No  mighty  empire  now  threw  its  shadow  over  the  whole  world  ;  the  monarchies 
were  limited  in  extent  and  power  ;  feudalism  gave  rise  to  a  new  order  of  ideas 
and  feelings;  and  the  usurpations  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  while  they  pro¬ 
moted  peace  and  encouraged  the  arts,  stifled  that  freedom  of  thought  which  is 
the  birthright  of  every  reasonable  being. 

Construct:  Synoptical  Table  of  Barbaric  Invasions. 


Date  of 
Invasion. 

People. 

Chief. 

Origin. 

Conquests. 

Manners,  &c. 
Laws,  &.c. 

j 

A.  D. 

365,  Allemanni  invade  Gaul. 

402,  Goths  invade  Italy,  under  Alaric. 

409,  Suevi,  Vandals,  Alani,  and  other  barbarians  invade  Spain. 

419,  Burgundians  settled  in  Gaul. 

449,  Saxons  invade  Britain. 

451,  Huns,  under  Attila,  invade  Gaul  and  Italy. 

The  prophet  Daniel,  about  550  b.  c.  foretold  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  its  division  into  ten  kingdoms.  Machiavelli,  a  most  unprejudiced 
authority,  gives  us  the  following  list 1.  Huns  (Hungary)  a.  d.  356. — 2.  Gstro 
goths  (Mcesia,  Italy)  377. — 3.  Visigoths  (Pannonia)  378.~4.  Franks  (Gaul)  40/, 


FIFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


165 


—5.  Vandals  (Africa)  407.— 6.  Suevi  (Spain)  407.— 
407. — 8.  HeruU (Italy)  476. — 9.  Saxons  (Britain)  476 
483  ;  (in  Lombardy)  526. 

VENICE. 


Burgundians  (Burgundy} 
•10.  Longobards  (Danube) 


The  destructive  campaigns  of  Attila  laid  the  foundation  of  one  of  the 
most  commercial  and  enterprising  cities  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  Roman  province  of  Venetia,  of  which  the  principal 
cities  were  Aquileia  and  Padua,  fled  from  the  swords  of  the  Huns,  452, 
and  found  an  asylum  in  the  midst  of  the  Adriatic  islands,  on  a  point 
named  Rialto.  The  danger  over,  many  continued  to  inhabit  the  spot, 
which,  for  a  long  period,  was  ruled  by  consuls  nominated  at  Padua.  In 
709,  the  Rialto  and  the  adjoining  isles  began  to  be  governed  by  their 
own  magistrates;  they  became  independent  of  the  Paduan  authorities, 
and  considered  themselves  a  republic.  This  is  the  epoch  of  their  first 
doge,  Anafesto,  a  tribune  of  the  people  elected  by  the  citizens.  Heraclea 
was  the  seat  of  this  republic  until  the  death  of  their  third  president. 

Consult:  Daru’s  Venice. —  Sketches  of  Venetian  History,  in  the  Family 
Library. 

GAUL. 


Gaul  was  inhabited  in  remote  antiquity  by  two  nations : — the  Gauls  from  the 
north  of  Europe,  who  filled  the  country  as  far  as  the  mountains  of  Auvergne ; 
and  the  Aquitanians,  from  the  south,  by  way  of  Spain,  who  lived  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  Garonne.  At  a  very  early  period  the  Ligurians  from  Spain 
occupied  the  district  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arno.  A  Grecian 
colony  of  Phocaeans  settled  near  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone,  and  founded  the 
city  of  Marseilles.  About  600  b.  c.,  the  Cymri,  driven  by  other  tribes  from  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  advanced  along  the  Danube,  crossed  the  Rhine,  and 
forcibly  established  themselves  in  that  part  of  Gaul  which  lies  between  the 
Loire  and  the  Seine.  This  invasion  was  the  cause  of  the  irruption  of  the  Gauls 
into  Italy,  where  they  established  themselves  in  what  was  afterwards  named 
Gallia  Cisalpina.  The  great  Julius  formed  the  whole  country  into  an  integral 
part  of  the  empire,  from  which  period  it  shared  the  destinies  of  Rome. 

In  the  fifth  century,  with  the  rest  of  the  Western  Empire,  Gaul  suf¬ 
fered  from  the  ravages  of  the  Northern  barbarians.  In  406,  the  Suevi, 
Vandals,  and  Alani  ravaged  it;  and  in  412,  after  the  death  of  Alaric, 
his  successor  Ataulphus  led  the  Visigoths  along  the  coast  of  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  into  Spain.  Aquitaine  and  all  the  country  between  the  Loire 
and  the  Pyrenees  formed  one  kingdom,  with  Toulouse  for  its  capital. 
Besides  this  people,  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Honorius  we  find  two 
others  firmly  established  in  Gaul.  The  Burgundians,  of  Teutonic 
origin,  from  the  banks  of  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  were  first  settled 
near  the  head  of  the  Maine;  but  about  the  year  414,  they  occupied 
Alsace  and  the  western  parts  of  Switzerland.  Another  Teutonic  race, 
the  Franks,  had  emigrated  from  the  Lower  Rhine  and  the  Weser,  and 
in  358  were  allowed  by  Julian  to  settle  in  Toxandria  (Brabant),  where 
for  a  time  they  became  the  guardians  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  defenders 
of  Gaul.  Pharamond,  son  of  Marcomir,  an  unknown  and  perhaps 
fabulous  prince,  has  no  title  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  French 
monarchy.  This  honour  belongs  rather  to  Clodion,  who  crossed  the 
Rhine  and  made  incursions  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Somme,  where  he 
was  defeated  by  ^Etius.*  On  his  decease,  a  prince  of  his  family, 


*  Clodion  wore  long  hair,  a  mark  of  distinction  introduced  from  Germany  ;  hence  the 
race  of  long-haired  monarchs.  Meroveus  is  said  not  to  have  been  a  son  of  Clodion. — 
Thierry's  Letters, 


166 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


named  Meroveus,  was  raised  on  the  buckler  by  the  Salian  Franks  in 
448,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  first  or  Merovingian  line  of  kings.  His 
son  Childeric,  at  first  expelled  for  his  debauchery,  was  afterwards  recall¬ 
ed  by  the  warriors  of  his  tribe,  who,  during  his  banishment,  had  recog¬ 
nised  the  authority  of  ACgidius,  the  Roman  governor  of  Celtic  Gaul. 
Childeric  made  war  on  the  Visigoths  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire,  while 
the  Ripuarian  Franks  were  forming  settlements  at  Cologne.  From  his 
adulterous  marriage  with  Basine,  wife  of  the  King  of  the  Thuringians, 
was  descended  Chlodwig  or  Clovis,  the  real  conqueror  of  Gaul. 

BRITAIN. 

Saxon  Invasion. — The  Caledonians,  celebrated  in  the  wars  of  Agri¬ 
cola,  a.  d.  85,  disappear,  and  their  place  is  supplied  by  the  Piets  and 
Scots.  The  former  are  supposed  to  be  the  Caledonians  under  a  new 
name,  and  were  of  Scandinavian  descent.  The  latter  came  from  Ire¬ 
land,  then  called  Scotia,  and  appear  to  be  a  division  of  the  Celtic  Cotti , 
whose  language,  if  it  remain  that  of  the  Vaudois  in  the  Cottian  Alps, 
was  related  to  the  vernacular  Irish  and  Scotch.  The  barriers  which 
the  Romans  had  built  to  check  the  incursions  of  these  fierce  tribes, 
proved  unavailing  in  the  feebleness  of  the  empire  ;  but  when  the  Britons 
were  left  to  themselves,  408,  instead  of  sinking  in  unmanly  despair, 
they  took  arms  against  their  enemies,  and  drove  the  Piets  from  their 
cities.  They  had  thrown  off  their  foreign  yoke  and  declared  their  inde¬ 
pendence,  before  Honorius  sent  letters  to  the  respective  states  exhorting 
them  to  protect  themselves.  Britain  was  never  after  this  subject  to  the 
power  of  the  emperors.  The  whole  southern  part  of  the  island  during 
the  Roman  domination  appears  to  have  been  divided  into  thirty-three 
districts,  which  were  all  continued  after  410,  although  each  city  ( civitas ) 
claimed  and  exercised  an  independent  jurisdiction.  Vortigern,  the  pen- 
dragon — head-king — united  some  of  these  communities,  and  anxious  to 
confirm  his  contested  authority,  called  to  his  aid  a  band  of  predatory 
Saxons  who  had  landed  in  the  south  of  England,  449.  Hengist  was 
entirely  successful  in  his  battles  against  the  Piets  and  Scots;  but  to 
complete  his  conquest  it  was  necessary  to  have  an  armed  force  always 
ready  to  meet  these  barbarians.  Such  soldiers  were  easily  found  among 
his  countrymen,  who,  at  his  invitation,  came  over  in  great  numbers.  A 
disagreement  which  ensued  between  them  and  their  employers  occasion¬ 
ed  a  long  and  sanguinary  strife,  which  terminated  in  the  foundation  of 
the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Kent,  455.  The  strangers,  each  day  reinforced 
by  new  adventurers,  continued  their  hostile  incursions ;  but  so  firmly 
were  they  opposed,  that  Ella  could  not  establish  himself  as  a  ruler  in 
Sussex  before  491.  The  entire  conquest  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
island  was  not  completed  until  586. 

Consult:  Turner’s  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

«  THE  CHURCH. 

The  history  of  the  Church  during  this  century  embraces  two  im¬ 
portant  subjects  : — the  commencement  of  Monastic  Institutions  and  the 
Conversion  of  the  Barbarians. 

I.  Monachism  originated  in  the  East,  the  land  of  contemplation  and 
indolence,  where  an  absurd  antagonism  was  raised  between  the  soul  and 


FIFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


1C7 


the  body ;  the  mortification  of  the  one  being  supposed  to  contribute  to 
the  purity  of  the  other.  The  Jews  had  their  Essenes  and  Therapeutae , 
who  lived  apart  from  other  men,  and  aspired  by  the  most  rigorous 
practices  to  attain  a  superhuman  perfection.  They  abstained  from  wine, 
flesh,  and  marriage,  and  renounced  all  business.  Egypt,  “  the  fruitful 
parent  of  superstition,”  afforded  the  earliest  example  of  monastic  life. 
Paul  of  Thebes,  about  a.  d.  250,  fleeing  from  the  persecution  of  Decius, 
retired  to  a  cavern,  in  which  he  passed  the  greater  portion  of  his  life, 
supporting  himself  on  dates,  with  palm-leaves  for  his  only  garment. 
Thirty  years  after  him  another  Egyptian,  St.  Anthony,  lived  also  in  the 
desert ;  but  around  his  hut  were  grouped,  at  a  little  distance,  othei 
cabins,  in  which  a  number  of  ascetics  dwelt  in  obedience  to  his  au¬ 
thority.  He  thus  became  the  father  of  the  monastic  life.  This  new 
passion  for  solitude  wras  disregarded  in  the  Western  Churches  until 
Athanasius  wTent  to  Rome,  in  the  year  340,  to  solicit  the  aid  of  the 
bishop  in  his  contest  wuth  the  Arians.  The  disciples  of  Anthony  soon 
spread  themselves  over  the  Christian  world,  and  before  the  end  of  the 
century  a  monastery  in  Flintshire  contained  above  2000  members.  The 
same  discipline  was  introduced  into  Syria  by  his  immediate  followers, 
and  at  a  somewhat  later  period  into  the  solitudes  of  Pontus,  by  St. 
Basil,  v’hile  St.  Martin  w^as  establishing  in  Gaul  the  first  cenobitical 
community.  The  rule  of  the  Egyptian  monks  w*as  brought  into  Pro¬ 
vence  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  by  St.  Honoratus  and  St. 
Cassianus,  who  founded  two  establishments,  one  at  Lerins,  the  other  at 
Marseilles,  whence  issued  many  learned  apostles  of  the  faith  and 
monastic  life,  among  w'hom  was  St.  Patrick,  the  founder  of  similar 
colonies  in  Ireland.  These  various  communities  of  the  West  followed 
each  its  own  rule  until  that  of  the  Benedictines  wras  received  throughout 
the  wrhole  Latin  church.  The  rapid  progress  of  this  system  may  per¬ 
haps  he  attributed  to  enthusiasm,  sympathy,  and  ambition.  Chrysostom 
presumed  that  none  but  monks  could  be  saved,  and  to  these  terrors  of 
the  church  were  added  those  of  the  barbarians.  The  emperors,  especially 
Valens,  attempted  to  support  the  obligations  of  public  and  private  duties, 
but  such  feeble  barriers  as  they  opposed  were  soon  swept  avTay  b)7  the 
torrent  of  superstition.  Freedom  of  mind  wTas  destroyed  by  credulity 
and  submission;  and  the  monks,  contracting  the  habits  of  slaves, 
followed  the  faith  and  passions  of  their  ecclesiastical  tyrants.  Their 
dress,  habitations,  and  manners  w’ere  equally  filthy  and  disgusting. 
Athanasius  boasts  of  Anthony’s  deep  horror  at  clean  water,  with  which 
his  feet  never  came  in  contact,  except  from  dire  necessity.  Simeon, 
who  died  in  451,  is  immortalized  by  his  penance  of  thirty  years  on  the 
summit  of  a  lofty  column,  whence  he  gained  the  name  of  Stylites. 
These  monastic  saints  boasted  of  their  miraculous  powers ;  they  pre¬ 
tended  to  cure  inveterate  diseases  with  a  touch,  to  tame  the  beasts  of 
the  forest,  to  suspend  the  course  of  nature,  and  even  to  raise  men  from 
the  dead.  The  discipline  of  the  Greek  Church,  which  consisted  of  four 
fundamental  articles, — solitude,  manual  labour,  fasting,  and  prayer,  w  as 
formed  by  St.  Basil.  It  was  long  before  the  follies  of  the  haircloth  and 
flagellation  were  introduced. 

II.  The  Conversion  of  the  Barbarians  offers  a  more  pleasing  pic¬ 
ture  than  that  w’hich  we  have  just  been  contemplating.  Ulphilas,  the 
apostle  of  the  Goths,  translated  the  Scriptures  into  their  native  tongue. 


168 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


about  the  year  360.*  At  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century 
Christianity  was  embraced  by  almost  all  the  barbarians  in  the  Roman 
empire.  The  Franks  obtained  Gaul  by  their  submission  to  the  example 
of  Clovis,  496  ;  and  the  Saxons  were  converted  hy  Roman  missionaries, 
although  the  gospel  had  been  introduced  into  Britain  in  the  second 
century.  These  proselytes  displayed  an  ardent  zeal  in  the  propagation 
of  the  true  faith,  and  England  had  the  honour  of  producing  the  apostle 
of  Germany.  An  immediate  change  was  effected  in  the  moral  condition 
of  these  nations.  The  horrors  of  war  were  alleviated  ;  the  insolence  of 
conquest  was  moderated  ;  and  the  institutions  of  Rome,  religious  and 
political,  were  respected. 

Evangelical  truth  had  been  already  preached  to  the  Indians,  and  a 
bishop  governed  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas  on  the  spice-bearing 
shores  of  Malabar.  A  church  was  founded  in  Ceylon,  and  missionaries 
followed  in  the  steps  of  the  caravans  even  to  China  and  the  extremities 
of  Asia.  The  Abyssinians,  an  Arabian  colony,  were  drawn  from  their 
barbarism  by  similar  means. 

Rapin  observes,  that  in  the  fifth  century  Christianity  was  debased  by  a  vast 
number  of  human  inventions :  the  simplicity  of  its  government  and  discipline 
was  reduced  to  a  system  of  clerical  power  ;  and  its  worship  was  polluted  with 
ceremonies  borrowed  from  the  heathen. 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  FIRST. 

History  of  Literature. 

The  invasion  of  the  South  of  Europe  by  the  barbarians  of  the  North,  the 
great  event  which  separates  ancient  and  modern  times,  interrupted  the  down¬ 
ward  course  of  Greek  and  Roman  civilisation.  In  the  East,  the  Byzantine 
emperors  still  protected  their  declining  literature;  in  the  West,  its  few  relics 
were  received  and  fostered  in  the  bosom  of  the  church.  It  is  this  decline  and 
ruin  of  learning  which  composes  the  entire  literary  history  of  the  fifth  and  three 
following  centuries. 

I.  Alexandrian  School.  —  In  despite  of  its  numerous  aberrations,  this 
school  rendered  the  most  valuable  services  to  learning,  by  preserving  and  ex¬ 
plaining  the  masterpieces  of  ancient  literature,  and  by  endeavouring  to  reconcile 
the  various  systems  of  philosophy.  Alexandria,  situated  at  a  point  where 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  unite,  became  the  focus  of  all  doctrines,  and  its 
academy  the  mental  emporium  of  the  world.  Ammonius  Saccas,  originally  a 
porter,  about  220,  founded  the  Eclectic  school  of  the  New  Platonists,  which 
united  the  different  systems  of  the  Socratic  school,  in  order  to  ally  them  with 
the  fantastic  mysteries  of  the  East, — a  bold  endeavour  to  terminate  the  disputes 
of  the  Greek  philosophers.  Plotinus  of  Lycopolis,  d.  270,  Jamblichus  ofChal- 
cis,  and  Porphyry  of  Tyre,  about  300,  added  to  the  splendour  of  the  reformed 
school ;  and  as  they  announced  their  design  of  propping  up  the  falling  altars  of 
polytheism,  they  naturally  became  the  antagonists  of  the  Christian  fathers. 

When  the  Neo-Platonic  school  in  Rome,  as  well  as  that  of  Alexandria,  was 
shut  up  by  order  of  Constantine  in  324,  secret  societies  were  formed  through¬ 
out  the  provinces,  and,  until  353,  flourished  principally  in  Asia  Minor.  Here 

*  Ulphilas  had  been  compelled  to  embrace  Arianism  in  order  to  engage  the  favour  of 
Valens.  He  is  said  to  have  invented  the  Gothic  characters,  and  his  precious  MS.  in 
letters  of  gold  and  silver  is  preserved,  under  the  name  of  Codex  Argenteus ,  in  the  library 
of  Upsala. 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  FIRST. 


16^ 


was  continued  the  “  golden  chain  of  Platonism,”  of  which  Maximus  of  Epnesus, 
Chrysanthus  of  Lydia,  and  Eusebius  of  Myndus,  were  the  brightest  links. 
Under  the  patronage  of  Julian,  361,  the  school  of  Alexandria  was  re-opened, 
and  a  new  one  founded  at  Athens.  Hypatia,  the  daughter  of  Theon,  filled  with 
honour  the  chair  of  Ammonius  and  Plotinus ;  but  when  she  had  fallen  a  victim 
to  a  furious  mob,  415,  and  the  pagan  school  of  Alexandria  had  perished  with 
her,  Athens  became  the  centre  of  this  new  philosophy. 

Proclus,  who  succeeded  Syrianus  in  450,  was  a  man  of  varied  learning.  In 
his  teaching  he  united  the  ideas  of  Plato  with  the  forms  of  Aristotle ;  but  the 
necessity  of  adapting  his  opinions  to  the  popular  taste  compelled  him  to  blend 
his  philosophy  with  oriental  myths,  orphic  revelations,  supposed  oracles,  and 
mystic  reveries.  The  school  lingered  a  short  time  after  his  decease,  until  it 
was  closed  by  an  edict  of  Justinian  I.  in  529.  The  Neo-Platonists  were 
tolerated,  but  their  sect  became  extinct  with  the  pagan  religion.  They  were 
succeeded  by  the  peripatetics,  whose  opinions  prevailed  in  the  church  until  the 
rise  of  the  scholastic  philosophy  in  the  eighth  century. 

II.  Sacred  Literature. — The  necessity  of  defending  the  Christian  religion 
against  its  numerous  enemies,  and  the  desire  of  making  proselytes  among  the 
enlightened  spirits  of  the  times,  induced  the  doctors  of  the  church  to  study  the 
religion  they  were  so  eager  to  propagate,  the  idolatry  which  they  were  sworn 
to  destroy,  and  the  pagan  Philosophy,  whose  errors  must  either  be  exposed  or 
rendered  subservient  to  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel.  Hence  arose  Ecclesiastical 
Literature.  The  Christian  school  of  Alexandria  did  not  become  celebrated 
until  the  Stoic  Pantaenus.  a  converted  pagan,  ascended  the  professorial  chair, 
at  the  end  of  the  second  century.  His  successor  Clement  endeavoured  to 
systematize  religion ;  maintaining,  that  as  God  had  disseminated  the  elements 
of  truth  among  the  different  philosophic  sects,  it  was  a  Christian’s  duty  to  unite 
these  scattered  fragments,  and  thus  strengthen  piety  by  banishing  falsehood. 
The  genius  and  extensive  learning  of  Origen,  d.  254,  were  employed  in  defence 
of  this  system  ;  but  he  defiled  the  purity  of  the  faith  he  meant  to  defend,  and 
introduced  a  dangerous  method,  whence  afterwards  arose  that  philosophical 
theology,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Scholastic,  played  so  great  a  partin  the 
middle  ages. 

Justin  Martyr,  d.  166,  and  Tertullian,  d.  220,  rank  as  the  chief  defenders  of 
Christianity.  They  published,  the  one  in  Greek  and  the  other  in  Latin,  elo¬ 
quent  and  bold  Apologies  for  the  new  religion.  St.  Irenaeus  led  the  church 
back  from  the  doctrines  of  literal  and  occult  meanings,  contending  that  the 
interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  should  always  be  conformable  to  tradition. 
The  Old  Testament  had  been  early  translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue;  and 
from  the  second  century  we  read  of  versions  in  Syriac,  Coptic,  Ethiopian,  and 
Latin,  the  authors  of  which  are  unknown. 

From  the  third  century  we  meet  with  works  specially  consecrated  to  the 
explanation  of  the  Christian  doctrines.  The  earliest  of  these  is  by  St.  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus,  bishop  of  Neo-Caesarea,  who  lived  till  268.  St.  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem  followed  him  in  the  next  century.  While  they  explained  and 
defended  the  faith  against  the  attacks  of  heretics,  they  endeavoured  to  render 
it  useful  by  founding  on  it  a  system  of  evangelical  morality.  Tertullian,  and 
alter  him  the  learned  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  250,  first  wrote  on  the  connexion 
of  morals  with  the  religion  of  our  Saviour.  The  fourth  century  —  from  Con¬ 
stantine  to  Theodosius — is  the  Golden  Age  of  ecclesiastical  literature.  Atha¬ 
nasius,  d.  371,  Chrysostom,  d.  407,  Ambrose,  d.  398,  and  Augustin,  d.  430, 
preached  the  purest  morality  in  the  most  eloquent  language.  Their  genius 
alone  rose  superior  to  the  fall  of  the  empire,  and  they  were  the  architects  of 
that  great  religious  edifice  which  was  founded  upon  its  ruins. 

Greek  Fathers. — The  name  of  Fathers  of  the  Church  has  been  given  to  those 
authors  who,  from  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  devoted  their  talents  to  the 
defence  and  exposition  of  the  faith.  The  East  and  the  West  alike  produce  d 
men  of  genius  who,  uniting  extensive  learning  to  piety  and  courage,  added  new 
glory  to  the  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome,  while  they  imagined  themselves 
performing  the  simple  duties  of  Christians  and  ministers  of  the  divine  word 
15 


170 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


The  patronage  of  Constantine,  the  first  Christian  emperor,  was  less  efficacious 
in  behalf  of  his  faith  than  the  talents  and  indefatigable  activity  of  Athanasius, 
who  destroyed  the  heresy  of  Arius  at  the  council  of  Nice.  In  the  bishop’s 
chair,  as  well  as  in  exile,  he  was  ever  a  zealous  defender  of  the  Trinitarian  doc¬ 
trine  and  of  religious  unity.  Eusebius,  d .  340,  the  father  of  ecclesiastical  his¬ 
tory,  although  not  strictly  orthodox,  was  serviceable  to  religion  by  h\s  P repara¬ 
tion  and  Evangelical  Demonstration.  His  great  work,  describing  the  propaga¬ 
tion  of  Christianity,  the  vicissitudes  of  the  church,  the  struggles  of  its  teachers, 
and  the  miracles  of  its  martyrs,  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Rufhius,  the 
adversary  oi  Jerome.  Basil  was  called  from  the  deserts  of  the  Thebais  to  fill 
the  episcopal  chair  at  Caesarea,  350.  't  heological  disputes  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  ;  his  homilies  are  moral  treatises,  in  which  the  tenderest  sensi¬ 
bility  is  conveyed  in  a  style  sparkling  with  images  and  rich  in  allegory.  His 
brother,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  by  his  philosophy  and  his  energy  against  heretics 
and  schismatics,  obtained  from  his  contemporaries  the  title  of  Pater  Pat  rum 
Gregory  of  Nazianzum  possessed  a  more  elevated  genius  and  more  brilliant 
eloquence.  When  hatred,  excited  by  his  censures  and  by  a  domineering  spirit, 
which  he  could  not  repress,  had  raised  powerful  enemies  against  him,  he  re¬ 
signed  his  see  without  regret,  but  not  without  pain,  and  the  farewell  of  the 
bishop  was  the  masterpiece  of  the  orator.  Chrysostom  of  Antioch,  d.  407,  by 
his  clear  and  easy  eloquence,  by  his  rich  and  bold  imagery,  by  his  power  of 
reasoning  joined  to  grandeur  of  ideas  and  tenderness  of  sentiment,  may  be  com 
pared  with  Demosthenes  or  Cicero.  He  is  the  chief  of  the  orators  of  that 
primitive  period.  Theophilus.  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  whose  intolerance  was 
so  fatal  to  the  arts  and  philosophy,  brought  into  the  bosom  of  the  church  Syne- 
sius  of  Ptolemais,  afterwards  bishop  of  his  native  city,  430.  The  latter  cele¬ 
brated  in  prose  and  verse  the  great  truths  of  Christianity,  and  the  beauties  of 
religious  morals.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  d.  386,  the  most  skilful  teacher  of  his 
age  ;  Epiphanius  of  Salamis,  who  combated  the  sectarians  with  more  zeal  than 
learning  ;  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  d.  444,  the  first  doctor  of  the  East,  with  many 
others,  shed  honour  on  the  age  of  the  Theodosian  emperors.  John  of  Damas¬ 
cus,  d.  750,  who  was  the  last  in  those  parts,  monopolized  all  the  literary  glory 
of  the  eighth  century.  By  his  application  of  the  peripatetic  forms  of  demon¬ 
stration  to  the  Christian  doctrines,  he  became  the  founder  of  the  Scholastic 
philosophy. 

Latin  Fathers. — Arnobius,  and  Lactantius,  “  the  Christian  Cicero,”  flourish¬ 
ed  in  the  reign  of  Constantine  ;  the  one  feebly  defended  his  religion  against  the 
Pagans,  the  other  acquired  just  renown  by  his  Divine  Institutions. — Hilary  of 
Poitiers  was  the  champion  of  Athanasius  in  Gaul.  During  his  Phrygian  exile, 
into  which  he  was  driven  by  an  Arian  prince,  he  published  his  twelve  books 
On  the  Trinity ,  in  which  he  combats  all  the  heresies  relating  to  the  Son  of  God 
and  the  Holy  Ghost. — Ambrose,  d.  398,  was  praetor  of  Milan,  when  the  uni¬ 
versal  acclamation  raised  him  to  the  bishopric.  He  defended  with  inflexible 
courage  the  privilege  of  Catholic  worship  against  the  Arians,  who  were  pro¬ 
tected  by  Valentinian  II.  His  virtuous  tolerance  forbade  him  to  communicate 
in  the  Holy  Sacrament  with  the  fanatical  bishops  who  had  demanded  the  biood 
of  Priscilian.  He  taught  the  chants,  of  whose  use  the  Latin  church  had  till 
then  been  ignorant;  but  the  majestic  hymn,  Te  Deum ,  which  bears  his  name, 
is  the  work  of  a  monk  of  the  sixth  century. — Jerome,  d.  420,  opened  at  Pome 
the  first  asylum  frr  misery  and  infirmity  ;  but  his  virtues  were  no  protection 
against  calumny.  In  his  retreat  at  Bethlehem  he  undertook  the  translation  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  a  task  for  which  he  was  well  qualified  by  his  profound 
study  of  Hebrew,  and  his  vast  knowledge  of  sacred  archaeology.  The  church 
adopted  his  version,  known  as  the  Vulgate ,  and  his  Commentaries  are  an 
authority  among  divines.  He  translated  and  continued  the  Chronicle  ol  E  tse- 
bius  ;  wrote  a  Biography  oi  ecclesiastical  authors,  and  the  Lives  of  the  Fathers 
of  the  Desert. — Augustin,  bishop  of  Hippo,  d.  430,  successively  professor  at 
Carthage,  Rome,  and  Milan,  was  rescued  from  his  errors  by  St.  Ambrose.  He 
raised  himself  to  the  first  rank  among  the  Latin  Fathers  by  his  City  of  Cod, 
an  immense  repertory  of  profane  and  theological  erudition,  in  which  the  au  hor, 
after  having  in  some  measure  crushed  paganism  fragment  by  fragment,  applies* 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  FIRST. 


171 


imseli  to  re-establish  by  invincible  proofs  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion, 
[n  411,  he  defended  the  doctrines  of  Original  Sin  and  Divine  Grace,  against 
Pelagius  — At  the  court  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  Dionysius  the 
Littie.  d.  536,  created  a  new  science  of  Chronology.  Ife  introduced  the  com¬ 
putation  of  lime  from  the  Incarnation,  a  mode  which  was  slowly  adopted  by 
the  whole  Christian  world.  He  also,  by  the  publication  of  a  code  oi  Canons , 
laid  the  foundation  of  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence.  His  book  of  Pontifical 
Decretals,  or  letters,  was  disfigured  by  the  impostures  of  the  forger  Isidore  of 
Seville,  636.  The  authentic  decretals  do  not  commence  before  the  pontificate, 
of  Siricius,  385. — The  age  to  which  Boethius  and  Cassiodorus  belong  was 
worthily  brought  to  a  close  by  Pope  Gregory,  d.  604,  and  Bishop  Fortm.atus 
of  Poitiers. 

III.  Profane  Learning  in  the  West. — The  ruin  of  learning  in  the  Western 
Empire  was  more  rapid  and  entire  than  in  the  Eastern,  for  the  complete  deso¬ 
lation  of  the  former  by  barbarians  destroyed  both  its  language  and  literature. 
During  the  Theodosian  period,  while  the  poetic  riches  of  the  East  consisted  in 
miserable  epigrams  or  inscriptions,  the  West  produced  Ausonius,  380,  Pru- 
demius,  400,  Sidonius  Apollinaris,  d.  4S8,  and  others,  none  of  whom  was 
devoid  of  talent. — Claudian,  395,  was  the  last  bard  of  paganism,  superior  to  all 
who  had  preceded  him  for  two  centuries,  and  equalled  by  none  who  came  after 
him. — Priscian  the  grammarian,  380,  translated  or  composed,  at  Constantino¬ 
ple,  three  didactic  poems, — on  Geography,  on  Weights  and  Measures,  and  on 
Astronomy. —  Fortunatus  was  the  poet  laureate  of  the  different  Merovingian 
couris.  Eleven  works  of  miscellanies  and  a  translation  in  hexameter  verse  of 
the  Life  of  St.  Martin,  by  Sulpicius  Severus,  place  him  at  the  head  of  the 
versifiers  of  his  day. 

History. — Ammianus  Marcellinus,  370,  was  far  superior  to  the  inflated  com¬ 
pilers  of  the  Augustan  History,  and  was  the  last  author  in  the  West  deserving 
the  name  of  historian.  The  chroniclers  who  come  next  are  the  only  writers 
of  this  period  who  merit  special  attention. — Gildas,  a  fugitive  monk  who  sought 
refuge  in  the  wilds  of  Armorica,  wrote  in  a  mournful  strain,  in  which  truth  and 
fiction  are  almost  inextricably  confused,  the  particulars  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
invasion. — Another  British  monk,  the  venerable  Bede,  d.  735,  composed  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  England  in  Latin,  and  a  long  treatise  on  the  Six  Ages 
of  the  World. — Gregory  of  Tours,  d.  595,  completed  the  annals  of  the  Franks 
down  to  593. 

Philosophy. — The  .ast  and  greatest  philosopher  of  Latin  antiquity  was  a  fol¬ 
lower  of  the  Athenian  Platonic  school,  Boethius,  d.  526.  He  translated  the 
Arithmetic  of  Nicomachus,  the  Geometry  of  Euclid,  the  Poetics  of  Aristotle, 
and  various  treatises  by  Archimedes  and  Plato.  His  great  work,  the  Co?isola - 
tion  of  Philosophy ,  was  the  production  of  his  captivity  ;  it  is  a  dialogue  com¬ 
posed  of  mingled  prose  and  verse. 

Philology. — While  learning  became  more  and  more  neglected,  there  were 
found  a  few  men  who  devoted  their  time  and  abilities  to  the  preservation  of  the 
remains  of  antiquity,  to  the  explanation  of  its  masterpieces,  and  to  the  teach¬ 
ing  of  a  language  which  soon  degenerated  into  a  barbarous  idiom.  The  Satur¬ 
nalia  of  Macrobius,  395,  in  the  style  of  the  Attic  Nights  of  Gellius,  is  a  valu¬ 
able  work,  although  written  without  method  or  taste.  He  compiled  a  com¬ 
mentary  of  great  value  on  the  Dream  of  Scipio. — Servius,  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  commentators  on  Virgil,  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. — 
Cassiodorus  wrote  on  Orthography,  and  has  left  a  treatise  on  the  Seven  Liberal 
Arts. — The  most  complete  grammar  of  antiquity  is  the  Eight  Parts  of  Speech, 
by  Priscian  of  Caesarea,  500. 

IV.  Profane  Learning  in  the  East. 

Poetry. — Nonnus  of  Panopolis,  400,  the  restorer  of  hexameter  verse,  com¬ 
posed  an  epic  poem,  the  Dionysiacs ,  on  the  exploits  of  Bacchus. — Quintus  of 
Smyrna,  surnamed  Calaber,  from  the  MS.  found  in  Calabria,  wrote  a  servile 
imitation  of  the  Iliad,  bringing  it  down  to  the  taking  of  Troy. — The  epigram 
alone  was  cultivated  with  success  during  the  reigns  of  Justinian  and  Heraclius. 

Romance. — At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  fictions  similar  to  our  modern 
romances  appear,  a  kind  of  writing  unknown  to  classical  antiquity,  and  destined 


172 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


*o  become,  in  the  middle  ages  and  in  modern  times,  the  living  picture  of  the 
manners  of  the  day.  The  Golden  Ass  of  Apuleius — the  epithet  is  derived  from 
the  elegance  of  its  style — was  a  successful  attempt  among  the  Latins.  In  390, 
Heliodorus  of  Emesa  composed  the  history  of  Theagenes  and  Chariclea ,  far 
superior  to  all  contemporary  works,  except  the  Loves  of  Daphnis  and  Chloe ,  by 
Longus,  the  forerunner  of  Paul  and  Virginia.  Achilles  Tatius,  300,  wrote 
the  Loves  of  Clitophon  and  Leucippe. 

History. — The  vast  collection  of  the  Byzantine  historians  contains  few  works 
meriting  our  esteem.  Zosimus,  430,  in  his  prejudiced  History  of  the  Ccesars, 
endeavoured  to  trace  the  causes  of  the  decline  of  the  empire. — Procopius  of 
Caesarea,  555,  wrote  a  history  of  his  own  times  in  a  manner  at  once  clear  and 
precise  ;  but  his  elegance  of  style  did  not  preclude  bad  taste. 

Geography. — As  the  Byzantines  added  nothing  to  the  opinions  of  the  ancients, 
so  they  rarely  explained  them.  Stephanus,  500,  wrote  a  kind  of  Geographical 
Dictionary,  which  has  not  come  down  to  us. 

Philology. — The  Greek  language  which  had  not  yet  fallen  into  decay,  did 
not  produce  many  grammarians.  The  Grammar  of  Dionysius  of  Thrace  wras 
the  class-book  of  the  teachers.  At  Alexandria,  Hesychius  published  his  Glos¬ 
sary  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  Stobaeus  is  the  author  of  a  collection 
of  extracts,  compiled  for  the  education  of  his  son,  and  selected  from  more  than 
500  writers.  A  few  commentaries  were  written  upon  the  Latin  laws  of  Byzan¬ 
tium,  and  the  name  of  Tribonian,  545,  occurs  among  the  names  of  the  juris- 
prudentialists. 

Mathematics. — The  exact  sciences  were  cultivated  by  the  Platonists.  All 
our  knowledge  of  the  mathematical  acquirements  of  antiquity  is  due  to  the 
school  of  Alexandria.  Hypatia,  the  learned  daughter  of  Theon,  applied  the 
ngorous  method  of  geometry  to  speculative  knowledge.  Diophantus  first 
taught  the  calculation  of  indeterminate  quantities,  and  thus  created  Algebra. 
Proclus  wrote  on  astronomy  and  the  sphere,  and  composed  a  commentary  on 
Euclid  and  Ptolemy. 


END  OF  PART  I. - ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


PART  SECOND. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE,  A.  D.  476,  TO  THE  ERA  OF  THE 
REFORMATION,  AT  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 


The  Roman  empire  had  recovered  under  Theodosius  its  unity  and 
greatness ;  but  after  the  death  of  this  prince  it  began  to  decline,  and 
finally  disappeared  in  the  fall  of  the  capital  of  Italy.  This  crisis  was 
brought  on  as  much  by  accidental  circumstances,  as  by  the  concurrence 
and  reciprocal  action  of  permanent  causes.  The  despotism  of  the 
emperors,  a  natural  consequence  of  political  anarchy  and  military  power, 
preserved  the  characters  of  its  twofold  origin,  namely,  corruption  and 
violence.  The  Antonines  had  vainly  endeavoured  to  restore  national 
and  political  virtue ;  the  populace  having  descended  to  the  lowest  degree 
of  abasement,  while  the  philosophy  of  Epicurus  had  fixed  an  indelible 
slain  on  the  higher  ranks.  Christianity  could  alone  arrest  the  almost 
general  licentiousness ;  but  the  designs  of  Providence  still  exposed  it 
to  fiery  trials,  and  its  day  of  triumph  had  not  yet  arrived.  Diocletian, 
by  his  divisions  of  the  sovereignty,  and  Constantine,  by  the  removal 
of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium,  prepared  the  way  for  the  two 
separate  monarchies  of  the  East  and  the  West,  and  opened  the  road  into 
Italy  for  the  barbarians.  The  appearance  of  the  Huns  in  the  north  of 
Europe  drove  the  savage  tribes  of  Germany  across  the  Roman  frontiers. 
These  warlike  nations  braved  the  power  of  the  emperors  under  the  walls 
of  Rome  and  Constantinople;  imposed  on  them  burdensome  tributes; 
entered  in  whole  tribes  into  the  legions  ;  and  finally  dismembering  half 
of  the  empire,  broke  up  the  whole  social  state  with  its  imperfect  civilisa¬ 
tion,  to  establish  on  its  ruins  the  foundations  of  the  existing  political 
system. 

Of  the  ten  centuries  embraced  in  that  period  of  history  entitled  the 
Middle  Ages,  five  were  occupied  by  the  restless  movements  of  the  vari¬ 
ous  barbarians,  who  were  partially  checked  by  the  strong  hand  of 
Charlemagne.  In  the  sixth  age,  that  is,  about  a.  d.  1000,  repose  and 
silence  pervaded  all  Europe ;  the  decay  of  literature  and  civilisation 
extended  gradually ;  while  institutions,  laws,  customs,  and  languages, 
began  to  assume  their  local  peculiarities.  Amidst  the  minute  territorial 
divisions  that  took  place,  there  was  still  found  one  bond  of  unity  in  the 
church,  whose  members  kept  up  a  communication  with  the  remotest 
districts,  all  preaching  the  same  doctrines,  animating  with  the  same 
spirit  the  almost  innumerable  societies  throughout  which  they  were 
scattered,  and  combining  all  nations  in  one  common  and  holy  enterprise. 

15  *  (173) 


174 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


It  was  during  the  crusades  that  the  representatives  of  every  state  in 
Europe,  assembling  round  the  tomb  of  our  Saviour,  recognised  each 
other  as  brethren.  After  the  Holy  Wars  the  greater  communities  began 
to  be  remodelled,  as  their  respective  sovereigns  issued  victorious  from 
their  contention  with  feudalism.  Then  began  the  rancorous  struggle 
between  France  and  England,  the  rise  of  the  Spanish  monarchies,  the 
destruction  of  the  imperial  authority  in  Germany,  the  brief  splendour 
and  fall  of  the  Italian  republics,  the  revolutions  of  the  Sclavonic  and 
Scandinavian  states,  and  finally,  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  a.  d.  1453, 
which,  by  driving  the  learned  Greeks  into  the  centre  and  west  of  Europe, 
contributed  in  a  remarkable  degree  to  the  Reformation. 


SIXTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — 527,  Justinian. — 532,  Nika. — 557,  Earthquake  in  Syria. — 565, 
Belisarius  d. 

Persia.  —  528,  First  War. — 531,  Nushirvan. — 532,  Perpetual  Treaty.  —  540, 
Second  War. — 590,  Varanes  (Bahram). — 591,  Chosroes  II. 

Italy. — 493,  Theodoric. — 552,  End  of  Gothic  Empire. — 569,  Lombards. — 584, 
Autharis. 

France. — 511,  Clovis  d. — Salic  Law. — 558,  Clotaire  I. 

Spain. — 507,  Visigoths  enter  Spain. 

Britain. — 542,  King  Arthur  d. — 586,  Heptarchy. — 596,  Saxons  converted. 

The  Church. — 514,  Religious  War  in  Constantinople. — 519,  Jewish  Persecu¬ 
tion. — 578,  Pelagius  the  infallible. — 590,  Gregory  I. 

Literature. — 580,  Latin  ceases  to  be  spoken. — Stobseus ;  Agathias ;  Cassio* 
dorus;  Boethius;  Priscian  ;  Journandes;  Gregory  of  Tours. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Belisarius. — The  Eastern  Roman,  or,  as  it  was  afterwards  called, 
the  Greek  Empire,  began  to  recover  from  its  lethargy,  and  to  extend  its 
conquests  under  the  celebrated  Justinian  I.,  in  527.  Belisarius,  a 
Thracian  peasant,  the  African  us  of  new  Rome,  after  passing  through 
the  various  grades  of  military  service,  was  appointed  general  of  the 
East,  where  Cabades  had  attacked  the  imperial  workmen  employed 
in  building  a  frontier  fortress.  The  defeated  Persians  next  menaced 
Armenia  and  Syria,  when  the  fortune  of  Belisarius  again  prevailed. 
The  sudden  death  of  the  Persian  monarch  and  the  succession  of 
Chosroes,  whose  throne  was  in  danger  from  a  disinherited  brother, 
changed  the  politics  of  the  court  of  Ctesiphon,  and  the  war  was 
suspended  by  a  treaty  of  perpetual  amity  in  532,  only  to  break  out  again 
eight  years  after,  with  results  equally  indecisive.  Justinian,  having, 
formed  the  design  of  reconquering  the  Roman  provinces  which  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians,  turned  his  views  first  on  Africa,  and 
Belisarius  was  intrusted  with  the  supreme  command  of  the  expedition. 
The  Vandals,  taken  by  surprise,  vainly  strove  to  make  head  against  his 
vigour  and  activity.  Carthage  surrendered  without  a  blow  ;  and  in  the 
space  of  three  months,  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa  was  subdued,  Geli- 
mer,  the  vanquished  sovereign,  gracing  the  captor’s  tpunnph,  534.  The 


SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


175 


Gothic  war  of  Italy  was  the  next  scene  of  his  glory.  After  reducing 
Sicily,  Belisarius  landed  without  resistance  on  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Peninsula.  Naples  experienced  all  the  horrors  of  war;  and  Rome 
was  freed  from  the  tyranny  of  sixty  years  without  a  blow,  536.  The  victor 
was  in  his  turn  shut  up  in  the  imperial  city  by  an  army  of  150,000  men, 
under  King  Vitiges ;  who,  although  defeated  in  various  bloody  skir¬ 
mishes,  obstinately  persevered  in  the  blockade,  until  forced  to  retire 
before  the  advancing  succours  headed  by  Antonina,  the  warlike  consort 
cf  the  Byzantine  general,  538.  His  victorious  career  was  checked  by 
the  intrigues  of  the  court ;  he  was  recalled,  and  owed  his  safety  to  the 
services  of  his  wife. 

His  second  command  in  Italy,  544,  was  not  equally  successful  with 
the  first.  He  failed  in  throwing  troops  and  provisions  into  Rome,  then 
closely  pressed  by  Totila,  and  which  suffered  the  horrors  of  war  to  such 
an  extent  that  a  parent  flung  himself  despairing  into  the  Tiber  in  the 
presence  of  his  five  children.  Treachery  at  last  opened  the  gates  to 
nim,  546,  when  but  for  the  firm  remonstrances  of  Belisarius,  the  savage 
conqueror  would  have  changed  the  city  into  a  pasturage  for  cattle.  By 
a  daring  act  of  valour  he  recovered  the  capital  with  only  1000  horse, 
and  thrice  repulsed  the  Goths  in  their  endeavours  to  retake  it.  *  After 
several  Fabian  campaigns  he  was  recalled,  548;  nor  were  his  services 
again  required  till  Constantinople  was  threatened  by  the  Bulgarians, 
who,  in  alliance  with  the  Southern  Sclavonian  tribes,  had  crossed  the 
Danube  on  the  ice,  led  by  the  ferocious  Zeberkhan.  Forty  years  of 
military  service  could  not  shelter  Belisarius  from  false  accusations  of 
conspiracy  against  the  emperor ;  and  his  patriotism  and  devotion  were 
ill  requited  by  the  confiscation  of  his  property  eight  months  before  his 
death.  He  was  followed  to  the  grave  by  his  envious  master  before  the 
close  of  the  same  year.  565.* 

Consult:  Lord  Mahon’s  Life  of  Belisarius. 

Narses. — This  rival  of  the  fame  of  Belisarius  had  been  educated 
among  the  females  of  the  palace;  but  his  talents  becoming  known,  he 
was  made  the  colleague  of  that  general,  on  whose  death  he  was  appointed 
to  the  sole  command  of  the  Gothic  war.  He  hastened  to  meet  Totila, 
and  after  an  ineffectual  conference,  the  two  armies  engaged  at  Taginae, 
near  Rome,  552.  The  ardour  of  the  barbarians  was  overcome  by  the 
decision  and  calmness  of  Narses ;  they  fled,  leaving  their  general  with 
6000  of  his  soldiers  on  the  field.  The  victor  had  the  honour  of  again 
sending  the  keys  of  Rome  to  Constantinople,  which  had  been  five  times 
taken  and  recovered  in  one  reign.  The  triumphal  entry  of  the  chamber- 
lain  after  the  conquest  of  the  Franks  and  Allemanni,  was  the  last  which 
the  imperial  city  was  to  witness,  554.  His  provincial  government 
lasted  fifteen  years,  when  he  was  recalled  by  Justin  II.,  in  compliance 
vith  the  demand  of  the  senate,  to  which  body  he  had  become  odious  on 
lccount  of  his  cupidity,  568. 

Factions  of  the  Circus. — The  peaceful  competitions  of  the  circus, 


*  The  elegant  French  tale  of  Belisarius,  aided  by  the  well-known  picture,  has  served 
to  keep  up  the  fictitious  accounts  of  the  last  days  of  this  renowned  warrior.  The  loss  of 
his  eyes  by  the  emperor’s  orders,  and  his  being  reduced  to  beg  his  daily  bread,  in  the 
well-known  phrase,  Date  obolum  Belisario ,  are  the  inventions  of  comparatively  modern 
writer*, 


176 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


an  amusement  and  excitement  to  the  ancient  Romans,  degenerated  into 
a  mere  factious  exhibition  under  the  unworthy  successors  of  Augustus ; 
and  the  bloody  contests  in  their  streets  were  renewed  with  increased 
vigour  in  the  Byzantine  capital.  In  501,  the  greens  treacherously  mas¬ 
sacred  3000  of  their  blue *  adversaries  ;  and  their  dissensions  were  so 
violent  over  the  whole  country,  as  to  threaten  the  stability  of  the  empire. 
Neither  churches  nor  private  houses  were  free  from  their  depredations; 
many  victims  perished  nightly  beneath  the  dagger  of  the  assassin  ;  and 
the  bonds  of  society  and  virtue  were  universally  relaxed.  A  sedition 
bearing  the  name  of  Nika,  was  with  difficulty  suppressed,  after  a  five 
days’  struggle  that  nearly  involved  the  city  in  conflagration,  and  cost  the 
lives  of  more  than  30,000  individuals. 

To  the  evils  of  war,  which  under  Justinian  afflicted  nearly  every  pro¬ 
vince,  were  added  still  greater  calamities.  Earthquakes  in  526  and  557 
occasioned  dreadful  havoc  throughout  the  empire,  and  particularly  in 
Syria.  The  plague  devastated  Europe  and  Asia;  Constantinople  lost 
more  than  400,000  inhabitants;  entire  countries  were  depopulated,  and 
left  without  culture ;  while  famine  was  added  to  the  severe  scourges  of 
war  and  contagion.  The  human  race  was  thus  considerably  diminished. 
The  empire,  exhausted  of  men  and  of  wealth,  could  not  furnish  Justinian, 
in  his  latter  years,  with  more  than  140,000  soldiers  instead  of  640,000. 
A  new  branch  of  industry  commenced  in  this  reign.  Silk,  which  was 
in  general  use  throughout  the  civilized  world,  had  become  exorbitantly 
dear,  when  two  Persian  monks  succeeded  in  conveying  from  China  to 
Europe  some  of  the  eggs  of  the  silk-worm,  which  they  had  concealed  in 
their  hollow  walking  sticks.  These  they  brought  to  Justinian  who  suc¬ 
cessfully  established  the  manufacture  of  this  article  of  luxury  in  his 
southern  provinces. 

Justinian  Code. — Justinian  affected  the  title  of  a  lover  of  the  arts,  and  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia,  with  about  twenty-five  others,  decorated  in  a  costly 
manner  with  marble  and  gold,  were  built  in  his  reign  ;  but  the  reformation  of 
the  Roman  law,  carried  on  by  his  orders,  and  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
quaestor  Tribonian,  is  his  noblest  monument.  The  Roman  emperors  at  various 
periods  published  their  edicts  and  their  rescripts  ;  which  huge  mass  of  conflicting 
decisions  was  first  arranged  by  the  Gregorian  and  Hermogenian  Codes,  and 
both  united  in  that  of  the  younger  Theodosius,  438.  Fourteen  months  only 
were  occupied  by  Tribonian  and  his  nine  associates  in  reducing  the  many  thou¬ 
sands  of  volumes  gradually  accumulated  during  ten  centuries  into  the  twelve 
books  or  tables  forming  the  Justinian  Code,  529.  The  Pandects  or  Digest, 
an  employment  of  three  more  years,  contained  the  spirit  of  the  civil  law,  533. 
It  was  a  compilation  in  fifty  books  of  the  Gregorian,  Hermogenian,  and  Theo- 
dosian  Codes,  as  well  as  of  two  thousand  treatises  on  jurisprudence.  The 
Institutes,  forming  a  short  elementary  treatise  on  Roman  law,  divided  into 
four  parts,  were  published  about  the  same  time;  these,  with  the  Novels,  a 
kind  of  supplement,  constitute  the  whole  body  of  Roman  legislation. 

Justinian  reigned  thirty-eight  years,  and  the  perils  of  a  disputed  suc¬ 
cession  were  avoided  by  the  promptness  with  which  his  nephew  Justin 
II.  assumed  the  purple,  565.  He  revived  the  title  of  consul  in  his  own 
person,  liquidated  the  debts  of  his  predecessor,  and  gave  signs  of  a 
benevolent  administration;  but  the  disgrace  of  the  chamberlain  Narses 


*  These  two  colours  represented  the  two  great  religious  parties;  the  Arians  wore 
green ,  while  the  blue  party  were  the  orthodox  believers,  and  reckoned  Justinian  among 
their  number.  Thus  religious  fanaticism  served  to  exasperate  the  quarrels  of  the  circus. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


177 


left  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires  exposed  to  the  restless  bar¬ 
barians.  About  the  same  period  the  Avars  and  Turks  sent  ambassadors 
to  Constantinople  :  the  alliance  proposed  by  the  first  be  haughtily 
refused,  and  formed  a  league  with  the  Turkish  khan  against  the  Persians. 
By  their  friendship  with  this  chief,  the  mighty  Disabul,  “  sovereign  of 
the  seven  climates  of  the  earth,”  the  Romans  were  enabled  to  trade 
throughout  all  Central  Asia.  The  progress  of  Chosroes  was  not,  how¬ 
ever,  arrested  in  Syria  ;  and  at  the  same  time  Africa  was  ravaged,  while 
Italy  was  lost  to  the  empire.  Notwithstanding  the  purity  of  Justin’s 
intentions,  his  reign  was  miserable  and  unfortunate,  not  so  much  from 
his  vices  as  from  a  physical  debility  which  confined  him  to  the  palace, 
and  rendered  him  a  stranger  to  the  wishes  and  complaints  of  his  people. 
In  574,  he  had  the  magnanimity  to  associate  Tiberius  with  him  in  the 
empire,  and  after  four  years  of  peaceful  obscurity  he  expired. 

His  successor  showed  himself  worthy  of  his  station,  and  in  him  Con¬ 
stantinople  saw  another  Trajan.  While  he  was  engaged  in  repelling 
the  Avars  in  Dacia,  his  generals  gained  over  the  Persians  the  victories 
of  Melitene  and  Constantine.  Maurice  was  rewarded  with  the  hand 
of  the  daughter  of  Tiberius,  and  shortly  after  ascended  the  throne  of  his 
father-in-law,  who  on  his  death-bed  had  selected  him  as  worthiest  of  its 
honours  and  duties,  582.  Maurice,  less  fortunate  as  emperor  than  as 
general,  was  unable  to  maintain  his  Persian  conquests  The  satrap 
Varanes  (Bahrain),  after  having  conquered  the  Turks,  was  penetrating 
into  Asia  Minor,  when  he  was  defeated  by  the  Grecian  troops.  Being 
disgraced  in  consequence,  he  revolted  against  his  sovereign,  Chosroes 
II.,  whom  he  compelled  to  seek  an  asylum  in  the  empire.  The  generous 
Maurice  restored  his  enemy,  and  obtained  by  treaty  the  restitution  of 
Varanes’  conquests,  591.  He  next  meditated  the  destruction  of  the 
Avars,  whom  Priscus  defeated  in  five  battles ;  the  victorious  army,  how¬ 
ever,  revolted,  and  proclaimed  the  centurion  Phocas,  while  a  faction 
drove  Maurice  from  his  capital,  and  opened  its  gates  to  the  usurper,  602. 

PERSIA. 

This  empire  had  been  at  peace  nearly  a  century  under  the  Sassanian 
monarchs,  whose  domination  had  succeded,  in  226,  that  of  the  Parthian 
or  Arsacidan.  The  vicinity  of  the  Nephthalite  Huns  settled  on  the  Oxus, 
was  a  source  of  uneasiness  to  the  great  kings,  and  the  necessity  of 
checking  their  incursions  turned  most  of  their  forces  in  this  direction. 
This  people  had  assisted  Cabades  in  the  recovery  of  the  crown,  which 
had  been  usurped  by  one  of  his  brothers  ;  and  not  having  the  means  of 
recompensing  their  services  according  to  promise,  he  applied  to  the 
Emperor  Anastasius  for  pecuniary  aid.  The  request  was  insultingly 
refused,  upon  which  war  immediately  broke  out,  and  the  Persians  re¬ 
duced  both  Armenia  and  Colchis.  The  peace  which  followed  was 
interrupted  by  the  proceedings  of  Justin  I.,  who  had  accepted  the 
submission  of  the  Lazi,  a  people  tributary  to  Persia.  Cabades  was 
succeeded  by  Chosroes  Nushirvan  in  531.  This  great  prince,  who 
tranquillized  his  country,  which  had  been  a  prey  to  anarchy  and  fanati¬ 
cism,  received  from  his  subjects  the  name  of  the  Just,  in  consequence 
of  the  manner  in  which  he  administered  the  laws.  He  encouraged 
agriculture,  was  a  patron  of  letters,  founded  a  school  of  medicine  near 


178 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Susa,  and  directed  the  annals  of  the  monarchy  to  be  drawn  up.  He  sent 
a  learned  physician,  named  Bidpai,  into  India,  who  brought  back  with 
him  the  fables  still  current  as  those  of  Pilpay,  and  the  game  of  chess. 
Nushirvan  attracted  to  his  court  several  of  the  philosophers  of  the  West. 
The  news  of  Justinian’s  victories,  and  the  discovery  of  a  correspondence 
by  which  that  prince  was  exciting  the  barbarians  of  the  Oxus  to  invade 
Persia,  induced  Chosroes  to  take  up  arms,  which  he  carried  successfully 
to  the  shores  of  the  Levant.  On  his  return,  he  built  a  city  near  Ctesi- 
phon,  in  which  the  Syrian  captives  beheld  the  very  image  of  one  of 
their  own  towns ;  baths,  a  circus,  and  a  body  of  musicians  and 
charioteers,  were  added  to  complete  its  resemblance  to  a  Grecian  city. 
Chosroes  transmitted  his  power  to  his  son  Hormisdas  (Hormuz)  570, 
whose  violent  passions  soon  brought  the  empire  to  the  verge  of  ruin. 
After  a  few  years’  reign,  the  tyrant  had  the  effrontery  to  boast  of  having 
tortured  to  death  no  fewer  than  thirteen  thousand  victims.  His  trovern- 

o 

ment  was  weakened  by  the  revolt  of  several  provinces,  when  the  Turks 
offered  their  perfidious  aid.  But  a  hero  appeared  to  save  the  falling 
monarchy.  Yaranes,  (Bahrain),  having  collected  a  body  of  twelve 
thousand  men,  occupied  a  defile  in  Hyrcania,  where  he  crushed  the 
Turks.  He  next  marched  against  the  Romans,  who  were  advancing  in 
the  direction  of  the  Araxes,  but  was  mined  by  his  own  confidence  and 
generosity.  Hormisdas,  jealous  of  his  first  successes,  seized  this  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  humbling  him,  and  sent  a  distaff  with  a  woman’s  dress.  The 
soldiers  felt  not  less  indignation  at  this  insult  than  their  general,  and 
openly  revolted.  Bindoes,  of  the  Sassanian  family,  was  brought  from 
the  dungeon  in  which  he  had  been  confined  by  the  tyrant’s  order,  and 
putting  the  monarch  in  chains  with  his  own  hands,  surrendered  him  to 
public  judgment — a  mode  of  proceding  unknown  in  the  annals  of  the 
East.  His  subjects  unanimously  condemned  him;  his  eyes  were  burnt 
out  with  a  red-hot  iron,  and  his  second  son,  in  whose  favour  he  had 
offered  to  abdicate,  was  torn  in  pieces.  Chosroes  II.  (Khosru  Purveez), 
the  eldest  prince,  was  placed  on  the  throne,  590,  and  endeavoured  to 
mitigate  the  condition  of  his  father.  Hormisdas  was  removed  from  his 
prison,  but  only  to  be  exposed  to  the  merciless  bowstring  of  the  impla¬ 
cable  Bindoes.  With  the  aid  of  the  Emperor  Maurice,  Chosroes,  who 
had  fled  to  him  for  protection,  was  restored  to  his  throne,  and  Yaranes 
compelled  to  take  refuge  among  the  Turks,  when  sorrovT  and  vexation 
hastened  his  death.  Public  rejoicings  and  executions  marked  the  rees¬ 
tablishment  of  the  lawful  sovereign,  who  punished  Bindoes,  the  assassin 
of  his  father.  The  Grecian  emperor,  was  repaid  by  the  cession  of 
Martyropolis,  Daria,  and  all  Persarmenia.  The  Christians  hoped  that 
their  religion  would  gain  by  this  change  ;  but  Chosroes  remained  faithful 
to  the  worship  of  the  magi. 


ITALY. 

Theodoric. — This  monarch,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Ostrogoths,  had  been  educated  as  a  hostage  at  the  court  of  Con- 
stantinople.  Having  formally  received  the  government  of  ItaTy  from 
Zeno,  he  crossed  the  Alps  with  a  large  Gothic  army,  in  489,  and  defeated 
Odoacer  near  the  ruins  of  Aquileia.  He  followed  up  his  advantage  by 
attacking  Ravenna,  to  which  the  latter  had  fled  with  20,000  men ;  and 
after  a  siege  of  almost  three  years,  became  King  of  Italy  on  the  assassi- 


SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


17* 

nation  of  his  unfortunate  rival,  493.  Following  the  example  of  the  Aatter 
Caesars,  he  abode  at  Ravenna,  and  had  his  claim  to  the  regal  title 
formally  recognised  by  the  emperor.  Little  is  known  of  the  ieign  of 
Theodoric,  but  that  he  preserved  internal  tranquillity,  end  was  also 
honoured  by  the  respect  of  foreign  nations.  \\  ithout  quitting  Italy,  he 
added  to  his  kingdom  Illyria,  Pannonia,  Noricum,  and  Rhaetia.  The 
Bavarians  became  tributary  ;  and  many  German  tribes  sought  to  be 
admitted  to  the  privilege  of  living  under  his  laws.  He  increased  his 
territories  by  his  war  with  the  Burgundians  and  the  Franks.  He  rebuilt 
the  walls  of  Rome,  restored  the  ruined  theatre  of  Pompey,  cleared  and 
repaired  the  aqueducts  and  public  baths,  built  a  cathedral  at  Ravenna, 
and  palaces  at  Verona  and  Pavia.  The  Roman  police,  customs,  and 
laws  were  maintained  ;  and  although  himself  an  Arian,  he  in  no  instance 
oppressed  the  church  which  maintained  the  Nicene  faith.  The  cruel 
deaths  of  Symmachus,  525,  and  Boethius,  526,  have  left  a  deep  stain 
upon  his  character:  and  at  length,  after  an  active  life,  he  sank,  con- 
science-stricken,  to  the  grave,  526,  leaving  the  throne  of  Italy  to 
Athalaric.  under  the  regency  of  his  mother  Amalasontha.  The  empire 
of  the  Goths  now  fell  to  pieces  ;  the  Visigoths  of  Spain  refusing  to 
recognise  the  infant  king,  elected  Amalaric,  son  of  Alaric  II.,  whose 
power  was  acknowledged  as  far  as  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone. 

Totila  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  the  year  541,  his  predecessor 
Vitiges  having  been  led  captive  to  Constantinople.  He  successfully 
resisted  the  attacks  of  eleven  hostile  generals,  and  even  captured  Rome, 
546.  He  fell  in  the  battle  of  Taginae,  and  although  Teias  with  his 
brother  Aligern  struggled  manfully  against  their  enemies,  with  him  ter¬ 
minated  the  Gothic  dominion  in  Italy,  which  now  became  a  province  of 
the  empire,  552.  The  chamberlain  Narses,  by  a  prudent  administration 
promoted,  as  we  have  seen,  the  wealth  and  tranquillity  of  the  country  ; 
but  a  fierce  nation  was  rising  near  the  Danube,  which  in  568  overran 
the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula. 

The  Lombards. — This  German  tribe,  originally  dwelling  on  the  banks 
of  the  Oder,  had  been  settled  in  Pannonia  by  Justinian  in  527,  as  a 
barrier  against  other  warlike  nations.  At  the  invitation,  it  is  said,  of 
the  disgraced  Narses,  the  whole  people  marched  for  Italy,  and  crossed 
the  Julian  Alps  without  resistance,  568.  Alboin  soon  reduced  all  the 
country,  except  Rome,  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  a  part  of  the 
eastern  coast.  Pavia,  which  he  afterwards  made  the  capital  of  his  do¬ 
minions,  resisted  his  arms  during  a  three  years’  blockade.  He  did  not 
live  to  reap  the  fruits  of  his  successful  enterprise,  as  he  fell  a  victim  to 
domestic  treason,  it  was  the  custom  of  this  savage  people,  on  certain 
occasions,  to  quaff  from  the  skulls  of  the  enemies  they  had  slain  in 
battle.  One  day,  when  heated  with  liquor,  he  sent  to  "his  wife  Rosa¬ 
mond  the  ski]]'  of  her  father  filled  with  wine,  requesting  her  to  drink  it. 
The  insulted  queen  obeyed,  but  in  a  short  time  caused  her  husband  to 
be  assassinated,  573,  and  rewarded  the  murderer  with  her  hand  in  mar¬ 
riage.  After  the  violent  death  of  Cleph,  who  had  succeeded  Alboin,  the 
Lombard  dukes  allowed  the  throne  to  remain  vacant,  and  substituted 
a  federative  government;  but  internal  divisions  and  the  necessity  of 
union  against  the  Greeks  and  Franks,  brought  them  back  to  monarchical 
principles.  Their  kingdom,  however,  did  not  acquire  stability  until 
Autharis  mounted  the  throne,  584,  who,  “  touching  with  his  spea:  a 


180 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


column  on  the  sea-shore  of  Rhegium,  proclaimed  that  ancient  land-mark 
to  stand  the  immovable  boundary  of  his  kingdom  but  a  premature 
death  removed  him,  590,  before  he  had  time  or  means  to  make  good  this 
boast.  In  the  reign  of  Agilulf,  whom  the  widowed  queen,  Theolinda, 
had  married,  the  nation  enjoyed  the  sweets  of  peace  for  the  first  time; 
and  the  joint  exertions  of  these  two  sovereigns,  aided  by  Pope  Gregory, 
propagated  Christianity  among  the  Lombards,  encouraged  agriculture, 
and  commenced  the  civilisation  of  these  savage  people. 

Feudality. — The  system  of  feudal  polity  received  its  first  regular  establish¬ 
ment  and  legislative  provisions  from  the  Lombards  of  Italy.  Alboin  had 
intrusted  the  command  of  several  conquered  districts  to  thirty-six  dukes,  who 
within  two  years  after  his  death,  became  so  many  confederate  independent 
princes.  Apprehensive  for  their  safety,  when  attacked  by  the  Greek  emperor 
and  the  Franks,  they  agreed  to  pay  to  the  king  each  the  half  of  his  revenue, 
and  to  provide  a  body  of  troops  to  be  placed  at  his  disposal ;  the  duchies  being 
liable  to  forfeiture  for  felony,  and  revertible  to  the  crown  if  no  male  heir  (a 
major)  were  left. 

FRANCE. 

Clovis,  a.  d.  481. — At  the  age  of  fifteen,  Clovis  (properly  Chlodwig 
or  Ludwig ,  i.  e.  Louis)  inherited  the  little  kingdom  of  Tournay,  in  right 
of  his  father  Childeric,  the  son  of  Meroveus.  The  Franks  at  this  period 
were  divided  into  Ripuarians  and  Salians.  The  country  lying  between 
the  two  streams  of  the  Rhine,  from  Coblentz  to  Wesel  or  Cleves,  formed 
the  kingdom  of  the  Ripuarian  section,  whose  chief  resided  at  Cologne 
The  Salians  (said  by  the  learned  Schoell  to  deriv-  their  name  from  the 
river  Yssel)  obeyed  several  chiefs,  whose  territories  were  respectively 
Terouenne,  Tournay,  Cambray,  and  Mans. 

Beauvais,  Soissons,  Amiens,  Troyes,  and  Rheims  with  their  respective 
dependencies,  were  all  that  belonged  to  the  Romans  in  Gaul.  Syagrius 
acknowledged,  in  form  only,  the  supremacy  of  the  Byzantine  emperors 
after  Rome  had  fallen.  Alsace  and  Lorraine  belonged  to  the  Allemanni, 
a  Teutonic  federation,  which  occupied  also  the  country  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Moselle,  with  SwTabia,  Hesse,  and  a  part  of  Franconia. 
Armorica,  between  the  Mayenne  and  the  sea,  belonged  to  the  Britons 
who  had  fled  from  their  country  at  the  approach  of  the  Saxon  invaders. 
The  Burgundian  establishments  had  increased,  and  in  addition  to 
W  estern  Switzerland  they  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  as  far  as 
the  Durance.  The  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  lay  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Loire. 

Clovis  first  directed  his  arms  against  Syagrius,  and  defeated  him,  486, 
in  a  battle  near  Soissons,  which  city  afterwards  became  the  residence 
of  the  conqueror.  The  Roman  general,  who  had  sought  refuge  at  the 
court  of  Toulouse,  was  given  up  by  Alaric  II.  to  the  vengeance  of  the 
royal  Frank.  In  496,  he  repulsed  the  Alemanni  with  dreadful  slaughter 
at  Tolbiac  (Zulpich,  near  Cologne),  and  compelled  the  c°ssion  of  their 
territories  between  the  Moselle  and  the  Rhine,  and  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  latter  river,  between  the  Maine  and  the  Neckar.  It  was  during  this 
battle,  when  his  soldiers  were  wavering,  that  he  vowed  to  be  baptized, 
if  the  God  of  his  Christian  wife  Clotilda,  niece  of  the  Burgundian  Gun- 
debald,  should  grant  him  the  victory.  Policy  also  was  a  motive  for  his 
conversion,  as  he  thus  attached  to  him  by  firmer  bonds  his  new  Gallic 
subjects,  who  were  all  believers.  He  was  baptized  in  the  cathedral  of 


SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D 


181 


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182 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Rheims,  with  his  sister  and  3000  of  his  warriors ;  at  which  time  the 
celestial  oil,  still  used  in  the  coronation  of  the  kino-s  of  France,  was  said 

7  o  7 

to  have  been  brought  down  from  heaven  by  a  snow-white  dove.  The 
title  of  Most  Christian  Majesty,  borne  by  the  French  monarchs,  was 
conferred  by  Pope  Anastasius  on  Clovis,  who  compelled  Gundebald  and 
the  Britons  of  Armorica  to  pay  him  tribute.  He  next  crossed  the  Loire ; 
and  the  battle  of  Vougle  cost  Alaric  II.  his  life,  507.  The  Visigoths, 
however,  recovered  Septimania,  which  remained  long  united  to  the  des¬ 
tinies  of  Spain ;  the  Franks  kept  Aquitania,  and  the  Burgundians 
resumed  their  ancient  frontiers. 

Returning  from  this  expedition,  the  conqueror  fixed  his  residence  at 
Paris,  where  he  inhabited  the  palace  built  by  Julian.  Here  envoys  from 
the  Emperor  Anastasius  brought  him  the  purple  mantle  and  the  golden 
crown,  emblems  of  the  patriciate,  a  title  revered  by  the  Gauls,  as 
leo-itimatizing  their  obedience.  On  the  death  of  Clovis  in  511,  his 
kingdom,  like  a  personal  estate,  was  divided  among  his  four  sons. 
Childebert  had  Paris;  Thierry,  Metz;  Clodomir,  Orleans;  and  Clo- 
taire,  Soissons,  with  their  respective  territories.  The  history  of  these 
princes  and  their  successors  is  a  mournful  tale  of  civil  wars  and  assas¬ 
sinations,  arising  chiefly  from  the  partition  of  the  royal  power  at  the 
death  of  each  monarch.  In  558,  the  supreme  authority  was  re-united 
for  a  short  period  in  the  hands  of  Clotaire,  whose  dominions  extended 
from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Bohemian  mountains,  and  from  the  Zuyder 
Zee  to  the  Mediterranean. 

Note. — The  whole  series  of  French  monarchs  has  been  divided  into  three 
races.  The  first  or  Merovingians  began  with  Clovis,  481-750;  the  second  or 
Carlovingians  with  Pepin,  751-987 ;  the  third  or  Capetians  with  Hugh  Capet, 
987,  to  which  belongs  the  reigning  family  of  Bourbon- Orleans. 

Brunehaut  and  Fredegonde. — Clotaire,  at  his  death,  561,  left  four 
sons,  Sigebert  I.  king  of  Ostrasia,*  Chilperic  I.  king  of  Soissons,  Cari- 
bert  of  Paris,  and  Gontran  of  Orleans  and  Burgundy.  The  elements  of 
discord  arising  from  this  partition  were  increased  by  the  death  of  Cari- 
bert,  whose  estates  were  dismembered  by  his  three  brothers.  The 
inequality  of  the  shares  occasioned  a  brief  civil  war,  which  terminated 
in  the  reconciliation  of  the  inimical  princes,  and  the  double  marriage  of 
Sigebert  with  Brunehaut,  and  Chilperic  with  Gualsinda  daughter  of  the 
Visigoth  Athanagild.  But  the  King  of  Soissons  having  put  his  wife  to 
death  that  he  might  be  united  to  her  domestic,  the  sanguinary  Frede¬ 
gonde,  Brunehaut  swore  to  avenge  her  sister,  and  to  punish  the  woman 
who  had  usurped  her  place.  These  hostile  feelings  gave  rise  to  an 
intestine  war,  which,  during  half  a  century,  desolated  France,  and  filled 
the  royal  house  with  crimes.  The  Ostrasians  defeated  the  Neustrians 
at  all  points,  and  shut  up  Chilperic  in  Tournay.  But  an  emissary  of 
Fredegonde  murdered  Sigebert  at  the  very  moment  he  was  proclaimed 
king  of  Neustria.  The  former  prince  regained  his  kingdom  ;  Brunehaut 
was  detained  a  prisoner,  and  her  young  son  Childebert,  removed  from 
the  vengeance  of  Fredegonde,  was  taken  back  to  Ostrasia,  when  the 
leudes  or  nobles  were  seizing  on  the  government,  575. 

*  Ostrasia  (commonly  written  Austrasia)  or  East  France  (Oster-reich),  was  a  province 
adjacent  to  the  Rhine  ;  Neustria,  or  New  France,  containing  the  kingdoms  of  Paris, 
Soissons,  and  Orleans.,  extended  from  Ostrasia  to  the  Loire.  A  third  division,  Lorraine, 
the  kingdom  of  Lothaire  ( Lotharii  regnuvi)  lay  between  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse,  and  the 
Scheldt. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


183 


Gontran,  desirous  of  arresting  the  encroachments  of  Chilperic,  adopted 
Childebert  II.,  who  forgot  this  kindness,  and  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  King  of  Soissons.  Peace  was,  nevertheless,  concluded;  but  Fre- 
degonde,  to  reign  without  control,  procured  the  murder  of  her  husband 
in  584,  and  governed  under  the  name  of  her  infant  son,  Clotaire  II. 
The  usual  disorders  and  wars  ensued,  when,  to  arrange  their  discordant 
interests,  and  to  prevent  fresh  troubles,  Gontran,  Childebert,  and  Brune- 
haut,  in  concert  with  their  chief  officers,  drew  up  the  famous  treaty  of 
Andelot,  by  which  the  King  of  Burgundy  was  confirmed  in  his  succes¬ 
sion  to  the  ruler  of  Ostrasia.  Childebert  did  not  long  enjoy  his  uncle’s 
inheritance ;  his  two  sons,  Theodebert  II.  and  Thierry  II.  596,  separated 
Ostrasia  and  Burgundy,  so  lately  united. 

Frank  Latvs. 

The  Salic  laws  are  supposed  to  have  been  drawn  up,  about  421,  by  com¬ 
mand  of  a  monarch  of  the  Salian  Franks.*  The  Ripuarian  Franks,  dwelling 
on  the  bank  ( ripa )  of  the  Rhine,  had  also  their  code  ;  and  the  Burgundians 
their  law  of  Gundebald,  502.  By  the  first  and  most  ancient  of  these  laws, 
which  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  rest,  homicide  was  punished  with  fines 
varying  from  50  to  600  pieces  of  gold.  Questions  of  right  and  wrong  were 
decided  by  judicial  combats  —  a  practice  still  subsisting  in  the  modern  duel. 
The  conquered  territory  was  equitably  divided  among  the  victors ;  not  in  per¬ 
petuity,  but  yearly,  on  the  condition  of  bearing  arms  in  the  common  cause. 
Thus  arose  the  peculiarity  by  which  females  were  prohibited  from  inheriting 
landed  estates,  and,  by  a  forced  interpretation  of  its  clauses,  the  crown  of 
France  can  never  descend  but  to  a  male  heir.  The  prisoners  of  war  became 
slaves  ;  the  descendants  of  the  haughty  Romans  were  condemned  to  cultivate 
the  fields  and  tend  the  cattle  of  their  masters,  who  exercised  over  them  a  power 
of  life  and  death,  and  made  them  a  subject  of  traffic.! 

SPAIN. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century,  Spain  had  been  invaded 
by  the  Suevi,  Vandals,  and  Alans,  who  inflicted  everywhere  the  most 
frightful  ravages,  so  that  we  hear  of  the  natives  being  compelled  to  feed 
on  human  flesh.  The  Suevi  and  Vandals  occupied  the  ancient  Galicia, 
comprising  Old  Castile  and  Leon;  hence  arose  the  kingdom  of  the 
Suevi  under  Hermanric,  a.  d.  409.  The  Alans  were  spread  over  Lusi¬ 
tania,  while  another  Vandal  tribe  took  possession  of  Baetica ;  the  Tarra- 
conensis  alone  at  this  time  belonging  to  the  Romans.  Ataulphus,  after 
the  settlement  of  the  Visigoths  in  France  in  412,  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
two  years  later,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  Gothic  monarchy  in 
Spain ;  but  he  was  unable  to  subdue  these  various  savage  hordes,  being 
stopped  in  his  career  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin,  415.  Wallia,  having 
been  proclaimed  king,  continued  the  plans  of  his  predecessor,  and  forced 
the  Alans  to  seek  refuge  among  the  Vandals.  The  Suevi  were  threaten¬ 
ed  in  their  turn,  but  obtained  favourable  conditions  of  peace,  and  were 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  north-west  of  the  peninsula.  Wallia’s  ser¬ 
vices  were  rewarded  by  part  of  Aquitaine,  with  the  city  of  Toulouse, 
which  was  during  the  greater  part  of  a  century  the  Visigoth  capital. 


*  The  Salic  code  begins  with  the  following  elaborate  eulogy  on  the  people  by  whom 
jt  was  formed:  —  “  Gens  Francorum  inclyta,  auctore  Deo  condita,  fortis  in  armis,  firma 
pacis  fcedere,  profunda  in  consilio,  corpore  nobilis  et  incolumis,  candore  et  forma  egregia, 
audax,  velox,  aspera,”  &c. 

t  See  Guizot,  History  Df  French  Civilisation,  p.  333,  <Scc. 


184 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Theodoric,  the  next  monarch,  was  killed  in  battle  against  Attila  at 
Chalons,  451.  By  Thorismond  the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom  were 
extended  to  the  Loire,  456  ;  while  Euric,  the  murderer  of  his  brother, 
expelled  the  Romans  from  Spain,  and  added  to  his  possessions  Berry 
and  Auvergne,  ceded  to  him  by  the  Emperor  Julius  Nepos,  and  Pro¬ 
vence,  which  he  obtained  from  Odoacer,  477.  Such  was  the  power  of 
this  monarch,  that  he  received  ambassadors  from  the  Franks  and  Bur¬ 
gundians,  from  the  Ostrogoths  encamped  in  Pannonia,  from  Odoacer 
king  of  Italy,  and  from  the  Persian  monarch.  Under  his  son  and  suc¬ 
cessor  Alaric  II.  the  Goths  lost,  by  the  defeat  near  Poitiers  in  507,  all 
Gaul  with  the  exception  of  Septirnania.  Gesalic,  his  natural  son,  was 
deposed  by  Theodoric  the  Great,  the  father-in-law  of  Alaric,  who 
declared  himself  guardian  of  his  grandchild  Amalaric.  This  monarch 
reigned  from  526  to  531  ;  and  by  his  outrageous  behaviour  to  his  wife 
Clotilda,  daughter  of  Clovis,  drew  upon  himself  the  vengeance  of  the 
Franks.  Under  Recarede,  586,  all  the  people  with  their  sovereign 
entered  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic  church,  and  allowed  such  privileges 
and  influence  to  the  bishops  that  the  national  assemblies  soon  became 
little  more  than  ecclesiastical  synods.  About  570,  the  Suevi  also  em¬ 
braced  the  Christian  faith. 

BRITAIN. 

Heptarchy. — The  Jutes  and  Saxons,  having  once  obtained  a  footing 
in  Britain,  were  speedily  followed  by  numerous  tribes  of  adventurers; 
and  in  a  short  time  England  was  divided  into  seven  kingdoms,  called 
the  Saxon  Heptarchy,*  which  frequently  acknowledged  the  sovereignty 
of  one  ruler,  called  Bret-walda — sovereign  of  Britain.  The  ancient 
inhabitants  did  not  yield  without  resistance.  King  Arthur,  who  died  in 
54*2,  ruled  over  the  Cornish  Britons,  and  from  his  successful  struggles 
against  the  invaders,  became  one  of  the  favourite  subjects  of  poetry  and 
romance.  The  numerous  colonies  that  emigrated  to  Armorica,  to  which 
they  gave  the  name  of  Bretagne,  spread  his  renown  still  more  widely. 
But  in  spite  of  the  services  rendered  to  his  countrymen,  he  was  not 
without  enemies  among  them ;  the  title  of  king  reducing  him  to  the 
necessity  of  drawing  his  sword  against  the  Britons  almost  as  frequently 
as  against  the  Saxon  invaders.  He  fell  mortally  wounded  in  battle 
against  his  own  nephew,  and  was  buried  at  Glastonbury.  As  the  cir¬ 
cumstances  of  his  death  were  not  generally  known,  his  re-appearance 
was  long  expected ;  and  for  several  ages  the  credulous  people  in  their 
distress  looked  for  the  interposition  of  their  brave  deliverer. 

Saint  Augustine. — About  a.  d.  560,  the  Anglo-Saxon  occupation  of 
a  great  part  of  Britain  was  completed,  bringing  with  it  the  most  terrible 
disasters  to  the  native  population.  The  ferocious  conquerors  extirpated 
the  arts  and  religion  of  the  inhabitants,  and  endeavoured  by  a  promiscu¬ 
ous  slaughter  to  depopulate  the  country.  The  language  was  entirely 
changed ;  civilisation  perished  ;  and  the  people  were  fast  relapsing  into 
their  original  barbarism,  when  Gregory  I.  was  induced  to  send  mis¬ 
sionaries  to  convert  the  Saxons  to  Christianity,  and  to  establish  the 
supremacy  of  Rome,  596.  St.  Augustine  failed  in  obtaining  the  suh- 

*  This  term  conveys  an  erroneous  idea,  as  at  no  one  period  were  there  seven  distinct 
and  independent  kingdoms.— See  Palgrave  and  Turner. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


185 


mission  of  the  native  clergy  to  his  church,  but  succeeded  in  extending 
the  faith  throughout  all  the  Saxon  tribes.  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  was 
baptized,  chiefly  at  the  suggestion  of  his  wife  Bertha,  who  wTas  a  Chris¬ 
tian,  and  the  majority  of  the  enslaved  inhabitants  professed  the  same 
belief.  From  the  British  islands  issued,  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  cen- 
turies,  those  courageous  preachers  who  perfected  in  Germany  the  work 
commenced  by  Saint  Rupert,  bishop  of  Salzburg.  Columba,  Kilian, 
Wilfrid,  Willebrod,  and  Swibert,  were  the  precursors  of  Winifrid 
(Boniface),  the  great  apostle  of  Germany.  Winifrid  was  born  in 
Devonshire,  and  after  extending  the  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  limits 
of  the  church,  the  good  bishop,  with  fifty  of  the  companions  of  his 
labour,  was  put  to  death  at  Dokkum,  in  Friesland,  755. 

THE  CHURCH. 

Among  the  chief  conquests  of  evangelical  truth  during  this  period 
must  be  reckoned  the  conversion  of  the  Franks  and  Saxons.  The  par¬ 
ticulars  of  the  former  event  have  been  already  given ;  and  to  understand 
fully  the  account  of  the  latter  it  will  be  necessary  to  subjoin  a  few 
remarks.  The  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  did  not  entirely  obliterate  the 
Christian  faith  which  had  been  planted  in  Britain  in  the  time  of  Ter- 
tullian  and  Origen,  and  had  seen  Alban,  its  proto-martyr,  perish  in  the 
persecution  of  Diocletian.  At  the  council  of  Arles  in  314,  the  Bishops 
of  York  and  London  were  present;  but  war  and  the  influx  of  barbarians 
had  produced  the  usual  result,  which  was  corrected  by  the  mission  of 
St.  Augustine.  The  Vandals  in  Spain,  the  Burgundians  in  Gaul,  and 
the  Lombards  in  Italy,  abandoned  Arianism ;  nevertheless  heresy  was 
still  flourishing,  particularly  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  where  the  authority 
of  the  councils  was  exerted  in  vain.  Three  writings,  known  as  the 
Three  Chapters,  had  been  published  in  the  time  of  Nestorius  in  favour 
of  his  heretical  opinions.  Two  of  the  authors  had  been  present  at  the 
synod  of  Chalcedon;  and  the  third  being  dead,  they  had  united  with 
their  colleagues  in  condemning  the  doctrines  of  Eutyches.  The  Euty- 
chians,  in  the  hope  of  weakening  the  authority  of  that  council,  endea¬ 
voured  to  procure  the  condemnation  of  the  three  chapters;  but,  after 
numerous  debates,  another  convocation  was  summoned  at  Constanti¬ 
nople,  which  censured  all  works  really  pernicious,  and  thus  avoided 
any  attack  upon  the  assembly  at  Chalcedon.  Its  decisions  were  obeyed 
with  the  respect  due  to  the  learned  men  who  drew  them  up,  and  by  gen¬ 
eral  consent  the  synod  was  regarded  as  the  fifth  general  council. 

Gregory  I.  the  Great. — This  celebrated  pope  was  sprung  from  a 
distinguished  family ;  his  grandfather  Felix  had  filled  St.  Peter’s  chair 
before  him,  and  saints  were  reckoned  amono*  the  number  of  his  female 
relatives.  While  nuncio  at  the  Byzantine  court,  he  boldly  assumed  a 
tone  of  independence,  which  his  subsequent  conduct  did  not  belie. 
Being  raised  to  the  pontificate  in  590,  during  more  than  fourteen  years 
he  assiduously  watched  over  and  advanced  the  interests  of  the  church. 
Pelagius  the  Infallible  had  preceded  him  in  578 ;  but  Gregory,  far  from 
assuming  any  presumptuous  title,  even  reproved  the  Greek  patriarch 
(John  the  Faster)  for  calling  himself  the  oecumenical  or  universal  bishop, 
condemning  it  as  devilish,  humbly  styling  himself  the  servant  of  the 
servants  of  God.  He  revised  the  liturgy ;  arranged  the  various  details 
of  the  religious  ceremonies  ;  and  introduced  the  celebrated  chant  which 
16* 


186 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


bears  his  name.  He  established  the  ecclesiastical  system  by  determine 
ing  in  a  fixed  manner  the  proper  ritual,  the  division  of  parishes,  the 
calendar  of  festivals,  the  service  and  costume  of  the  priests  and  deacons, 
and,  finally,  hy  arranging  all  the  imposing  orders  of  the  Romish  cere¬ 
monial.  On  the  other  hand,  he  burnt  the  Palatine  library,  and  warred 
against  the  arts  by  destroying  the  temples  and  mutilating  the  statues 
which  the  Goths  had  spared. 

Benedictines. — In  a.  d.  527,  St.  Benedict  of  Nursia,  in  the  Apen¬ 
nines,  founded  twelve  convents  near  Subiaco  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rome,  and  next  year  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Mount  Cassino,  in  the 
territory  of  Naples.  Before  his  time,  each  fraternity  had  its  peculiar 
customs ;  he  created  the  real  statutes  of  the  order.  His  simple  and 
edifying  rule,  besides  prescribing  prayer,  manual  labour,  study,  and  the 
instruction  of  youth,  enjoined  the  three  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience.  The  administration  and  discipline  of  each  community  were 
intrusted  to  an  abbot,  chosen  from  the  society  by  the  free  suffrages  of 
the  monks.  In  595,  Gregory  accorded  the  apostolic  sanction,  permitting 
the  inmates  to  possess  an  oratory,  and  to  enjoy  the  spiritual  labours  of 
a  priest  taken  from  the  bosom  of  their  fraternity.  In  time,  most  of  the 
cenobites  entered  the  priesthood,  without  renouncing  their  condition. 
The  Nicene  council  of  787  conferred  on  the  abbots  the  right  of  admit¬ 
ting  monks  into  the  inferior  orders  of  the  clergy. 

The  Benedictines  were  industrious  and  charitable  men.  In  the  midst 
of  deserts  they  reared  convents,  the  asylum  of  misfortune  in  an  age  of 
brutal  violence  and  rapine.  The  active  inhabitants  tilled  the  earth, 
drained  marches,  cleared  forests;  hamlets,  villages,  and  considerable 
towns  sprang  up  around  their  walls ;  and  in  the  convents  were  deposited 
the  literary  treasures  of  antiquity,  which  in  many  instances  were  indebted 
to  them  for  preservation. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — 602,  Phocas. — 610,  Heraclius. — 622,  Chosroes  defeated. — 
672,  Constantinople  besieged  by  the  Saracens. — 685,  Justinian  II. 

Persia. — 618,  Chosroes,  d. 

Arabia. — 570,  Mohammed  born. — 622,  Hegira. — Koran;  Sonna. — 634,  Omar. 

— 640,  Alexandrian  Library  burnt. — 660,  Ommiades. 

Italy. — 643,  Lombard  Code. — 697,  Venice — First  sole  Doge,  Anafesto. 
France. — 613,  Clotaire. — 678,  Pepin. — 688,  Sluggard  Kings — Mayors  of  the 
Palace. 

Spain. — 600,  Christian  Religion  introduced. 

The  Church. — 606,  Papal  Supremacy ;  (Ecumenical — Image  Worship. 
Literature. — Fortunatus;  Isidore  of  Seville  ;  Gregory  the  Great. 
Inventions. — Quills  for  writing. — Chess  in  India. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Phocas,  a.  d.  602,  repulsive  in  person  as  well  as  in  character,  com¬ 
menced  his  tyranny  by  the  massacre  of  all  the  imperial  family.  Maurice 
was  dragged  from  the  sanctuary  in  which  he  had  taken  an*1  * 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


187 


five  son*  were  murdered  before  his  eyes;  after  which  the  heads  of  the 
deposed  monarch  and  his  children  were  exposed  on  the  walls  of  Con¬ 
stantinople.  The  wife  of  the  emperor  was  afterwards  decapitated  with 
her  three  daughters  in  the  place  which  had  witnessed  the  murder  of  her 
husband.  Every  province  was  ripe  for  rebellion,  which  was  encouraged 
and  headed  by  Priscus,  Maurice’s  son-in-law,  and  by  Heraclius,  exarch 
of  Africa.  A  fleet  from  Carthage  boldly  sailed  up  to  Constantinople, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  cruel  despot,  by  his  death,  paid  the  penalty  of  his 
crimes. 

Heraclius,  the  deliverer  of  the  empire,  was  elected  to  the  vacant 
throne,  a.  d.  610  ;  and  soon  after  was  compelled  to  turn  his  attention  to 
the  Persian  war.  Ciiosroes  II.  had  been  forced  by  internal  dissension 
to  take  refuge  in  Constantinople  ;  but,  aided  by  Narses,  he  defeated  his 
rivals  and  recovered  his  crown,  591.  At  a  later  period,  simulating  dis¬ 
gust  at  the  crimes  of  Phocas,  he  made  war  upon  the  Greeks,  overran 
the  country  westward  of  the  Euphrates,  and  conquered  Syria,  611. 
Palestine  was  subdued  in  614;  and  twenty-six  thousand  Jews,  who 
followed  his  banners  to  attack  Jerusalem,  are  said  to  have  massacred 
ninety  thousand  Christians. 

The  victorious  career  of  the  Persian  monarch  reduced  Heraclius  to 
great  distress,  which  was  increased  by  the  devastations  of  the  Avars, 
who  nearly  succeeded  in  taking  his  capital,  619 ;  and  in  their  retreat 
carried  off  270,000  captives.  A  series  of  misfortunes  had  so  depressed 
the  spirit  of  Heraclius  that  he  meditated  the  removal  of  the  seat  of 
government  to  Carthage;  but  the  patriarch  was  opposed  to  the  change, 
and  the  empire  was  saved  by  the  liberality  of  the  clergy.  Peace  was 
made  with  Chosroes  on  ignominious  terms, — the  annual  payments  of 
1000  talents  of  gold,  and  the  same  amount  of  silver,  silken  robes,  horses, 
and  fair  maidens.  Fortune  now  deserted  the  Persian  arms,  when  the 
emperor,  in  six  adventurous  campaigns,  beginning  in  622,  retrieved  his 
own  honour  and  that  of  his  country.  Boldly  carrying  the  war  into  the 
enemy’s  territories,  he  landed  a  numerous  and  enthusiastic  army  in 
Cilicia,  and  defeated  Chosroes.  The  vanquished  prince  was  compelled 
to  recall  his  armies  to  defend  their  own  country,  and  the  rapid  conquests 
of  Heraclius  may  remind  us  of  Hannibal  or  Napoleon.  The  battle  of 
Nineveh,  627,  fought  on  the  ground  once  covered  by  that  remarkable 
city,  was  followed  next  year  by  an  honourable  peace,  concluded  with 
Siroes,  the  successor  of  Chosroes  who  had  been  deposed  by  his  subjects, 
and  compelled  to  witness  the  murder  of  his  eighteen  sons.  The  return 
of  the  conqueror  to  Europe  was  one  continued  triumph.  Ambassadors 
from  the  Franks  and  from  India  came  to  offer  their  congratulations;  but 
the  empire  was  exhausted  by  these  victories  ;  and  in  order  to  repay  the 
sums  advanced  by  the  church,  it  was  necessary  to  raise  a  second  time 
from  the  devastated  provinces  the  amount  of  taxes  which  had  been 
already  paid.  Two  hundred  thousand  soldiers  had  perished  ;  and  at  the 
same  time  there  appeared  on  the  frontiers  of  Syria  an  enemy  more  ter¬ 
rible  than  any  that  had  hitherto  menaced  the  empire. 

Heraclius,  attacked  by  the  Mussulmans  in  632,  lost  Syria  and  Egypt; 
and  the  emperor  terminated  his  reign  by  a  theological  discussion  and  a 
religious  war.  His  death,  in  641,  was  hastened  by  intelligence  of  the 
capture  of  Alexandria,  which  event  he  survived  only  a  few  weeks. 
Seven  rulers  of  the  Heraclian  family  suc^^siveTy  mounted  the  throne, 


188 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


which  they  stained  less  by  bloodshed  than  by  personal  vice.  The  first 
was  Constantine  III.,  whose  hundred  days  of  empire  were  terminated 
by  poison,  and  Heracleonas  succeeded,  only  to  be  deposed,  before  the 
year  expired,  in  favour  of  Constans  II.,  641.  Ascending  the  throne 
when  scarcely  twelve  years  of  age,  he  thus  addressed  the  senate : — 
44  By  Divine  Providence,  Martina  and  her  incestuous  progeny  have  been 
driven  out;  and  I  exhort  and  beseech  you  to  stand  forth  as  the  coun¬ 
sellors  and  judges  of  the  common  safety.”  But  the  murder  of  his 
brother  Theodosius  proved  that  these  sentiments  were  not  very  deeply 
seated.  The  astonished  people  and  army  drove  this  second  Cain  into 
exile,  when,  odious  to  himself  and  mankind,  he  perished  at  Syracuse  by 
the  hand  of  a  slave,  668.  Constantine  IV.  (Progonatus)  put  out  the 
eyes  of  his  two  brothers,  and  left  the  crown  to  Justinian  II.,  a  vicious 
and  foolish  boy,  who  dishonoured  his  name  by  his  cruelties,  and  by  the 
choice  of  the  ministers  of  his  pleasures.  For  ten  years  he  filled  the  city 
and  country  with  sounds  of  horror,  when  Leontius,  who  had  been 
released  from  a  tedious  imprisonment,  and  raised  to  the  government  of 
Greece,  headed  a  successful  revolt.  44  Christians !  to  St.  Sophia's !” 
was  the  cry ;  and  there  the  patriarch  delivered  an  inflammatory  discourse 
on  the  text — 44  This  is  the  day  of  the  Lord !”  Justinian  was  deposed, 
and,  after  mutilation,  exiled  to  Chersonae,  in  the  Crimea,  695,  where  he 
learnt  that  his  successor  had  been  dethroned  in  his  turn,  and  Tiberias 
(Jpsimar)  elevated  in  his  stead,  698.  He  therefore  renewed  his  claim 
to  the  empire ;  and,  uniting  with  the  Bulgarians,  appeared  before  the 
capital  with  15,000  horse,  and  was  restored  without  striking  a  blow. 
His  revenge  was  sweeping:  the  Chersonites,  who  had  displeased  him 
during  his  exile,  were  devoted  to  slaughter — 44  All  are  guilty,  and  all 
must  equally  perish,”  being  his  savage  mandate.  The  nobles  were 
executed  at  their  own  doors,  drowned  in  sacks,  or  killed  by  pouring 
molten  lead  down  their  throats.  Johannicius  of  Ravenna  was  permitted 
to  write  his  will  with  his  own  blood :  44  Oh  God !  deliver  us  from  the 
tyrant!”  was  all  he  wrote,  before  he  dashed  his  brains  out  against  the 
wall.  The  patience  of  his  subjects  became  exhausted;  the  troops  and 
provinces  renounced  their  allegiance ;  Justinian  fell  by  the  stroke  of  an 
assassin  ;  and  with  his  son  Tiberius,  who  had  vainly  taken  refuge  in  a 
church,  perished  the  family  of  Heraclius,  711. 

PERSIA. 

Chosroes  II.  —  Under  the*  pretence  of  avenging  Maurice,  Chosroes 
invaded  the  Byzantine  provinces  of  Asia,  603.  Syria  and  Palestine 
yielded  to  his  arms ;  Pelusium,  the  key  of  Egypt,  capitulated  ;  and  the 
Persian  trophies  were  fixed  on  the  ruins  of  the  Greek  colony  of  Cyrene. 
Another  army  advanced  to  the  Thracian  Bosphorus ;  Chalcedon  was 
taken  after  a  long  siege ;  and  the  Persian  army  encamped  for  more  than 
ten  years  in  sight  of  Constantinople.  If  Chosroes  had  possessed  a  fleet 
it  would  have  been  difficult  to  assign  bounds  to  the  progress  of  his  vie 
torious  arms.  Yet  the  difference  of  manners  and  language,  the  intoler 
ance  of  the  magi  and  schismatic  Christians  who  followed  in  his  train,- 
were  an  inseparable  barrier  between  the  conquered  and  the  conquerors, 
and  would  soon  have  shattered  to  pieces  the  mightiest  empire.  .He 
himself  appeared  to  mistrust  the  stability  of  his  power,  by  exhausting 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


189 


the  tributary  nations  with  heavy  exactions,  and  transporting  into  Persia 
all  the  riches  of  the  vanquished  provinces. 

At  the  end  of  six  years,  Chosroes  demanded  a  large  sum  as  the  con¬ 
dition  of  abandoning  the  siege  of  the  Grecian  capital ;  but  the  inhabitants, 
finding  courage  in  their  despair,  resolved  to  employ  their  means  in  com¬ 
bating  rather  than  in  enriching  their  enemies.  The  victories  of  Heraclius 
have  been  already  described,  the  results  of  which  were  the  capture  of 
the  Persian  treasures,  the  recovery  of  three  hundred  standards,  and  the 
delivery  of  a  numerous  body  of  prisoners  in  627.  The  fugitive  did  not 
think  himself  secure  until  he  had  placed  the  Tigris  between  him  and 
the  Romans.  But  his  pride  was  not  yet  completely  humbled :  his 
obstinacy  irritated  the  Persians  ;  and  Siroes,  one  of  his  sons,  conspired 
with  the  discontented  to  seize  the  throne,  to  the  prejudice  of  his  younger 
brother,  who  had  been  appointed  successor.  Chosroes  was  deposed  ; 
and,  as  has  been  already  stated,  eighteen  of  his  children  were  put  to 
death  before  his  eyes ;  and  he  himself  died  in  prison  at  the  end  of  five 
days,  628.  With  him  ended  the  glory  of  the  Sassanides.  His  unna¬ 
tural  son  enjoyed  the  fruits  of  his  crime  only  eight  months;  and  eight 
competitors  assumed  the  kingly  title  within  four  years.  This  anarchy 
continued  eight  years  longer,  until  the  country  was  subdued  by  the 
Arabs. 

To  Chosroes  belongs  the  distinction  of  restoring  the  ancient  limits  of 
the  Persian  monarchy  from  the  Hellespont  to  the  Nile,  and  thus  con¬ 
tributing  indirectly  to  the  propagation  of  Mohammedanism.  His 
magnificence  rivalled  that  of  Xerxes.  Nine  hundred  and  sixty  elephants, 
with  20,000  camels,  and  6000  horses,  were  maintained  for  the  transport 
of  his  baggage,  or  for  the  pleasures  of  the  chase.  Eighteen  thousand 
guards  in  succession  were  stationed  within  and  around  his  palace. 
Forty  thousand  plated  columns  with  a  thousand  golden  globes  supported 
the  roof  of  his  palace ;  and  a  hundred  vaults  were  filled  with  gold,  silver, 
precious  stones,  and  all  the  subsidiaries  of  luxury  and  refinement. 

ARABIA. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  Arabian  peninsula  became  the  scene  of 
a  remarkable  revolution,  the  effects  of  which  may  still  be  traced  over  great  part 
of  two  continents,  and  some  of  the  fairest  portions  of  Europe.  Remote  from 
the  civilized  world,  that  country  was  scarcely  known  but  as  the  land  of  spices 
or  of  frankincense ;  and  the  inhabitants,  with  few  brief  exceptions,  continued 
to  preserve  their  independence.  They  were  a  hardy,  hospitable  people,  nursed 
to  habits  of  war  by  the  discipline  of  a  pastoral  life.  In  their  native  deserts  they 
are  invincible  ;  and  the  legions  of  Napoleon  as  well  as  those  of  Augustus  found 
in  them  an  untiring  enemy.  The  various  tribes  are  independent,  but  unite  in 
periods  of  emergency  under  some  popular  sheik  or  chief.  They,  particularly 
the  Bedouins,  are  robbers  by  profession  ;  stranger  and  enemy  being  with  them, 
as  among  the  ancient  Romans,  synonymous  terms.  Their  language  is  exceed¬ 
ingly  copious;  their  poems,  tales,  and  proverbs  proclaim  their  wit  and  fancy. 
Sabaism,  or  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  was  the  prevailing  superstition  ; 
and  the  temple  or  Caaba*  of  Mecca  was  known  even  to  the  Greek  writers. 


*  Arabian  traditions  relate  that  Ishmael  took  up  his  abode  and  built  a  temple  on  the 
spot  where  the  angel  showed  the  fountain  to  his  wearied  mother.  This  is  the  famous 
Caaba ,  the  centre  of  Mussulman  worship,  the  point  to  which  every  Mohammedan  turn* 
at  his  devotions,  in  what  part  soever  of  the  world  he  may  be.  The  well  of  Zem-zem, 
near  the  temple,  is  said  to  be  the  well  of  Hagar;  and  there  is  still  to  be  seen  on  a  black 
stone  what  is  called  the  imprint  of  Abraham’s  feet.  Around  the  Caaba  the  town  of 
Mecca  was  formed  by  the  children  of  Ishmael  and  the  concourse  of  devotional  strangers. 


190 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Their  altars  were  sometimes  polluted  by  human  sacrifices.  The  revolutions  of 
surrounding  nations  had  driven  many  peaceable  men  to  seek  the  Arabian 
deserts,  in  search  of  that  quiet  which  the  Byzantine  court  was  unable  to  afford 
them.  Six  hundred  years  before  Mohammed,  Jews  had  settled  in  that  coun¬ 
try  ;  and  the  Himyarite  kings  of  Yemen  had  embraced  the  Jewish  religion  at 
the  commencement  of  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  The  Bible  was  already  trans¬ 
lated  into  Arabic,  and  the  Christians  successively  retiring  from  persecution, 
carried  with  them  and  propagated  their  peculiar  tenets.  '  Thus  was  the  way 
prepared  for  the  daring  impostures  of  the  Prophet. 

Of  the  early  history  of  Arabia  little  is  known :  Alexander  the  Great 
aspired  to  its  sovereignty,  and  a  Greek  colony  can  yet  be  traced  among 
the  hills  in  the  island  of  Socotra.  The  efforts  of  Augustus  and  Trajan 
to  subdue  it  were  in  vain.  About  a.  d.  50,  Mareb,  the  chief  town  of  the 
Sabaeans, — the  ruins  of  which  may  still  be  seen, — was  swept  away  by 
the  bursting  of  an  artificial  lake  formed  in  an  elevated  valley  towards 
the  north-west.  In  529,  the  Negush  of  Abyssinia  invaded  and  reduced 
the  country,  governing  it  by  means  of  deputies.  But  Arabia  soon 
recovered  from  its  misfortunes,  though  their  effect  is  still  perceived  in 
Europe.  The  conquerors  introduced  the  smallpox,  which  subsequent 
intercourse  propagated  through  the  world.  Its  visitations  at  first  were 
dreadful  mough  rare ;  and  nearly  one  hundred  years  elapsed  before  it 
reached  Italy  and  Germany. 

Mohammed,  a.  d.  570,  sprung  from  the  tribe  of  Koreish  and  the 
family  of  Hashem,  the  hereditary  guardians  of  the  Caaba,  was  the  only 
son  of  Abdallah  and  the  Jewess  Amina.  In  early  life  he  was  bereaved 
of  his  parents  ;  and,  after  spending  many  years  in  the  Syrian  caravans, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  entered  the  service  of  the  rich  widow  Cadi- 
jah,  whom  he  afterwards  married.  His  person  was  majestic;  and,  with 
a  countenance  that  charmed  all  beholders,  he  possessed  no  common  vein 
of  eloquence.  He  was  not  less  an  enthusiast  than  an  impostor ;  and 
from  his  early  youth  had  been  in  the  habit  of  retiring  to  solitary  caverns 
for  the  purpose  of  meditation,  where  he  formed  that  mighty  scheme  of 
fraud,  which,  under  the  name  of  Islamism ,  he  at  length  proclaimed  to 
the  world,  609.  His  wife  and  one  or  two  others  of  his  family  were  his 
fir&t  converts  ;  three  years  elapsed  before  he  had  increased  their  number 
to 'fourteen.  Twelve  years  had  passed  before  they  were  augmented*  to 
six  score,  when  the  hostility  of  the  Koreish  compelled  him  to  leave 
Mecca.  This  “flight”  to  Yatreb,  under  the  name  of  the  Hegira,  be¬ 
came  the  memorable  epoch  of  Mohammedan  nations,  dating  from  Friday, 
16th  July,  a.  d.  622.*  Acclamations  of  loyalty  and  devotion  hailed  the 
entry  of  the  prophet  into  the  city,  which  afterwards  received  the  name 
of  Medina,  or  the  City  of  the  Prophet.  Here  he  began  to  exercise  at 
once  the  regal  and  sacerdotal  authority,  and  to  be  worshipped  as  a 
superior  being.  “  I  have  seen,”  said  an  astonished  ambassador  from 
Mecca,  “  Chosroes  of  Persia,  and  the  Caesar  of  Rome,  but  never  did  I 
behold  a  king  among  his  subjects  like  Mohammed  among  his  com¬ 
panions.”  War  was  soon  declared  against  all  infidels,  and  the  doctrine 


*  To  reduce  the  Mohammedan  to  the  Christian  era:  —  Multiply  the  years  elapsed  by 
970,203  ;  cut  off  6  decimals  ;  add  G22.54,  and  the  sum  will  be  the  year  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  decimal  of  the  day  following,  in  old  style. 

To  reduce  the  Christian  era  to  the  Mohammedan : — Subtract  622  from  the  current  year  ; 
multiply  by  1.0307;  cut  off  four  decimals,  and  add  .46:  the  sum  will  be  the  year  and 
decimal  of  the  day,  old  style. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


191 


proclaimed  that  the  sins  of  every  one  who  fell  in  battle  would  be  for¬ 
given.  Blinded  by  prosperity,  he  had  the  audacity  to  summon  the  most 
powerful  monarchs  of  the  earth  to  embrace  Islamism ;  and  we  are  told 
that  when  a  Roman  magistrate  in  Syria  put  to  death  one  of  his  ambas¬ 
sadors,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  fall  upon  an  army  of  30,000  men  with  a 
small  body  of  undisciplined  troops.  With  an  inconsiderable  force  he 
attacked  the  Koreish,  and  defeated  them  in  several  battles,  625.  Four 
years  afterwards,  Mecca  submitted  to  his  arms,  and  the  whole  peninsula 
shortly  after  yielded  to  the  “apostle  of  God.”  Nor  was  the  ambition 
of  Mohammed  confined  to  the  narrow  limits  of  Arabia,  for  he  was  on  the 
point  of  entering  on  a  new  career,  when  a  languishing  disease  recalled 
him  from  the  Syrian  frontiers.  Perceiving  the  approach  of  death,  he 
boldly  submitted  his  past  life  to  the  scrutiny  of  his  people,  saying,  “  If 
there  be  any  man  whom  I  have  unjustly  scourged,  I  submit  my  own 
back  to  the  lash.”  At  the  age  of  sixty-three,  the  great  impostor  was 
removed  from  the  earth,  in  632.  The  caliphs,  as  his  successors  were 
called,  in  less  than  one  hundred  years,  spread  their  conquests  and  their 
creed,  from  India  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean, — over  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt, 
Africa,  and  Spain. 

The  Koran. — The  religious  doctrines  of  Mohammed  are  contained  in  the 
Koran.  The  Book,  for  such  is  its  title,  is  filled  with  stories  from  the  Old  Tes¬ 
tament  and  parables  borrowed  from  the  New.  He  asserted  that  it  was  brought 
in  fragments  from  heaven  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  and  appealed  to  the  pure 
classical  style  of  the  work  as  a  proof  of  its  divine  origin.  It  comprises  a  mass 
of  tales,  visions,  discourses,  laws,  precepts,  and  counsels,  in  which  truth  and 
falsehood,  the  sublime  and  the  ridiculous,  meet  side  by  side.  Each  sura 
(chapter)  bears  the  superscription — “In  the  name  of  the  kind  and  merciful 
God.”  The  first  verse  is  always  preceded  by  three  mystical  initial  characters, 
whose  meaning  the  Moslem  theologians  dare  not  penetrate.  Mistaken  in  his 
opinions  of  the  Trinitarian  doctrine,  and  deluded  by  the  image-worship  of  the 
Eastern  Christians,  the  author  declaims  often  against  their  polytheism  and 
idolatry.  “  In  what  consists  Islamism  ?”  asked  an  angel  in  the  guise  of  a  Be¬ 
douin.  “  To  profess,”  replied  Mohammed,  “  that  there  is  but  One  God,  and 
that  I  am  his  prophet  ;  to  observe  strictly  the  hours  of  prayer ;  to  give  alms  ;  to 
fast  in  the  month  of  Ramadan  ;  and  to  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.”  “  It 
is  so  in  truth,”  said  Gabriel,  making  himself  known. 

Mohammed  called  his  religion  Islam  (resignation  to  the  will  of  God),  and 
excluded  all  others  under  the  pretence  that  its  founder  was  the  last  and  greatest 
prophet  sent  from  God  ;  by  whom  the  law  of  Moses  and  of  Jesus  was  perfected 
and  accomplished; — and  that  as  Christ  abrogated  the  Jewish  religion,  so  did 
the  son  of  Abdallah  the  Christian.  Five  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours  do  the 
Mussulmans  ( the  saved)  repeat  their  prayers,  turning  their  faces  towards  Mecca  ; 
and  during  the  monthly  fast  of  the  Ramadan  they  abstain  from  eating  and 
drinking  while  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon.  Friday  is  their  day  of  public 
worship.  The  resurrection,  the  day  of  judgment,  and  fatalism  are  part  of  their 
creed.  After  the  day  of  judgment,  the  good  and  bad  have  to  cross  a  narrow 
and  perilous  bridge  (aZ  Sirat )  over  the  abyss  ;  the  former  being  upheld  by 
angels,  the  latter  falling  headlong  into  the  first  of  the  seven  hells.  The  right¬ 
eous,  being  admitted  into  the  seventh  heaven,  near  the  throne  of  God,  will 
recline  on  the  softest  couches,  be  fed  with  the  most  delicious  food,  clothed  in 
the  richest  garments,  and  waited  upon,  each  by  seventy-two  black-eyed  houris 
of  resplendent  beauty,  youth,  and  purity.  The  doctrine  of  predestination  was 
skilfully  employed  by  Mohammed  to  advance  his  designs,  encouraging  his  fol¬ 
lowers  to  combat  without  fear,  on  the  assurance  that  no  caution  could  avert  their 
fate  or  prolong  their  lives  one  moment.  Polygamy  was  authorized  by  the 
Koran,  although  it  reduced  within  certain  limits  a  custom  prevailing  in  Asia 
many  ages  before  his  time.  Besides  allowing  four  legitimate  wives,  a  less 
formal  marriage  was  also  permitted. 


192 


MIDDLE  AGE3. 


The  Arab  legislator  inculcated  tolerance  towards  the  Christians,  Jews,  and 
Persian  disciples  of  Zoroaster ;  but  this  was  always  purchased  by  a  kind  of 
capitation-tax. 

Consult :  Preface  to  Sale’s  Koran  ;  Gibbon’s  Decline  and  Fall. 

The  Caliphs.  —  Four  caliphs  were  successively  elected  to  occupy 
the  seat  of  Mohammed,  by  the  suffrages  of  the  leaders  of  Islamism. 
Abubeker,  chosen  in  63*2,  gave  the  signal  for  a  holy  war,  in  fulfilment 
of  the  vow  of  the  prophet,  who  had  summoned  all  true  believers  to  the 
conversion  of  the  infidels.  Omar,  the  second  caliph,  634,  saw  the  three 
great  countries  bordering  on  Arabia  submit  to  its  yoke;  in  the  caliphate 
of  Othman,  644-655,  these  conquests  were  made  permanent,  and  the 
power  of  the  Arabs  received  a  new  lustre  from  their  first  naval  victories. 
The  virtuous  Ali  seemed  destined  to  put  the  legislation  of  the  prophet 
in  harmony  with  the  extent  of  the  Mussulman  dominion;  but  the  five 
years  of  his  reign  were  troubled  by  civil  war,  and,  like  his  two  prede¬ 
cessors,  he  fell  beneath  the  blow  of  a  fanatic,  who  thus  unintentionally 
confirmed  the  triumph  of  the  rebel  Moawiyah,  and  the  establishment  of 
an  hereditary  dynasty,  660. 

Conquest  of  Syria,  a.  d.  632. — Under  the  direction  of  Abubeker, 
two  armies  issued  from  the  Arabian  peninsula ;  one  of  them  marched 
into  Syria,  the  other,  under  the  command  of  Khaled,  surnamed  the 
Sword  of  God,  advanced  towards  the  Euphrates.  Abu  Obeidah,  at  the 
head  of  the  former,  crossed  the  Jordan,  and  besieged  Bostra  with  the 
fanatic  cry  of  “  Fight!  fight !  Paradise  !  paradise  !”  The  town  fell,  and 
Damascus  was  attacked.  Heraclitus,  roused  by  a  sense  of  danger, 
ordered  an  army  of  70,000  men  to  hasten  to  the  defence  of  this  city 
But  these  succours  were  in  vain;  for,  after  an  obstinate  engagement  at 
Aiznadin,  the  imperial  forces  were  utterly  routed,  and  Damascus  was 
taken  after  a  siege  of  seventy  days,  634.  Jerusalem,  having  been 
closely  blockaded  during  four  months,  capitulated,  637,  and  the  conquest 
of  Syria  was  almost  immediately  achieved. 

Taking  of  Arrestan. — This  city  was  reduced  by  Abu  Obeidah,  in 
a  manner  that  will  forcibly  remind  the  classical  student  of  the  wooden 
horse  by  which  Troy  fell.  He  requested  and  obtained  leave  of  the 
governor  to  deposit  in  the  citadel  some  old  lumber  which  impeded  the 
rapidity  of  his  march.  Twenty  large  boxes  were  filled  with  men,  and 
carried  into  the  castle :  the  general  then  marched  away,  leaving  only 
Khaled  with  some  chosen  troops  in  the  neighbourhood  to  act  in  concert 
with  the  adventurers.  While  the  Christians  were  returning  thanks  for 
the  departure  of  their  enemy,  the  soldiers  removed  the  sliding  bottoms 
of  the  chests,  and  made  their  way  out.  The  sentries  being  overpower¬ 
ed,  the  great  church  was  surprised  and  converted  into  a  garrison. 
Khaled  came  to  their  assistance  as  soon  as  he  heard  the  appointed 
signal ;  and  the  town  was  taken  without  further  opposition.* 

Reduction  of  Egypt,  a.  d.  638—640. — Amrou,  a  man  of  mean  birth, 
but  of  great  ability,  was  commanded  to  invade  Egypt.  Having  already 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Syrian  campaign,  he  now  boldly,  at  the 
head  of  only  4000  Arabs,  took  Pelusium  and  invested  Memphis.  The 
siege  wras  protracted  for  seven  months,  when  the  city  was  taken  by 
assault;  and  on  its  ruins,  or  rather  on  those  of  the  suburb  of  Babylon 


*  Ockley’s  History  of  the  Saracens,  vol.  i.  p.  185 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


193 


on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  was  built  the  modern  city  of  Cairo,  or 
the  Victory.  The  submission  of  the  Coptic  Christians  enabled  the 
invaders  to  turn  their  arms  against  Alexandria,  the  reduction  of  which 
was  the  most  important  enterprise  in  the  whole  of  the  Arabian  contests. 
After  a  siege  of  fourteen  months,  and  the  loss  of  23,000  men,  the  cres¬ 
cent  of  Mohammed  was  raised  above  the  Cross,  640.  We  are  told  that 
Amrou  found  in  the  city  4000  palaces,  4000  baths,  400  theatres,  with 
40,000  tributary  Jews.  The  lives  of  the  inhabitants  were  spared  ;  but 
in  the  destruction  of  the  celebrated  library,  by  the  express  command  of 
Omar,  we  have  to  regret  the  “  irreparable  wreck  of  the  learning,  the 
arts,  and  the  genius  of  antiquity.”  The  possession  of  Egypt  led  to  the 
conquest  of  Northern  Africa;  though  sickness  and  want  of  provisions 
compelled  the  Mussulman  forces  to  retreat  after  a  successful  expedition 
in  Cyrenaica  and  Tripolitana. 

Cyprus,  Rhodes,*  and  the  Cyclades  were  conquered,  653 ;  in  the 
East  the  Mohammedans  advanced  to  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris,  and 
beyond  these  barriers  even  to  the  Oxus,  thus  completing  the  subjugation 
of  Persia,  652. 

Ommiades. — As  soon  as  Ali  was  proclaimed  caliph,  a.  d.  656,  he 
resolved  to  subdue  the  Ommiades,  whose  ambition  had  given  him 
umbrage,  and  displaced  Moawiyah,  the  chief  of  the  family,  from  the 
government  of  Syria.  This  prince  refused  obedience  to  the  order,  and 
assuming  the  title  of  Emir  of  the  Believers,  marched  against  the  legiti¬ 
mate  caliph.  During  one  hundred  and  ten  days,  the  two  armies  con¬ 
tended  almost  incessantly  ;  and  the  victory  was  yet  doubtful,  wThen  three 
fanatics  swore  to  put  an  end  to  the  civil  war  by  assassinating  Ali, 
Moawiyah,  and  Amrou.  Ali  alone  perished,  and  by  his  death  left  the 
sceptre  to  his  rival.  His  two  sons  Hassan  and  Hossein,  bore  the  title 
of  caliphs,  and  their  descendants  were  regarded  by  the  Mussulmans  of 
Persia  as  the  only  legitimate  successors  of  the  prophet ;  but  the 
Ommiades  did  not  the  less  inherit  the  power.  This  revolution  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  another;  and  the  caliphate  became  hereditary  instead  of 
elective,  660. 

Mohammedan  Sects. — The  dissension  between  Ali,  the  prophet’s  son-in- 
law,  and  the  first  three  caliphs,  gave  birth  to  a  schism  which  yet  disturbs  the 
unity  of  Islam.  The  one  party  are  called  Sonnites ,  because  to  the  Koran  they 
add  the  Sonna  (tradition),  another  collection  of  laws  and  precepts  which  fell 
from  the  lips  of  Mohammed. t  They  respect  the  memory  of  Abubeker, 
Othman,  Omar,  aud  Ali,  but  assign  the  lowest  degree  of  sanctity  to  the  last. 
The  Turks  belong  to  this  sect.  The  other  party  are  called  Sheeahs  (schis¬ 
matics),  recognising  the  authority  of  the  Koran  alone,  and  consider  Ali  as  the 
vicar  of  God.  not  inferior  to  the  prophet  himself.  The  Arabians  and  Persians 
hold  the  opinions  of  this  sect. 

Moawiyah  transferred  the  seat  of  empire  to  Damascus,  a.  d.  661,  and 
to  gain  some  popularity  to  his  dynasty,  recommenced  war  against  the 
infidels.  The  Africans  had  been  already  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to 
their  conquerors ;  but  when  the  emperor  wished  to  impose  another  by 

*  The  mins  of  the  celebrated  Colossus,  or  statue  of  Apollo,  after  they  had  lain  scat* 
tered  on  the  ground  eight  centuries,  were  collected  and  sold  by  the  Saracens.  The 
weight  of  the  metal  is  said  to  have  laden  900  camels. 

f  The  Sonna  or  oral  law  was  first  committed  to  writing  by  the  pious  A1  Bochari,  about 
a.  d.  800.  In  Ockley’s  History  of  the  Saracens,  the  reader  will  find  many  pathetic  stories 
of  the  calamities  of  Ali  and  his  sons. 

17 


194 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


way  of  fine,  the  assistance  of  the  Arabs  was  implored  against  this 
tyranny.  In  665,  the  Greeks  were  defeated  and  lost  eighty  thousand 
men.  The  Arabs  had  now  begun  to  form  a  navy,  and  were  eminently 
successful  in  their  early  maritime  expeditions.  Six  times  their  fleets 
appeared  before  Constantinople,  but  were  as  often  repelled  by  the  terri¬ 
ble  Greek  fire.  These  armaments  having  exhausted  the  resources  of 
the  caliphate,  Moawiyah  solicited  peace,  which  was  granted  on  his  con¬ 
senting  to  pay  a  tribute  of  fifty  horses,  as  many  slaves,  and  three  thou¬ 
sand  purses  of  gold,  677.  At  his  death,  three  years  afterwards,  a  civil 
war  broke  out ;  but  the  unity  of  the  empire  was  re-established  by  the 
devotion  of  the  brave  Hegiage,  who  destroyed  successively  all  the  ene¬ 
mies  of  the  house  of  Ommiyah.  Under  Abdel  Malek,  India  was  con¬ 
quered;  and  during  the  government  of  his  son  Walid  I.  communications 
were  opened  with  China, — a  circumstance  that  should  be  kept  in  mind, 
since  it  is  probable  that  from  the  latter  country  the  Arabs  derived  part 
of  their  knowledge  in  science  and  manufactures.  The  writers  of  that 
nation  are  the  first  who  make  mention  of  a  spirit  extracted  from  rice,  of 
tea,  porcelain,  and  other  Chinese  commodities. 

Africa  Reduced. — The  unsettled  state  of  affairs  interrupted  the  4’ar 
in  Africa  twenty  years  ;  but  in  692,  Hassan,  governor  of  Egypt,  com¬ 
menced  a  series  of  expeditions,  which  reduced  the  whole  northern  coast; 
and  about  the  end  of  the  century,  the  fearless  Akbah  spurred  his  horse 
into  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic,  sighing,  like  another  Alexander,  for 
new  worlds  to  conquer.  Carthage  fell  in  698,  and  Africa  was  irre¬ 
coverably  lost  to  the  Greek  empire ;  but  the  wandering  tribes  of  Bar¬ 
bary  did  not  submit  so  easily  to  a  new  government  which  threatened 
their  independence.  Their  Queen  Kahina  forced  Hassan  to  retire  ;  nor 
was  it  till  the  death  of  this  heroine  that  any  advantage  was  gained  by 
the  Arabian  forces.  Musa  completed  the  conquest  of  this  part  of  Africa  ; 
and  by  degrees  the  inhabitants,  deserting  Christianity,  embraced  the 
religion  of  a  people  who,  by  their  similarity  of  manners,  encouraged 
the  belief  of  a  common  origin. 

ITALY. 

From  a.  d.  568,  the  peninsula  was  divided  between  the  Lombard 
kingdom  and  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  which  still  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  the  Byzantine  emperors.*  The  Lombard  sovereigns  were 
virtuous  and  able;  peace  and  happiness  adorned  their  government;  and 
Italy  began  to  recover  from  the  devastations  of  the  two  preceding  cen¬ 
turies.  A  brief  period  of  discord  led  to  the  accession,  in  636,  of 
Rotharis,  duke  of  Brescia,  who  signalized  his  reion  by  his  conquests 
and  his  code  of  laws.  The  prudence  of  this  king  wras  shown  in  his 
respect  to  religious  affairs  ;  the  Arianism  which  he  professed  not  making 
him  unjust  to  his  orthodox  subjects.  After  his  death  in  652,  the  Lom¬ 
bard  monarchy  was  agitated  by  ambitious  dukes  who  coveted  or  usurped 

*  The  exarchate,  properly  so  called,  contained  the  cities  of  Ravenna,  Bologna,  Imola, 
Faenza,  Ferrara.  Adria,  Commachio,  and  Forli.  with  the  Pentapolis,  or  that  territory 
which  included  Ancona,  Rimini,  Pesaro,  Fano,  and  Sinigaglia.  It  was  governed  bv  an 
exarch  invested  with  civil  and  military  authority;  under  him  various  dukes  ruled  in 
Rome,  Gaeta,  Naples,  Syracuse,  and  other  great  cities  of  the  Peninsula,  Dalmatia,  and 
the  Italian  Islands.  This  state  of  affairs  continued  until  the  first  half  of  the  eighth 
century,  when  the  quarrel  between  the  iconoclasts  and  the  ambition  of  Astolphus 
wrought  important  changes  in  the  condition  of  Italy. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  195 

the  CiOwn,  and  threatened  by  the  Emperor  Constans  II.,  who  wished  to 
re-establish  the  seat  of  empire  in  Italy. 

Doge  of  Venice. — About  a.  d.  697,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Adriatic 
isles  assembled  at  Heraclea,  and  elected  Paulo  Anafesto  duke,  with  the 
insignia  of  royalty,  without  however  rejecting  the  supremacy  of  Con¬ 
stantinople.  By  subsequent  limitations,  the  power  of  the  doge  was 
reduced  within  very  narrow  bounds,  and  his  office  became  a  sort  of  ducal 
mayoralty  for  life.  In  authority  he  was  merely  a  counsellor ;  in  the 
city,  a  prisoner  of  state,  and  out  of  it,  only  a  private  person.  The 
great  council  of  480  citizens  was  principally  composed  of  men  of  high 
birth,  and  invested  with  the  appointment  of  their  head  and  all  the 
inferior  magistracies.  The  senate  consisted  of  the  sixty  Pregadi ,  the 
forty  judges,  the  college  of  Savii,  the  council  of  ten,  and  formed  an 
intermediate  body  between  the  nobles  and  the  executive.  They  imposed 
taxes,  and  declared  war  or  concluded  peace.  The  three  state  inquisi¬ 
tors  were  superior  to  all  the  citizens,  not  excepting  even  the  doge. 
Criminal  justice  was  administered  by  a  tribunal  of  forty,  annually 
chosen  from  the  great  assembly.  By  the  laws  of  1296  (the  Serratura 
del  Consiglio ),  1298,  and  1300,  all  those  who  had  not  been  in  the  great 
council  within  the  four  preceding  years,  were  for  ever  debarred  from 
election  to  that  assembly,  thus  establishing  an  exclusive  hereditary 
aristocracy.  Much  discontent  wras  manifested  at  these  proceedings,  and 
several  insurrections  took  place  with  the  object  of  framing  a  more  popu¬ 
lar  form  of  government.  Such  is  a  meagre  outline  of  an  avowed  aris¬ 
tocracy  which  governed  larger  territories  and  endured  a  longer  period 
than  any  other  upon  record.  Already  at  this  early  period  Venice  had 
its  fleets,  and  these  she  placed  at  the  service  of  the  Exarch  Eutychius, 
to  aid  in  driving  the  Lombards  from  their  more  recent  conquests,  by 
which  they  became  unwelcome  neighbours  both  to  the  republic  and  to 
Rome. 

Read  ;  Spalding’s  Italy  and  the  Italian  Islands,  3  vols.,  in  the  Edinburgh 
Cabinet  Library. 

FRANCE. 

Clotaire  II.,  a.  d.  613. — The  disputed  succession  of  Alsace  led  to 
a  civil  war  between  Thierry  and  Theodebert,  in  which  the  latter,  after 
having  been  defeated  at  Tolbiac  in  612,  was  decapitated  by  order  of  his 
brother,  by  whom  he  was  followed  to  the  grave  in  the  subsequent  year. 
Brunehaut,  seconded  by  the  patrician  Protadius,  vainly  endeavoured  to 
maintain  one  of  the  sons  of  Thierry  on  the  throne ;  for  Clotaire  gained 
the  ascendency,  and  won  over  the  Ostrasian  leudes,  whom  the  queen 
had  exasperated  by  her  violent  opposition  to  their  claims.  This  aged 
female  was  surrendered  to  the  mercy  of  the  son  of  Fredegunde,  and  by 
him  put  to  death  with  barbarous  cruelty.  In  613,  Clotaire  re-united  the 
different  members  of  the  monarchy,  and  by  an  edict  issued  from  the 
national  assembly  held  at  Paris,  he  reformed  the  kingdom,  and  gave 
securities  for  the  public  peace,  which  was  not  again  broken  during  his 
reign. 

Mayors  of  the  Palace. — The  mayor  of  the  palace  ( major  domus ) 
was  originally  what  his  title  signified — the  chief  of  the  king’s  domestics. 
Under  princes  of  unripe  years  or  feeble  character,  he  easily  usurped  aL1 
the  powTers  of  the  state.  Warnachaire  in  Burgundy  and  Radon  in  Os- 


196 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


\ 


trasia  had  been  declared  immovable  by  Clotaire,  with  the  consent  of 
the  nobles,  who  had  long  had  a  voice  in  the  nomination  of  these  , 
ministers,  and  who  appear  finally  to  have  had  the  exclusive  power  of 
election.  It  was  not  until  after  the  time  of  Dagobert  I.  that  the  govern¬ 
ment  passed  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  mayors. 

Dagobert. — Clotaire  II.  died  in  628,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dago¬ 
bert,  his  son,  who  had  been  six  years  king  of  Ostrasia.  He  conferred 
Aquitaine  on  his  brother  Caribert,  who  reigned  three  years  at  Toulouse, 
and  died  not  long  afterwards,  when  his  eldest  son  was  recognised  as 
king.  Dagobert,  however,  caused  him  to  be  poisoned,  and  gave  Aqui¬ 
taine  as  an  hereditary  duchy,  to  another  of  his  nephews,  who  became  the 
founder  of  a  long  line  of  princes,  which  terminated,  in  1503,  in  the 
person  of  Louis  of  Armagnac,  duke  of  Nemours,  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Cerignole. 

The  reign  of  Dagobert  offers  no  remarkable  event,  except  the  invasion 
of  Ostrasia  by  a  Sclavonic  tribe,  who  had  elected  to  the  kingly  station  a 
Frank  merchant  named  Samon.  Some  time  after,  Judicael,  duke  of 
Bretagne,  whose  subjects  committed  incessant  ravages  on  Western 
France,  came  to  Clichy  soliciting  the  alliance  of  the  Frank  monarch. 
Dagobert  expired  in  638,  after  a  reign  of  some  splendour,  the  honour 
of  which  belongs  not  so  much  to  the  sovereign  as  to  the  mayors 
Arnulph,  Pepin  of  Landen,  Ega,  and  to  the  goldsmith  Saint  Eloi, 
who  administered  the  king’s  finances  and  presided  over  the  magnificence 
of  the  court. 

Sluggard  Kings.* — With  Siegbert  II.  and  Clovis  II.,  respectively 
monarchs  of  Ostrasia  and  Neustria,  begins  the  list  of  Sluggard  Kings — 
for  by  that  name  were  the  ten  feeble  successors  of  Dagobert  I.  charac¬ 
terized.  Forty  years  after,  the  right  of  succession  called  Thierry  III.  to 
the  united  throne  of  the  triple  kingdom,  678  ;  when  the  Ostrasian  nobles, 
indignant  at  the  favour  shown  to  their  enemy,  the  mayor  Ebroin, 
abolished  the  royal  title,  and  chose  their  dukes  in  the  persons  of  Pepin 
d’Heristal  and  Martin  the  grandson  of  Saint  Arnulph.  Hostilities  ensued 
with  the  mayor  of  Thierry  III.,  in  which  Martin  perished.  Pepin, 
thus  left  sole  duke,  became  bolder  in  his  designs,  and  attacking 
Neustria,  ended  the  war  in  687  by  the  victory  of  Testry,  which  placed 
the  chief  portion  of  Western  France  in  his  hands. 

Pepin  d’Heristal,  now  become  absolute  master  in  the  two  kingdoms, 
strengthened  his  power  by  the  defeat  of  the  tributaries  who  had  as¬ 
sumed  independence  during  the  Frank  dissensions.  Three  times  he 
disposed  of  the  Nuestrian  crown,  and  dying,  bequeathed  the  mayoralty 
to  his  grandson  Theodobald  and  his  widow  Plectrude,  passing  over  his 
illegitimate  son  Charles,  715. 


*  Michelet  remarks  of  these  latter  Merovingian  kings,  that  they  appear  to  be  a  parti¬ 
cular  race  of  men  ;  they  were  all  parents  at  fifteen,  and  old  men  at  thirty.  Few  of  them 
attained  the  latter  age:  Caribert  II.  died  at  the  age  of  twenty  five  years  ;  Sigebert  II. 
at  twenty-six  ;  Clovis  II.  at  twenty-three  ;  Childeric  II.  at  twenty-four ;  Clotaire  III.  at 
eighteen ;  Dagobert  II.  at  twenty-seven,  Sec,— Hist,  de  France,  tome  i.  p.  280. 


Pepin  le  Bref  and  Carloman. 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


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GENEALOGY  OE  THE  MEROVINGIAN  LINE 


198 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


SPAIN. 

The  two  successors  of  Recardede,  Liuva  II.  and  Vitteric,  died  by 
assassination.  Gondemar  gained  a  few  advantages  over  the  Greeks, 
who  were  driven  out  of  Spain  by  Sisebert,  612—620.  This  prince,  cele¬ 
brated  for  the  composition  of  a  not  inelegant  Latin  poem  on  the  eclipses 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  conquered  Tangier  and  Ceuta,  as  well  as  part  of 
Mauritania.  His  son  Recardede  II.  died  shortly  after  his  coronation ; 
and  his  second  son  Suintilla,  was  nominated  his  successor  by  the 
bishops  ;  but  was  overthrown  by  Sisenand,  governor  of  Septimania, 
631.  Under  this  ruler,  the  fourth  council  of  Toledo  declared  that  no 
one  could  ascend  the  throne  without  the  consent  of  the  prelates  and  the 
chief  officers  of  state  ;  that  the  king  should  take  oath  not  to  pronounce 
any  judgment  on  capital  matters  without  the  advice  of  his  court ;  that 
the  bishops  might  summon  to  the  councils,  or  exclude  from  them,  any 
persons  whatever ;  and  that,  finally,  the  ecclesiastics  should  be  exempt 
from  charges  and  taxation.  Thus  was  Spain  placed  under  the  control 
of  a  sacerdotal  aristocracy. 

Chintilla,  a.  d.  636,  expelled  the  Jews  from  Spain,  in  obedience  to 
the  orders  of  the  sixth  council  of  Toledo,  which  further  decreed  that  no 
election  of  a  successor  should  take  place  during  the  life  of  the  reigning 
king.  Tulga,  deposed  by  the  nobles,  left  his  crown  to  Chindasvind, 
who  associated  his  son  Recesvind  with  him  on  the  throne.  The  latter 
still  further  augmented  the  power  of  the  bishops,  repelled  an  invasion 
of  the  Gascons,  and  defended  Mauritania  against  the  first  attacks  of  the 
Arabians.  His  successor  Wamba,  672,  had  to  check  the  numerous 
revolts  which  broke  out  on  every  side,  and  was  at  length  deposed  after 
several  successful  campaigns  against  the  Mussulmans.  The  noble 
Erwiga,  instigated  by  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  mixed  opium  in  his 
wine,  cut  off  his  hair  during  sleep,  and  took  away  the  silver  keys,  the 
ensigns  of  royalty.  On  his  awaking,  the  sovereign  not  unwillingly 
resigned  a  throne  which  he  had  accepted  only  on  compulsion. 

The  new  king  Erwiga  was  compelled  to  reward  the  services  of  the 
head  of  the  Spanish  church  by  new  concessions,  and  by  the  privilege  of 
nominating  to  the  vacant  sees.  By  this  act  the  crown  lost  almost  the 
only  useful  prerogative  which  remained,  for  the  great  civil  and  military 
dignities  having  become  hereditary,  the  king  had  no  other  means  of 
opposing  the  nobles  than  by  filling  the  bishoprics  with  trusty  men. 
Under  Egiza,  687,  the  Jews  formed  secret  relations  with  their  African 
brethren,  in  the  hope  of  receiving  protection  and  aid  from  the  Saracens. 
The  plot  having  been  discovered,  the  exercise  of  the  Jewish  worship 
was  forbidden ;  children  of  seven  years  old  and  under  were  taken  from 
their  parents  to  be  educated  as  Christians  ;  and  all  who  apostatized  were 
deprived  of  their  wealth  and  liberty.  This  reign  was  disturbed  by  the 
claims  of  the  Archbishops  of  Toledo,  who  were  desirous  of  conducting 
the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  by  a  regency.  Witizen  beheld  the  increase 
of  the  factions,  to  which  he  himself  became  a  victim,  710:  being  de¬ 
throned  by  Roderick,  the  son  of  a  nobleman  whose  eyes  he  had  ordered 
to  be  torn  out. 

THE  CHURCH. 

The  true  doctrines  of  Christianity  were  fast  becoming  objured  in  the 
East,  from  the  ambition  of  the  patriarchs  and  the  subtle  spirit  of  tho 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


199 


people.  Heraclius,  who  was  said  to  have  recovered  the  relics  of  the 
True  Cross  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels, — a  victory  still  celebrated  in 
the  Romish  ritual, — did  not  confine  himself  to  opposing  the  enemies  of 
the  empire,  but  mingled  in  theological  discussions  and  controversies  on 
the  faith.  The  Eutychians  had  modified  their  opinions  to  give  them 
new  vigour,  and  the  patriarch  Sergius  openly  disseminated  their  heresy, 
which  tended  to  confound  the  divine  and  human  nature  of  Christ.  The 
empefor  published  an  edict  in  favour  of  the  Eutychian  dogmas,  and 
Pope  Honorius,  deceived  by  a  letter  of  Sergius,  forbade  all  discussion 
of  their  errors.  This  disposition  to  temporize  alarmed  the  orthodox,  and 
Sophronius,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  wrote  to  inform  the  Pope  of  the  real 
state  of  affairs.  John  IV.,  who  then  occupied  St.  Peter’s  chair,  con¬ 
demned  the  error,  and  also  the  imperial  decree  which  defended  it.  A 
short  time  before  his  death  Heraclius  disavowed  his  edict;  but  his 
grandson  Constans  II.  again  reasserted  it,  and  deposed  the  venerable 
pontiff.  Constantine  Pogonatus,  wishing  to  restore  peace  to  the  church, 
convoked  the  sixth  general  council  at  Constantinople,  680,  at  which  the 
papal  legate  presided.  The  errors  of  the  monothelites  were  condemned 
as  well  as  all  their  followers,  and  this  heresy  became  ever  after  con¬ 
founded  with  that  of  the  Eutychians.  M 

Triple  Crown. — The  emperor  Anastasius  having  invested  Clovis 
with  the  dignity  of  patrician  and  consul,  sent  him  a  crown  of  gold ;  the 
king  of  the  Franks  presented  it  to  Pope  Symmachus,  498,  and  it  was 
the  first  of  those  which  composed  the  papal  diadem.  The  second  was 
added  by  Boniface  VIII.,  who  ascended  the  spiritual  throne  in-1294; 
and  the  third  by  John  XXII.,  1316. — The  title  of  pope,  it  should  be 
observed,  was  not  exclusively  applied  to  those  who  held  the  see  of  Rome 
until  Hildebrand  issued  a  bull  to  that  effect,  towards  the  close  of  the 
11th  century.  Before  the  time  of  Sabinianus,  604,  they  were  simply 
styled  bishops. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — 717,  Leo  III. — Saracens  at  Constantinople. — 726,  Iconoclast 
War. — 797,  Empress  Irene. 

Arabia. — 711,  Northern  Africa  and  Spain  subdued.— 749,  Abbassides.— 786, 
Haroun  al  Raschid. 

Spain. — 711,  Arabians  in  Spain. — 755,  Independent  Caliphate. 

Italy. — 715,  Pope  Gregory  II. — 774,  End  of  Lombard  Kingdom. — 795,  Leo 
III.,  first  Bishop  of  the  West.  —  728,  Luitprand  takes  Ravenna.  —  749, 
Astolphus. 

France. — 714,  Charles  Martel.— 732,  Victory  of  Tours.— 752,  Carlovingian 
Dynasty — Pepin. — 768,  Charlemagne. 

Church. — 720,  Dionysian  or  Vulgar  Era  introduced. — 769,  Worship  of  Images. 
Literature.  —  Bede,  d.  735;  Boniface,  Apostle  of  the  Germans,  d.  754; 
Alcuin,  d.  804. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Isaurian  Dynasty. — A  space  of  six  years  divided  into  three  short 
reigns  separated  the  fall  of  the  Heraclian  from  the  rise  of  the  Isaurian 
Dynasty.  Justinian  II.,  put  to  death  in  711,  was  succeeded  by  Philip- 


200 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


picus  Bardanes,  a  general  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  voice  of  the 
soldiery ;  bat  this  adventurer,  after  a  reign  of  two  years,  was  over¬ 
thrown  by  his  secretary  Artemius,  who  governed  in  the  name  of  Anasta¬ 
sias  II.  The  revolt  of  the  fleet  compelled  the  latter  to  take  refuge 
among  the  Bulgarians  ;  and  a  new  emperor,  Theodosius  III.,  succeeded, 
only  to  abdicate  the  following  year  in  favour  of  a  popular  officer,  whom 
the  army  had  already  proclaimed.  Leo,  a  native  of  Isauria,  had  gradu¬ 
ally  risen  from  the  plebeian  rank  to  the  throne,  which  he  had  scarcely 
usurped  before  his  capital  was  closely  besieged  by  the  Arabs.  During 
thirteen  months  Constantinople  was  blockaded  by  land  and  sea,  and 
was  saved  only  by  its  lofty  walls  and  the  terrible  Greek  fire.  He  next 
quelled  a  revolt  in  Sicily,  but  compromised  his  success  and  the  peace 
of  the  empire  by  theological  disputes.  In  7*26,  he  interdicted  the  wor¬ 
ship  of  images,  and,  in  spite  of  the  discontent  manifested  by  the  people, 
broke  all  the  statues  in  the  churches.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Cyclades, 
the  Italian  Greeks,  and  above  all  the  Romans,  refused  to  obey  the 
imperial  decrees ;  still  Leo,  unyielding  in  his  faith  and  his  decisions, 
enforced  their  execution  at  the  risk  of  losing  several  valuable  provinces. 

Constantine  V.,  Copronymus,  741,  a  dissolute  and  sanguinary  tyrant, 
showed  scarcely  less  iconoclastic  zeal  than  his  father.  His  reign  was 
celebrated,  however,  by  the  recovery  of  Armenia  and  Syria  from  the 
Arabians  ;  by  the  defeat  of  the  Bulgarians ;  by  the  redemption  of  many 
captives ;  and  by  his  judicious  measures  for  repeopling  the  almost 
deserted  Thracian  cities.  Leo  IV.,  775,  reigned  only  five  years,  and 
left  the  crown  to  Constantine  VI.,  Porphyrogenitus ,  under  the  regency 
of  his  mother  Irene.  The  worship  of  images  was  restored  in  787,  by 
the  resolutions  of  the  second  Nicene  council,  at  which  three  hundred 
and  seventy  bishops  condemned  the  impiety  of  the  innovators.  Irene, 
who  was  as  adroit  as  she  was  ambitious,  endeavoured  to  withdraw  her 
son  from  public  business ;  her  schemes  prospered  until  he  reached  his 
twentieth  year,  when  she  was  condemned  to  exile  in  a  palace  on  the 
shores  of  the  Propontis.  But  here  by  her  intrigues  she  contrived  to 
seduce  the  affections  of  the  army  and  the  citizens,  by  whom  he  was 
dethroned  and  deprived  of  his  eyes.  The  reign  of  the  unnatural  mother, 
now  become  sole  empress,  was  not  unaccompanied  by  external  splen¬ 
dour  ;  yet  the  public  indignation  being  excited,  she  was  dethroned  by 
her  treasurer  Nicephorus  I.,  802.  In  her  solitude  at  Mitylene  she 
earned  a  scanty  subsistence  by  the  labours  of  her  distaff. 

ARABIA. 

Walid,  a.  d.  704,  and  Soliman  I.,  endeavoured  to  render  themselves 
masters  of  Constantinople,  but  their  armies  were  compelled  to  retreat 
with  loss.  Their  want  of  success  in  the  east  of  Europe  was  compensated 
by  the  conquest  of  Spain  in  the  west,  711.  Here  again  they  found 
themselves  too  weak  to  contend  with  the  warlike  children  of  the  north; 
for,  after  the  dreadful  battle  of  Tours,  the  Saracens  were  driven  igno- 
miniously  across  the  Pyrenees,  732.  Internal  dissensions  now  began 
to  prevail :  the  immense  empire  of  the  Caliphs  of  Damascus,  composed 
of  elements  so  various  and  so  suddenly  brought  together,  had  not 
acquired  consistency  enough  to  preserve  its  unity.  In  other  respects, 
too,  the  Omniades  had  failed  to  conciliate  the  affections  of  their  subjects, 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


201 


and  all  eyes  were  turned  upon  the  family  of  the  prophet.  Of  these,  the 
Abbassides,  who  derive  their  name  from  the  prophet’s  uncle  Abbas, 
were  the  most  numerous  and  active.  A  black  banner  was  adopted  as 
their  peculiar  badge,  while  their  opponents  were  distinguished  by  a 
white  one.  The  East  was  convulsed  by  the  conflicts  of  these  parties, 
till,  on  the  banks  of  the  Zab,  victory  deserted  the  reigning  caliph,  and 
Mervan  II.,  fleeing  to  Egypt,  was  pursued  and  put  to  death,  750. 

The  Abbassides. — Abbas  immediately  set  about  confirming  his  power 
by  destroying  every  one  related  to  the  deposed  family.  One  royal  youth 
with  difficulty  escaped  from  those  who  hunted  after  his  life,  and,  reach¬ 
ing  Spain,  Abdalrahman  established  the  throne  of  Cordova,  whence 
during  275  years  the  family  of  the  Omniades  governed  that  peninsula. 
Almansor,  on  his  accession  in  754,  had  to  contend  against  his  uncle 
Abdallah,  who  had  been  proclaimed  at  Damascus.  He  conquered  his 
rival  after  a  struggle  of  five  months,  and  treacherously  put  him  to  death. 
The  victor  himself  was  also  executed  a  short  time  afterwards  under  the 
eyes  of  the  caliph,  who  feared  his  ambition  and  his  talents.  This 
general,  it  is  said,  had  sacrificed  more  than  600,000  persons  to  the  Ab¬ 
bassides.  His  death  caused  an  insurrection  in  Khorassan ;  and  the 
commander  who  put  it  down,  being  offended  at  the  disproportionate 
share  of  booty  taken  by  the  caliph,  revolted  in  his  turn,  seized  on  Ispa¬ 
han,  and  was  defeated  in  Azerbijan. 

To  strengthen  his  throne  Almansor  was  often  cruel.  The  Omniades, 
with  one  exception,  had  been  extirpated,  but  the  descendants  of  Ali  still 
survived.  These  he  persecuted  with  atrocious  violence:  wishing  to 
discover  the  hiding-place  of  Mohammed  and  Ibrahim,  great-grandsons 
of  H ossein,  he  shut  up  their  father  in  a  close  prison;  eleven  others  of 
the  family  expired  in  a  dungeon;  one  of  the  Othmans  perished  under 
the  scourge,  and  his  head  was  carried  into  Khorassan  and  exhibited  as 
that  of  Mohammed.  One  of  the  youths  being  driven  to  extremity,  at 
last  took  up  arms,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  with  his  brother,  762. 

Mohadi,  a.  d.  774,  a  prince  as  magnificent  and  prodigal  as  his  father, 
revived  the  war  against  the  Greeks,  in  which  his  son  Haroun,  afterwards 
called  A1  Raschid  (the  Just),  traversed  Bithynia  and  penetrated  to  the 
Bosphorus,  whence  he  menaced  Constantinople.  By  the  death  of  his 
parent  and  brother,  he  was  raised  to  the  caliphate  in  786,  and  began  the 
most  glorious  reign  of  all  the  Abbasside  dynasty. 

Haroun  al  Raschid. — An  insulting  demand  made  by  the  Emperor 
Nicephorus  led  to  a  new  war  along  the  Byzantine  frontier.  Haroun 
entered  Asia  Minor,  devastating  the  country  with  fire  and  sword  as  far 
as  the  walls  of  Heraclea,  whence  the  approach  of  winter  compelled  him 
to  retreat  beyond  the  Taurus.  He  soon  found  it  necessary  to  repass 
these  mountains,  though  covered  with  snow,  to  meet  his  enemy,  who 
wras  secretly  advancing  at  the  head  of  all  his  forces.  At  Crasus  in 
Phrygia,  the  Greeks  suffered  a  terrible  defeat;  and  the  emperor  was 
reduced  to  purchase  a  cessation  of  hostilities  by  the  payment  of  a  very 
large  sum  of  money.  It  was  under  the  character  of  opponent  to  the 
Greek  monarch  and  to  the  Caliph  of  Cordova,  that  Haroun  sent  an 
embassy  to  Charlemagne  in  799.  The  glory  of  his  reign  was  tarnished 
by  the  cruelty  which  he  practised  on  the  illustrious  family  of  the  Barme¬ 
cides,  two  of  whom,  Yahia  and  his  son  Jaafar,  had  the  entire  manage- 


202 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


ment  of  the  affairs  of  his  empire.  Their  popularity  excited  the  jealousy 
of  Haroun  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  put  them  to  death,  and  exterminated 
almost  all  their  relations. 

The  cultivation  of  Arabian  letters,  begun  by  Almansor,  was  continued  under 
Haroun  with  increased  brilliancy.  The  fanatic  admirers  of  the  prophet,  the 
successors  of  the  barbarians  who  had  destroyed  the  library  of  Alexandria,  ap¬ 
plied  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  and  the  translation  of  the 
treasures  which  it  contained.  By  this  means  the  Arabs  acquired  the  elements 
of  mathematic?,  medicine,  astronomy,  natural  history,  and  philosophy.  The 
pupils  soon  becoming  instructors,  gave  to  these  sciences  an  extent  and  develop¬ 
ment  previously  unknown.  They  created,  it  might  almost  be  said  the  natural 
sciences  —  astronomy,  chemistry,  medicine,  the  mathematics,  algebra,  the 
mechanical  arts ;  and  their  progress  in  these  pursuits  was  attested  by  the 
splendour  of  Bagdad,  Ispahan,  Kufa,  Damascus,  and  Cordova. 

In  the  department  of  literature,  the  Arabs  had  their  poets  and  historians , 
and  as  metaphysicians  they  made  known  the  works  of  Aristotle  to  the  Euro¬ 
peans.  Wherever  they  settled,  numerous  schools  arose, — even  on  the  shores 
of  Africa,  the  constant  refuge  of  barbarism.  Spain  still  preserves  the  memo¬ 
rials  of  their  magnificence ;  and  while  the  traveller  gazes  on  the  ruins  of 
Moorish  architecture,  so  light  and  elegant,  that  everywhere  cover  her  soil,  he 
looks  in  vain  for  the  300,000  inhabitants  of  Seville,  and  the  200,000  of  Toledo. 
Anciently  Cordova  was  eight  leagues  in  circumference,  being  only  three  less 
than  Rome  under  the  emperors,  and  contained  60,000  palaces,  with  283,000 
private  houses.  The  diocese  of  Salamanca  comprehended  125  cities  or  towns, 
where  only  thirteen  are  now  to  be  found.  In  Seville  might  be  counted  60,000 
looms  for  silk  alone,  while,  in  1742,  entire  Spain  reckoned  only  10,000  for  silk 
and  wool. 

SPAIN. 

Arab  Conquest,  a.  d.  710. — The  Goths  possessed  along  the  African 
shore  the  town  of  Ceuta  and  the  province  of  Tingitania,  governed  by 
Count  Julian,  whose  treason  introduced  the  Arabs  into  Spain.  Tarik, 
the  lieutenant  of  the  Emir  Musa,  crossed  the  straits  of  Hercules,  follow¬ 
ed  by  a  small  army  of  5000  men,  with  whom  he  took  possession  of  the 
castle  of  Algesiras,  and  of  the  rock  of  Calpe  which  afterwards  bore  his 
name,  Gebel-al-Tarik  or  Gibraltar.  Roderic  the  Gothic  king,  at  the  first 
news,  hastened  to  repel  the  invaders,  whom  he  found  in  the  neighbour¬ 
hood  of  Cadiz,  increased  indeed  in  numbers,  but  still  vastly  inferior  to 
the  opposing  army.  Three  successive  days  were  marked  by  bloody  but 
indecisive  skirmishes.  On  the  fourth,  however,  16,000  men  lay  dead 
on  the  field  of  Xeres,  and  Roderic  fled  from  the  battle  to  perish  ignobly 
in  the  waters  of  the  Guadalquivir,  712.  The  victor  directed  his  march 
to  Toledo,  which  soon  fell;  and  from  that  centre,  Spain,  which  had 
resisted  the  Roman  arms  two  hundred  years,  was  reduced  by  the  Sara¬ 
cens  in  fifteen  months.  In  the  mountains  of  Asturias  the  flame  of 
liberty  still  burnt,  and  thence  in  a  later  age  rolled  down  that  tide  which 
ceased  not  till  the  soil  of  Spain  was  freed  from  her  infidel  invaders, 
1492.  The  conquerors  manifested  great  moderation  :  in  all  that  related 
to  themselves,  the  Christians  were  allowed  to  retain  their  own  laws; 
they  were  also  permitted  to  fill  certain  offices,  to  serve  in  the  army,  to 
intermarry  with  the  Moslem — their  only  badge  of  servitude  being  a 
heavy  impost. 

After  the  recall  of  Musa,  and  the  tragical  death  of  his  son,  Spain  wa9 
governed  by  deputies,  nominated  by  the  viceroys  of  Africa.  Numerous 
Asiatic  colonies  spread  over  the  peninsula,  advancing  agriculture  and 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


203 


commerce,  while  the  natives  profited  by  the  advantages  of  conquest 
without  suffering  its  disgrace.  The  Arabs  repeatedly  invaded  France 
•n  maintenance  of  their  claims  to  the  province  of  Septimania,  but  they 
were  finally  checked  by  the  memorable  defeat  near  Tours,  which  saved 
France  and  Christendom  from  impending  desolation,  732. 

When  the  house  of  the  Ommiades  was  deposed  by  Abul-Abbas,  one 
member  of  the  family  alone  escaped  destruction  and  fled  to  Africa. 
Here  he  carried  on  a  correspondence  with  the  principal  Spanish  sheiks, 
who  prepared  an  insurrection  in  his  favour,  and  after  an  exile  of  four 
years,  Abdalrahman  landed  in  the  peninsula,  defeated  the  Abbasside 
governor  Youssef,  and  was  proclaimed  Prince  of  the  Faithful  at  Cor¬ 
dova.  Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  caliphate  of  the  West,  in  756. 

Abdalrahman  skilfully  triumphed  over  all  the  opposition  raised  by  the 
partisans  of  his  enemy,  forced  the  governors  of  Barcelona  and  Sara¬ 
gossa  to  submission,  and  consolidated  the  throne  by  a  victory  over  the 
Emir  Magreb,  who  had  landed  in  Spain  to  support  the  disaffected  sheiks. 
The  expedition  of  Charlemagne,  originating  in  similar  motives,  termi¬ 
nated  in  the  submission  of  the  provinces  between  the  Ebro  and  the 
Pyrenees.  Internal  cares  prevented  the  Ommiadan  prince  from  prose¬ 
cuting  the  sacred  war  wTith  any  success.  Hashem  I.  retaliated  the 
Frank  invasion  by  an  irruption  into  Aquitaine,  in  wThich  the  whole 
country  was  devastated  even  to  the  suburbs  of  Narbonne,  793 ;  and  so 
great  was  the  spoil  that  the  caliph’s  share  amounted  to  forty  thousand 
gold  purses.  W7ith  this  and  the  aid  of  his  numerous  prisoners  he  com¬ 
pleted  the  great  mosque  at  Cordova,  begun  by  Abdalrahman,  and  one 
of  the  largest  of  existing  edifices.  Its  length  is  600  feet,  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome,  and  its  width  250,  almost  double  that  of 
the  metropolitan  church  in  Paris  ;  100  columns  of  marble  or  of  jasper 
formed  the  interior  enclosure  of  the  cupola ;  by  means  of  993  others  it 
was  divided  into  nineteen  naves,  all  closed  by  gates  of  bronze  with 
sculptures  in  bas-relief,  those  of  the  great  gate  alone  being  in  massive 
gold  ;  4700  lamps  illuminated  the  interior  during  the  night,  and  con¬ 
sumed  annually  120,000  pounds  weight  of  oil.  Hashem  also  construct¬ 
ed  canals  and  bridges,  founded  schools  for  the  Arabic  language,  forbade 
the  use  of  Latin,  and  obliged  the  Christian  to  relinquish  his  vernacular 
tongue.  Learned  men  and  poets  were  encouraged,  and  the  Caliph  of 
Cordova  vied  in  magnificence  with  the  great  Haroun  al  Raschid. 

Christian  Spain. — The  peninsula  wTas  not  entirely  conquered  by  the 
Arabs ;  there  still  remained  a  small  number  of  Christians,  who,  pre¬ 
ferring  liberty  to  servitude,  had  taken  refuge  in  the  mountains  of  As¬ 
turias.  Here,  if  any  credit  is  to  be  given  to  popular  tradition  in  the 
absence  of  historical  testimony,  they  elected  Pelayo  king,  718,  from 
which  period  commenced,  on  the  banks  of  the  Douro,  that  series  of 
crusades  which  terminated  in  the  conquest  of  Granada.  Pelayo  reign¬ 
ed  over  the  kingdom  of  Oviedo,  a  region  extending  to  between  thirty 
and  forty  leagues,  and  defended  by  encircling  mountains.  Alphonso 
the  Catholic  took  Lugo,  Leon,  Astorga,  and  many  other  Castilian  cities, 
with  a  large  portion  of  Galicia,  including  Braga  and  Porto  Calle.  His 
son  Fruela  vigorously  executed  the  ecclesiastical  law7s,  and  compelled 
the  ministers  of  the  church  to  live  in  celibacy.  Continuing  his  father’s 
career,  he  annihilated,  as  we  are  told,  an  army  of  54,000  Saracens  that 
had  invaded  Galicia,  destroyed  another  in  Castile,  and  with  the  spoils 


204 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


built  the  city  of  Oviedo.  But  he  was  as  cruel  as  he  was  brave,  and 
punishing  those  with  death  who  had  refused  to  follow  him,  he  stabbed 
one  of  his  brothers  with  his  own  hand.  He  was  himself  assassinated 
soon  afterwards.  Alphonso,  his  son,  having  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  Moors  near  Burgos,  received  the  crown  on  the  field  of  battle, 
791.  This  monarch,  surnamed  the  Chaste,  again  defeated  the  Arabs  at 
Lugo,  fortified  Braga,  and  plundered  Lisbon.  He  founded  the  cele¬ 
brated  church  Compostella,  in  which  the  relics  of  St.  James  the  Great 
were  said  to  be  preserved. 

The  conquests  in  Spain  of  the  Moors  (so  called  from  Mauritania,  whence 
they  embarked  for  the  Peninsula)  produced  many  salutary  effects  in  Europe. 
The  taste  for  letters  rapidly  spread  from  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  to  the 
Tagus.  The  schools  of  Cordova,  in  which  were  cultivated  many  branches  of 
science  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  became  the  great  resort  of  the  learned 
Christians  of  the  West.  The  celebrated  Gerbert,  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester 
II.,  was  one  of  the  first  who  studied  in  Spain.  Agriculture,  navigation,  and 
manufactures  are  greatly  indebted  to  the  Arabs :  their  carpets,  gold  and  silver 
embroideries,  silks,  steel-work,  and  leather,  were  brought  at_  an  early  perioa 
to  a  high  degree  of  perfection;  and  by  their  means  the  arithmetical  numerals, 
cotton-paper,  and  gunpowder  were  introduced  into  Europe. 

ITALY. 

Origin  of  the  Pontifical  Sovereignty. — The  earlier  part  of  Luit- 
p  rand’s  reign  was  occupied  in  reforming  the  abuses  of  the  Lombard 
states,  and  checking  the  encroachments  of  the  great  vassals  of  the 
crown ;  the  latter,  and  far  more  important  part,  from  its  influence  on 
posterity,  was  passed  in  religious  quarrels,  which  gave  rise  to  the  tem¬ 
poral  power  of  the  popes,  and  entirely  destroyed  the  imperial  supremacy 
in  Italy.  Rome,  like  the  Greek  cities  in  the  peninsula,  was  governed 
by  dukes  subordinate  to  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna;  but  the  pontiffs,  the 
spiritual  masters  of  the  ancient  capital,  moderated  by  the  influence  of 
their  character  the  despotism  of  the  imperial  officers.  An  edict  of  Leo 
the  Iconoclast  changed  this  state  of  affairs,  and  disturbed  the  West,  as 
it  had  already  embroiled  the  East.  Gregory  II.  protested  against  the 
decree,  and  all  the  Greeks  in  Italy,  participating  in  his  indignation, 
expelled  their  dukes.  The  inhabitants  of  Ravenna  murdered  the  Ex¬ 
arch  Paul  and  opened  their  gates  to  Luitprand,  who  seized  on  the  Pen- 
tapolis.  At  the  same  time,  Rome  formed  itself  into  a  republic,  and 
confided  the  supreme  magistrative  authority  of  the  new  state  to  its 
bishop,  whose  temporal  power  extended  from  Viterbo  to  Terracina,  and 
from  Narni  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  Grego  y  II.,  whose  fears  were 
excited  by  the  Lombard  possession  of  the  exarchate,  entered  into  a 
secret  negotiation  with  the  newly-formed  commonwealth  of  Venice, 
which  lent  its  fleet  to  Eutychius,  who,  after  he  had  expelled  the  Lom¬ 
bards  from  his  dominions,  formed  a  treaty  with  them  for  the  recovery 
of  Rome,  729.  Gregory  III.  ascended  the  papal  chair,  731,  without 
soliciting  the  permission  of  the  emperor,  and  issued  an  anathema  against 
the  Iconoclasts.  The  irritated  Leo  sent  a  powerful  fleet  against  him, 
but  it  was  scattered  and  destroyed  by  a  tempest  in  the  Adriatic ;  after 
which  event  Rome  had  nothing  more  to  fear  from  the  Byzantine  rulers. 
The  elements  of  discord,  which  seemed  preparing  new  misfortunes  foi 
Italy,  disappeared  with  the  death  of  the  pope  and  of  the  eastern  monarch, 
who  both  descended  to  the  tomb  in  the  same  year,  741,  whither  Luit* 
prand  soon  followed  them. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


205 


End  of  the  Lombard  Kingdom. — The  deposition  of  Hildebrand,  the 
son  of  Luitprand,  and  the  abdication  of  Ratchis  who  retired  to  Mount 
Cassino,  raised  to  the  throne  Astolphus.  He  completed  the  conquest 
of  the  exarchate,  752,  and  summoned  Rome  to  acknowledge  him  as  her 
lawful  sovereign.  The  citizens  hesitated,  temporized,  and  finally  im¬ 
plored  the  assistance  of  the  Franks,  754.  Pepin,  their  king,  after 
having  employed  his  mediation  in  vain,  raised  an  army  and  crossed  the 
Alps.  The  Lombards  were  defeated,  and  the  conquered  exafchate  was 
bestowed  upon  the  pope,  Stephen  III.,  Pepin  being  rewarded  with  the 
title  of  Patrician.  For  twenty  years  their  kingdom  continued  sinking, 
while  the  prudence  and  craft  of  Adrian  I.,  aided  by  the  genius  of 
Charlemagne,  were  preparing  to  overwhelm  their  expiring  monarchy. 
Desiderius,  the  last  of  the  Lombard  sovereigns,  was  betrayed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Franks,  774,  and  ended  his  life  in  the  retirement  of  the 
cloister.  Charles  assumed  the  Iron  Crown  and  the  title  of  King  of  the 
Lombards.  Paul  Warnefrid,  the  chancellor  of  Desiderius,  for  his  fre¬ 
quent  conspiracies  to  restore  the  independence  of  his  country,  was  con¬ 
demned  to  lose  his  eyes  and  hands,  when  Charlemagne,  imitating  the 
generosity  of  Caesar,  exclaimed,  “  Where  shall  we  find  hands  able  to 
write  history  as  these  have  done  !”  The  authority  of  the  Frank  monarch 
extended  as  far  as  the  Garigliano;  while  the  country  to  the  south 
acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  dukes  of  Benevento. 

FRANCE. 

Battle  of  Tours,  a.  d.  732.— Charles  Martel  (the  Hammer),  son 
of  Pepin,  was  mayor  of  the  palace  in  Ostrasia,  having  succeeded  his 
father  in  714.  This  great  man  restored  and  supported  the  dignity  of 
the  throne,  successively  crushed  by  his  warlike  activity  the  German  and 
Gallic  rebels,  and  saved  Europe  from  the  hands  of  the  Saracens.  These 
enthusiasts  having  conquered  Africa,  and  crossed  the  Straits,  had  over¬ 
run  Spain,  and  were  already  threatening  the  destruction  of  France, 
when  they  were  opposed  by  Martel,  between  Tours  and  Poitiers,  732. 
The  conflict  is  reported  to  have  lasted  seven  days,  and  the  Arabs  fled, 
leaving  300,000  of  their  number  dead  on  the  field.  “The  victory  of 
Charles,”  says  Hallam,  “has  immortalized  his  name,  and  may  justly 
be  reckoned  among  those  few  battles  of  which  a  contrary  event  would 
have  essentially  varied  the  drama  of  the  world  in  all  its  subsequent 
scenes — with  Marathon,  Arbela,  the  Metaurus,  Chalons,  and  Leipsic.” 
The  victor  endeavoured  to  complete  his  triumph  by  driving  the  Saracens 
beyond  the  Pyrenees,  and  was  so  far  successful  that  they  were  able  to 
retain  only  the  towns  of  Narbonne,  Agde,  Maguelone,  and  Beziers.  At 
the  death  of  Thierry  IV.  in  737,  the  throne  was  left  vacant,  but  Charles, 
under  the  title  of  Duke  of  the  Franks,  continued  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  exercise  all  the  functions  of  sovereignty. 

Carlovingians. — On  the  death  of  Charles  Martel  in  741,  the  Frank 
dominions  were  divided  amongst  his  sons.  Pepin  had  Neustria,  Bur¬ 
gundy,  and  Provence;  Carloman  received  Ostrasia;  while  Grypho,  the 
third  son,  obtaining  only  a  trifling  share  in  this  partition,  conspired  with 
some  of  the  turbulent  dukes — to  repress  whom  the,  title  and  authority  of 
a  king  was  found  to  be  necessary.  Childeric  III.  was  placed  on  the 
throne  in  742  :  Ostrasia,  however,  recognised  no  superior  but  Carloman, 
18 


206 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


who  governed  as  an  independent  chief.  It  was  this  prince  who  sum¬ 
moned  the  council  of  Liptines  in  743,  when  the  Christian  era  was  intro¬ 
duced  into  France.  In  746,  he  retired  into  a  monastery  at  Cassino, 
leaving  to  Pepin  his  portion  of  the  paternal  heritage.  Grypho,  again 
irritated  at  his  exclusion,  raised  the  German  provinces  in  his  behalf,  but 
was  defeated  by  his  eldest  brother,  who  remained  sole  master  of  the 
empire.  When  the  suffrages  of  the  nation,  imperfectly  represented  by 
the  acclamations  of  the  Camp  de  Mars,  had  conferred  the  regal  authority 
on  Pepin,  it  was  confirmed  by  the  authority  of  the  church,  in  the  person 
of  Pope  Zachary,  752.  A  grand  revolution  was  now  completed,  which 
reunited  into  one  system  all  the  fragments  of  the  Germanic  nation  dis¬ 
persed  over  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  allied  indissolubly  the  con¬ 
quering  race  with  the  Roman  population.  The  last  descendant  of  Clovis, 
Childeric  III.,  was  deposed,  and  the  Merovingian  dynasty  was  brought 
to  an  end  after  existing  270  years.* 

Pepin,  the  first  king  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  a.  d.  752,  taught 
by  experience  and  by  the  faults  of  his  predecessors,  had  learnt  the 
necessity  of  strengthening  the  kingly  power,  and  of  elevating  by  every 
means  this  safeguard  of  public  tranquillity.  He  began  by  causing  his 
person  to  be  consecrated  by  Boniface  of  Mentz,  and  completed  his 
designs  by  the  entire  conquest  of  Gaul.  Septimania  was  reduced  in 
759,  and  Aquitaine  in  768.  The  country  now  regaining  tranquillity,  the 
national  assemblies  were  regularly  held,  and  no  endeavours  were  spared 
to  remedy  the  grievances  of  the  preceding  reigns.  Desirous  of  preserv¬ 
ing  the  crown  in  his  family,  and  procuring  the  favour  of  the  church,  he 
readily  agreed  to  the  prayer  of  Stephen  III.,  and  not  only  rescued  him 
from  his  Lombard  enemies,  but  added  the  conquered  exarchate  of  Ra¬ 
venna  and  Pentapolis  to  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 

Charlemagne,  a.  d.  768. — In  a  general  assembly  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
nation,  the  inheritance  of  Pepin  was  divided  between  his  two  sons : 
Charles  had  Neustria  and  Aquitaine;  Carloman,  Ostrasia  and  Bur¬ 
gundy.  The  two  brothers,  from  the  very  first,  regarded  each  other  with 
jealousy  ;  but  the  death  of  the  latter  in  771  prevented  the  consummation 
of  a  rivalry  that  would  have  weakened  both  kingdoms.  The  entire 
Frank  monarchy  was  now  seized  upon  by  the  survivor,  to  the  prejudice 
of  his  nephews,  who,  with  their  widowed  mother,  took  refuge  at  the 
court  of  Desiderius  the  Lombard,  whose  generous  reception  of  Queen 
Geberge  was  one  cause  of  the  Italian  war. 

44  Charlemagne,”  says  Sismondi,  44  claimed  as  a  saint  by  the  Church  ; 
by  the  French  as  their  greatest  king;  by  the  Germans  as  a  fellow- 
countryman  ;  by  the  Italians  as  their  emperor ;  is  placed,  in  a  measure, 
at  the  head  of  all  modern  histories.”  When  the  death  of  his  brother 
had  re-established  the  unity  of  the  Franks,  Charles  found  himself  in 
possession  of  a  power  superior  to  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors.  He 
began  a  series  of  expeditions  which  had  for  their  object  the  protection 
of  his  kingdom  against  the  invasions  of  the  German  tribes  on  the  north, 
and  of  the  Saracens  on  the  south.  He  subjugated  the  Lombard  king¬ 
dom,  774,  and  next  carried  his  victorious  arms  against  the  Saxons,  who, 


*  The  family  of  Clovis  descended  to  a  private  station,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  the 
posterity  of  the  founder  of  the  French  monarchy  is  represented  by  the  noble  house  of 
Montesquieu. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


207 


often  vanquished  by  the  Franks  but  always  restless  under  their  yoke, 
had  promised  Pepin  to  receive  missionaries  into  their  country.  The 
imprudent  menaces  of  St.  Libwin  having  irritated  them  against 
Christianity,  they  burnt  the  church  of  Deventer  in  Holland,  which  act 
of  violence  served  as  the  pretext  for  hostilities  that,  with  only^some 
interruptions,  endured  thirty  years.  This  war  is  divided  into  three 
periods,  namely,  from  772  to  777 ;  from  778  to  785,  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Horxheim ;  and  from  792  to  803.  The  ascendency  was  at 
length  achieved  by  means  which  shock  every  feeling  of  humanity.* 
At  Verden,  in  782,  he  caused  4500  prisoners  to  be  massacred  in  cold 
blood.  Witikind,  the  second  Arminius  of  Germany,  the  chief  of  the 
warlike  Saxons,  embraced  the  gospel,  and  acknowledged  the  sovereignty 
of  Charlemagne,  after  which  his  name  disappears  from  history. 

While  engaged  in  the  Saxon  war,  Charles  had  promised  to  restore 
certain  Spanish  emirs  whom  the  Caliph  Abdalrahman  had  deposed  from 
their  governments.  Crossing  the  Pyrenees,  he  received  the  doubtful 
submission  of  the  people  of  Biscay  and  Navarre,  destroyed  Pampeluna, 
but  suffered  defeat  before  Saragossa.  Returning  into  Gaul,  a  confederate 
army  of  Basques,  Saracens,  and  Asturians  attacked  him  in  the  valley  of 
Roncesvalles,  when  his  rear-guard  was  cut  in  pieces  to  a  man.  In  this 
fatal  day  the  hero  lost  his  most  illustrious  companions  :  Egghiard,  his 
seneschal;  Anselm,  warden  of  the  palace;  and  the  famous  Roland, 
warden  of  the  frontier  of  Bretagne,  whom  the  ties  of  glory  even  more 
than  those  of  blood  attached  to  the  person  of  the  monarch. f 

Charlemagne,  having  visited  Rome  in  order  to  quell  a  tumult  which 
had  been  excited  against  Pope  Leo  III.  by  the  nephews  of  that  pontiff’s 
predecessor,  was  consecrated  Emperor  of  the  Romans  by  the  grateful 
occupant  of  the  papal  chair,  a.  d.  800.  His  territorial  possessions  war¬ 
ranted  him  in  claiming  the  additional  title  of  Emperor  of  the  West. 
All  France,  with  the  exception  of  Brittany, -acknowledged  his  power ; 
beyond  the  Pyrenees,  the  Spanish  march,  comprising  Rousillon  and 
Catalonia,  Navarre  and  Aragon,  was  subject  to  his  jurisdiction;  while 
in  Germany,  a  line  drawn  from  the  Elbe  through  Magdeburg  and  Passau 
would  have  marked  his  eastern  frontier.  Many  other  nations  were  his 
tributaries:  indeed,  all  that  part  of  Europe  which  lies  between  the 
Ebro  and  the  Elbe,  the  frontiers  of  modern  Naples  and  the  Eyder,  sub¬ 
mitted  to  his  sway. 

The  ceremony,  which  conferred  on  Charlemagne  the  imperial  title, 
raised  him  in  the  general  opinion  far  above  the  kingly  power,  and  invest¬ 
ed  him  with  absolute  dominion.  It  broke  the  last  and  feeble  links 
which  still  united  Rome  and  Constantinople,  and  introduced  new  rela¬ 
tions  between  the  imperial  courts.  It  has  been  supposed  that  Leo  III. 
meditated  the  chimerical  design  of  reuniting  the  two  empires  by  the 


*  Among  the  severities  of  Charlemagne  was  the  institution  of  the  Secret  Tribunal  of 
Westphalia,  a  sort  of  inquisition  appointed  to  prevent  the  apostasy  and  rebellion  of  the 
Saxons.  This  terrible  system  of  judicial  administration  lasted  till  1650,  when  the  great 
elector,  Frederick  William,  shocked  at  its  enormities,  effected  its  formal  abolition. — See 
Coxe’s  Letter  on  the  Secret  Tribunal  of  Westphalia. 

fThe  exploits  of  Roland,  presented  to  the  imagination  of  the  warriors  of  the  middle 
ages  by  the  military  song  that  bears  his  name,  and  which  led  the  Normans  to  victory  at 
Hastings,  were  above  all  rendered  popular  by  the  romantic  history  of  Charlemagne  and 
Roland,  ascribed  to  Turpin,  archbishop  of  Rheims,  a.d.773;  but  which  bears  internal 
evidence  of  having  been  composed  about  the  time  of  the  First  Crusade,  in  the  eleventh 
century. 


208 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


two  churches  by  the  marriage  of  Charles  with  the  Empress  Irene,  who 
had  just  succeeded  her  son  on  the  Byzantine  throne.  The  Frank 
monarch  expired  in  814. 

Observations  on  the  Life  of  Charlemagne. 

I.  Political  life. —  Independently  of  those  conquests  by  which  Charlemagne 
acquired  two-thirds  of  the  Roman  empire,  he  is  worthy  of  our  notice  as  a  irreat 
legislative  reformer.  Two  national  assemblies  ( placita )  were  held  annually,  to 
whi  h  all  the  clergy  and  laity  repaired  to  enact  such  laws  as  the  public  weal 
required.  His  cares  extended  alike  over  the  most  distant  as  the  nearest  parts 
of  his  vast  empire,  and  by  his  public  acts  he  endeavoured  to  promote  the  hap¬ 
piness  of  his  people.  This  led  him  to  reform  the  coinage  ;  to  establish  the 
legal  divisions  of  money;  to  repair  old  and  construct  new  roads;  to  found 
schools ;  to  collect  libraries ;  to  build  bridges  ;  and  to  facilitate  commerce  by 
uniting  the  ocean  with  the  Black  Sea,  by  cutting  a  canal  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
Danube.  The  Capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  first  collected  in  827,  prove  that 
he  was  not  unacquainted  with  the  rights  of  property,  and  what  was  consistent 
with  the  liberty  of  the  subject.  All  weighty  matters  concerning  life  or  goods 
were  tried  before  a  kind  of  jury,  with  an  appeal  to  the  sovereign.  Special 
judges  ( missi  regii)  were  also  appointed  to  hold  assizes  from  place  to  place,  to 
inquire  into  the  administration  of  justice,  enforce  its  execution,  and  expel  those 
who  misconducted  themselves  in  their  various  judicial  offices. 

II.  His  literary  life. —  His  acquirements  were  probably  not  very  great,  as, 
until  the  age  of  thirty-two,  he  was  ignorant  of  the  first  elements  of  science. 
It  is  doubtful  if  he  could  write  ;  and  Mabillon  says,  he  had  a  mark  to  him¬ 
self.  like  an  honest,  plain-dealing  man.”  He  spoke  several  languages,  and 
daily  received  lessons  from  eminent  teachers  in  the  seven  liberal  arts.*  He 
gathered  about  him  the  learned  of  every  country ;  founded  an  academy  in 
which  he  took  the  name  of  David,  and  the  accomplished  Englishman  Alcuin, 
that  of  Horace. 

III.  His  private  life  exhibits  the  characteristics  of  a  barbarian  and  a  con¬ 
queror.  He  was  addicted  to  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  and  regardless  of 
human  life ;  but  he  was  affable  in  conversation,  temperate  in  his  repasts,  and 
simple  in  his  dress.  A  hundred  and  twenty  guards  watched  every  night  around 
his  bed,  each  holding  in  the  one  hand  a  drawn  sword,  and  in  the  other  a  burn¬ 
ing  torch.  Mr.  Hallam  thus  sums  up  his  character  :  “  He  stands  alone  like  a 
beacon  upon  a  waste,  or  a  rock  in  the  broad  ocean.  His  reign  affords  a  solitary 
resting-place  between  two  long  periods  of  turbulence  and  ignominy,  deriving 
the  advantages  of  contrast  both  from  those  of  the  preceding  dynasty,  and  of  a 
posterity  for  whom  he  had  formed  an  empire  which  they  were  unworthy  and 
unequal  to  maintain.” 

THE  WORLD  IN  THE  TIME  OF  CHARLEMAGNE. 

End  of  the  Eighth  Century. 

Western  Empire. 

France. — Charlemagne  possessed  nearly  all  France,  great  part  of  Germany, 
the  half  of  Italy,  part  of  Spain,  and  was  the  arbiter  ot  the  remainder  of  the 
West.  The  language  of  the  Franks  was  still  Teutonic,  and  continued  so  until 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century. 

Eastern  Empire. 

Irene,  stained  with  the  blood  of  her  son,  reigned  at  Constantinople,  and 
administered  justice  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Adriatic.  Tottering  on  a  throne 


*  The  sciences  had  long  been  divided  into  two  parts,  the  trivium  and  quadrivium;  the 
first  comprehending  grammar  (i.  e  philology),  logic,  and  rhetoric;  the  second,  music, 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  Few  persons  mastered  the  latter  four,  and  to  be 
perfect  in  the  three  former  was  rare. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


209 


never  free  from  the  violence  of  rebellion  and  fanaticism,  pressed  on  the  north 
by  the  Bulgarians,  attacked  in  different  quarters  by  the  Mohammedans,  this 
celebrated  woman,  an  extraordinary  mixture  of  great  virtues  and  greater  crimes, 
of  talent  and  weakness  still  preserved  the  empire. 

Empire  of  the  Caliphs. 

i 

Haroun  al  Raschid  was  master  of  great  part  of  Asia  and  all  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa.  He  was  obeyed  from  the  Imaus  to  Mount  Atlas. 

Secondary  Powers. 

Denmark  resisted  the  ambitious  designs  of  Charlemagne ;  and  Godfrey, 
while  he  closed  the  entrance  to  this  peninsula  against  the  troops  of  the  Frank 
conqueror,  sent  forth  from  Norway  those  swarms  of  warriors  which  made 
successive  descents  upon  the  Western  Empire. 

Sweden  and  Russia  were  as  yet  insignificant  powers  ;  and  Poland,  already 
become  an  elective  monarchy,  was  of  little  importance. 

Bohemia  was  the  prey  of  the  barbarous  Sclavonians,  whom  the  thirst  of 
plunder  had  attracted  into  Germany.  The  Huns,  successors  of  the  ferocious 
"people  who  had  devastated  Europe,  settled  at  last  in  Pannonia,  from  which 
country  they  attacked  the  frontiers  of  the  Western  Empire.  Under  the  name 
of  the  Avars  they  carried  terror  to  the  gates  of  Constantinople. 

Spain  presented  a  great  battle-field  for  the  Moors  and  Christians.  The 
latter,  though  inferior  to  their  enemies  in  number,  riches,  and  knowledge,  were 
more  warlike  and  united  ;  and,  by  unwearied  courage  and  constancy,  gradually 
enlarged  their  boundaries. 

The  South  of  Italy  was  disputed  by  the  Saracens  and  Greeks. 

Rome,  apparently  submissive  to  Charlemagne,  favoured  the  popes,  who  con¬ 
stantly  endeavoured  to  extend  their  influence,  temporal  and  spiritual. 

Venice,  placed  between  two  powerful  empires,  affected  to  recognise  the 
sovereignty  of  the  one  which  was  too  weak  to  be  feared,  and  thus  avoided  the 
yoke  of  the  other. 

England  was  about  to  begin  her  glorious  career.  The  numerous  states  into 
which  the  country  was  divided  were  gradually  united  to  the  kingdom  of  the 
West  Saxons. 

Construct :  A  map  of  Europe,  with  the  boundaries  of  the  governments  as 
they  existed  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  distinguishing  the  Mohammedan 
from  the  Christian  states. 

THE  CHURCH. 

The  union  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  was  threatened  at 
the  close  of  the  seventh  century  by  the  controversy  respecting  the  wor¬ 
ship  of  images,  which  ended  in  the  revolt  of  Italy,  the  temporal  power 
of  the  popes,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Empire  of  the  West.  In  reject¬ 
ing  the  Pagan  creed,  many  of  the  early  Christians  still  clung  to  its 
superstitions ;  and  the  images  of  the  gods  and  heroes  of  antiquity,  under 
new  names,  were  still  regarded  as  objects  of  adoration  in  the  churches. 
The  reproaches  of  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  with  the  victories  of 
the  latter,  awoke  the  more  rational  portion  of  the  Greeks  to  a  sense  of 
their  condition.  Leo  the  Iconoclast  proscribed  the  use  of  images  and 
religious  pictures,  and  the  eastern  churches  were  cleansed  from  idolatry 
in  726.  In  a  general  council  held  at  Constantinople,  754,  after  six 
months’  deliberation,  it  was  unanimously  agreed  that  all  visible  symbols 
of  Christ,  except  the  eucharist,  were  blasphemous;  and  that  image- 
worship  was  not  only  a  corruption  of  Christianity,  but  a  renewal  of 
Paganism.  The  imperial  edicts  founded  on  this  decision  were  no 
received  without  frequent  tumults;  and  the  daring  malecontents,  headeo 
18  * 


210 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


by  some  unscrupulous  monks,  endangered  the  emperor’s  person,  and 
even  ventured  to  attack  the  city.  The  Bishop  of  Rome  was  far  from 
approving  of  these  measures  ;  and  Gregory  II.,  in  a  letter  to  the  Emperor 
Leo,  had  the  boldness  to  maintain  that  the  use  of  images  had  descended 
from  the  apostolic  ages.  Carrying  his  zeal  or  ambition  still  further,  he 
excommunicated  the  Greek  emperor,  and  proceeded  to  take  possession 
of  the  exarchate.  In  the  synod  of  Rome,  769,  called  the  council  of  the 
Lateran,  it  was  ordered  that  images  should  be  honoured  according  to 
ancient  tradition,  and  the  Greek  council  of  754  was  anathematized ;  but 
idolatry  was  not  extirpated  in  the  East.  The  Empress  Irene  called  a 
seventh  general  council  —  the  second  of  Nice  —  by  which  the  worship 
of  images  was  restored,  787,  and  its  decisions  were  confirmed  by  Pope 
Adrian  I. 

During  the  five  succeeding  reigns  the  contest  was  maintained  between 
the  two  parties  with  undiminished  vigour  and  varying  success.  It  is 
honourable  to  the  churches  of  the  West — France,  Germany,  Spain,  and 
England — that  they  took  a  middle  course,  at  once  reproving  the  fury  of 
the  Iconoclasts  and  the  superstition  of  the  Greeks. 

All  the  laws  of  Charlemagne  were  favourable  to  the  clergy,  at  that 
time  the  sole  depositaries  and  dispensers  of  learning;  and,  in  a  great 
number  of  mixed  diets  held  by  this  prince,  the  bishops  in  concert  with 
the  sovereign  were  anxiously  engaged  in  promoting  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  prosperity  of  the  church.  The  decrees.  of  the  general  council 
of  787,  having  been  misunderstood  by  the  Gallican  clergy,  were  con¬ 
demned  by  three  hundred  prelates  at  Frankfort,  794,  who  did  not,  how¬ 
ever,  adopt  the  errors  of  the  Iconoclasts.  In  this  latter  council  were 
abjured  the  heretical  doctrines  of  Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel,  who,  distin¬ 
guishing  two  natures  in  Jesus  Christ,  maintained  that,  considered  as  a 
man,  the  son  of  Mary  was  the  son  of  God  by  adoption  only. 

The  second  general  council,  held  at  Constantinople  in  381,  had  caused 
to  be  inserted  in  the  Nicene  creed  the  doctrine  that  the  Holy  Ghost  pro¬ 
ceeded!  from  the  Father  ;  to  which,  in  653,  the  eighth  council  of  Toledo 
added  “  and  the  Son”  (filioque) — a  clause  not  long  after  adopted  intc 
the  Gallican  ritual.  Pope  Adrian  I.,  alarmed  at  this  innovation,  sub¬ 
mitted  it  for  the  examination  of  the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  809,  by 
whom  the  addition  was  recognised,  and,  although  rejected  by  the  Greek 
church,  received  in  a  short  time  the  papal  approbation. 

The  popes  were  not  temporal  sovereigns  before  the  invasion  of  Italy 
by  Pepin,  although  they  doubtlessly  exerted  considerable  political  in¬ 
fluence.  They  were  the  subjects  of  the  Greek  emperor,  and  their  inter¬ 
ference  with  the  civil  magistrate  was  confined  to  mere  admonition. 
The  most  violent  defenders  of  the  papal  encroachments  have  been  com¬ 
pelled  to  acknowledge  as  fabulous  the  pretended  donation  made  by  Con¬ 
stantine  to  Sylvester  I.,  314.  Those  forgeries  of  Isidore,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  False  Decretals,  appeared  about  the  end  of  this  century.* 
But  the  ambition  of  the  Frank  monarchs  led  to  far  more  dangerous  con* 
sequences ;  and  the  appeal  of  Pepin  to  Pope  Zachary  was  assumed  as 

*  Saint  Isidore,  archbishop  of  Seville,  who  died  in  636,  had  made  a  collection  of  all 
the  canons  of  the  Spanish  churches  which  were  most  favourable  to  the  papal  assump¬ 
tions.  Riculf,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  brought  them  into  France,  and  being  seconded,  it 
is  supposed,  by  the  monk  Isidore  Mercator  or  Peccator,  disseminated  them  throughout 
the  country,  having  previously  interpolated  several  pretended  letters  of  the  earliei 
popes. 


EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


211 


a  precedent  for  all  the  subsequent  usurpations  of  the  Vatican.  The 
donation  of  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  its 
confirmation  by  Charlemagne,  had  a  natural  tendency  to  elevate  the 
papal  power ;  and  we  shall  soon  be  called  upon  to  witness  the  unbound¬ 
ed  ambition  of  the  Roman  pontiffs. 

In  the  pontificate  of  Zachary,  the  court  of  Germany  decided  that  no 
metropolitan  could  enter  upon  his  functions  without  having  previously 
received  the  ‘pallium  from  the  pontiff.*  This  important  decision  was 
established  by  the  eighth  general  council,  869,  whereby  the  popes  were 
gradually  invested  with  the  right  of  confirming  or  annulling  the  episcopal 
elections,  and  with  the  means  of  keeping  foreign  dignitaries  in  depend¬ 
ence  on  the  Roman  see. 

APPENDIX  TO  EIGHTH  CENTURY. 

Fine  Arts,  from  the  Fall  of  Rome  to  Charlemagne. 

Christianity,  which  afterwards  contributed  to  raise  the  arts  to  great  perfection, 
began  by  inflicting  the  most  grievous  injuries.  The  ardent  zeal  of  many  bishops 
had  already  demolished  temples  to  build  churches,  and  broken  those  repre¬ 
sentations  in  stone  or  bronze  so  much  abhorred  by  Christians,  long  before 
Theodosius  had  published  his  edict  proscribing  the  pictures  and  statues  of 
Paganism.  Some  fine  temples  had  been  preserved  by  appropriating  them  to 
the  Christian  worship.  Thus  Boniface  VI.  dedicated  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa 
to  All  Saints ;  and  the  parthenon  of  Pericles,  without  a  change  of  name,  was 
consecrated  to  the  Virgin.  The  successive  invasions  of  the  Germans,  Persians, 
and  Arabians  caused  the  greatest  injury  to  the  achievements  of  genius ;  and 
among  their  ruins  the  productions  of  art  were  few  and  ephemeral.  The  tri¬ 
umphal  arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome  ;  the  golden  gate  raised  at  Constantinople 
by  Theodosius  the  Great ;  the  column  erected  to  his  honour  by  the  filial  piety 
of  Arcadius;  a  few  remains  at  Ravenna  and  Terracina  of  the  age  of  Theodoric  ; 
the  bridge  of  Salaro  over  the  Anio,  rebuilt  by  Narses,  are  almost  the  only 
architectural  monuments  of  these  great  men.  Theodoric  encouraged  the  arts, 
and  appointed  officers  to  protect  the  public  buildings  throughout  Italy.  The 
rotunda  of  Ravenna,  whose  cupola  consists  of  a  single  stone  cut  in  the  quarries 
of  Istria,  belongs  to  his  reign. 

The  Gothic,  or  what  is  sometimes  termed  the  “  Pointed”  style  of  archi¬ 
tecture,  begins  to  appear  about  this  time.  The  ogive,  not  unknown  under 
Constantine,  is  found  combined  with  semicircular  arcs  in  the  aqueduct  of  Jus¬ 
tinian.  The  last  effort  of  ancient  art  was  the  temple  of  St.  Sophia,  the  work  of 
Anthemius  of  Tralles  and  Isidore  of  Miletus.  It  is  the  model  of  churches  built 
in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross.  Under  Charlemagne  the  skill  of  the  architects 
was  so  imperfect  that,  to  raise  the  cathedral  and  palace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  it 
was  necessary  to  bring  from  Ravenna  the  columns  and  mosaics  which  had 
adorned  the  residence  of  the  later  Roman  emperors.  Painting  declined  ;  but 
we  have  still  a  few  relics  of  miniature  in  the  marginal  drawings  that  explain  and 
decorate  the  text  of  the  ancient  manuscripts,  none  of  which  are  earlier  than  the 
sixth  century. 

By  a  fatality  without  example,  while  the  violence  of  invasion  and  the  confla¬ 
gration  of  cities  destroyed  many  copies  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  it 
happened  that  in  the  West  as  well  as  in  the  East,  the  richest  depositories  of 
learning  became  the  prey  of  the  flames.  At  Constantinople,  an  accident 
destroyed  the  library  of  the  Octagon,  476,  founded  by  Constantine.  The  fana- 


*  The  pallium  was  originally  a  mantle  sent  by  the  Byzantine  emperors  to  the  great 
prelates,  for  which  a  stole  of  white  wool  was  afterwards  substituted.  Symmachus  was 
the  first  pope  who  sent  a  pallium  to  St.  Csesarius,  bishop  of  Arles  and  perpetual  vicar  of 
the  holy  chair  in  Gaul,  513.  From  vicars  and  primates  the  honour  passed  to  metropo* 
■itans,  to  certain  bishops,  and  even  to  abbots. 


212 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


ticism  of  the  Isaurian  Leo  completed  the  ruin  of  what  the  fire  had  spared,  730. 
The  library  of  Alexandria  underwent  a  more  melancholy  fate.  Burnt  once  by 
Julius  Cassar,  condemned  with  other  Pagan  monuments  by  the  decree  of 
Theodosius,  390,  it  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  fanatic  Arabians  in  640.  One 
of  the  successors  of  Omar,  the  Caliph  Yezid,  commanded  the  destruction  of  the 
libraries  of  Syria,  already  many  times  devastated  by  the  ravages  of  the  two 
Chosroes.  In  Africa  the  Cyrenais  had  become  a  vast  ruin,  when  the  Mussul¬ 
mans  added  it  to  their  provinces ;  but  these  barbarians  overwhelmed  the 
treasures  of  science  under  the  ruins  of  Carthage,  Hippona,  and  Tagaste.  At 
Rome,  the  temple  of  Apollo  Palatinus  had  preserved  from  the  time  of  Augustus 
the  masterpieces  of  classical  literature  ;  but  a  conflagration  reduced  them  to 
ashes  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  century. 

In  the  monastic  schools,  the  relics  of  science  found  an  asylum :  there  the 
seven  liberal  arts  were  cultivated,  and  the  profane  authors  studied.  Manuscripts 
were  copied,  and  caligraphy  became  an  art ;  but  frequently  ignorant  or  fanatical 
monks  transcribed  litanies  or  holy  legends  over  the  effaced  episodes  of  Virgil  or 
the  periods  of  Cicero. 


NINTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire.  —  813,  Leo  the  Armenian. —842,  Michael  III.  —  867,  Mace¬ 
donian  Dynasty. — *886,  Leo  VI. 

Arabia. — 800,  The  Aglabites. — 813,  Almamon. — 841,  Turkish  Guard. — 870, 
Motamed — Mohammedan  heresies. 

Spain. — 801,  Barcelona  captured  by  the  Franks.— 866,  Alphonso  the  Great.— 
Moorish  literary  Era. 

France.  —  800,  Charlemagne,  Emperor. — 814,  Louis  the  Debonnaire. — 840, 
Charles  the  Bald.  —  843,  Treaty  of  Verdun.  —  887,  Charles  the  Fat,  dep.— 
888,  Eudes. — 842-886,  Norman  Ravages. 

Germany. — 817,  Louis. — 846-874,  Sclavonian  Incursions. — 881,  Charles  the 
Fat. — 888,  Arnulph. — 899,  Louis  IV,  the  Child. 

Italy.  —  817,  Bernard  d.  —  844,  Louis  II.  —  893,  Berenger  of  Friuli.  —  896, 
Arnulph,  Emperor. 

Britain. — 800,  Egbert. — 832,  Danish  Invasions. — 872,  Alfred  the  Great. — 
871,878  Battles  of  Wilton  and  Edindon. — 900,  Death  of  Alfred. — Anglo- 
Saxon  constitution. 

Church. — 854,  Pope  Joan  (Benedict  II.). — 861,  Greek  Schism — Saint  Worship. 
— 867,  Adrian  II. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

With  the  reign  of  Nicephorus  I.  recommenced  the  reverses  of  the 
empire.  His  character  was  stained  with  the  odious  vices  of  avarice 
and  hypocrisy  ;  nor  was  his  want  of  virtue  redeemed  by  any  superior 
talents.  The  Arabs  destroyed  Heraclea  on  the  Euxine,  took  Cyprus, 
devastated  Rhodes,  and  compelled  the  emperor  to  pay  tribute,  a.  d.  807. 
About  four  years  later,  the  Bulgarians  utterly  exterminated  an  imperial 
army,  and  slew  Nicephorus  who  commanded  in  person.  Michael  I. 
endeavoured  to  check  these  barbarians,  but  was  vanquished  at  Adriano- 
ple,  and  deposed  in  favour  of  Leo  V.  the  Armenian,  813,  in  whose  reign 
also  Thrace  was  ravaged,  Adrianople  reduced,  and  50,000  prisoners 
transported  beyond  the  Danube.  On  the  death  of  the  Bulgarian  chief 
who  had  conducted  these  invasions,  Leo  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  his 


NINTH  CENTURY  A.D. 


213 


country,  and  compelled  the  new  khan  to  conclude  a  peace  for  thirty 
years.  This  interval  of  repose,  so  honourably  procured,  was  employed 
in  restoring  the  ruined  cities,  and  re-establishing  order  in  the  adminis- 
tration  of  the  empire.  Michael,  afterwards  emperor,  who  had  assisted  in 
investing  Leo  with  the  purple,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  rewards  that 
had  been  showered  upon  him,  entered  into  various  conspiracies,  which 
were  severally  detected  ;  and  at  last  the  ungrateful  Phrygian  was  sen¬ 
tenced  to  be  burned  alive  in  the  furnace  of  the  baths.  But  a  brief  delay 
in  the  execution  of  this  cruel  order,  cost  the  emperor  his  life.  On  the 
morning  of  Christmas-day,  a  body  of  conspirators,  disguised  as  priests, 
with  arms  beneath  their  dresses,  intruded  themselves  into  his  private 
chapel,  and  rushed  upon  him  just  as  he  began  to  chant  the  first  psalm. 
He  long  and  vigorously  defended  himself  with  a  weighty  cross  he  had 
grasped,  till  a  well-aimed  blow  severed  his  right  arm  from  his  body. 
As  he  fell,  his  cry  for  pity  was  savagely  answered,  “  This  is  the  hour 
of  vengeance,  not  of  mercy  !”  820. — Michael  II.  the  Stammerer  was 
carried  from  his  prison  to  the  throne,  which  he  disgraced  by  his  vices. 
Thomas  the  Cappadocian  disputed  his  title,  and  laid  siege  to  the  capital ; 
but  falling  into  the  power  of  the  monarch,  he  suffered  the  mutilation  of 
his  hands  and  feet. 

The  Arabs,  still  continuing  their  incursions,  circumscribed  the  Greek 
possessions  in  Italy  to  the  city  of  Naples,  820:  in  823  they  conquered 
Crete,  and  Sicily  in  827. 

Theophilus  the  Unfortunate,  a  just  and  brave  prince,  punished  the 
murderers  of  Leo  V.,  embellished  as  well  as  fortified  Constantinople, 
and  patronised  the  arts  and  sciences.  He  several  times  attacked  the 
Arabs,  but  eventually  lost  Ancyra,  and  his  native  town  Amorium. 
Michael  III.,  842,  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  five  years,  under 
the  regency  of  his  prudent  mother  Theodora ;  but  as  he  grew  up  he  threw 
off  her  easy  yoke,  and  imitating  the  vices  of  Nero  and  Heliogabalus, 
became  as  contemptible  as  he  was  odious.  The  factions  of  the  circus 
were  revived ;  the  safety  of  the  empire  was  neglected  for  the  result  of  a 
horse-race  ;  and  the  ceremonies  of  religion  were  profaned  by  his  impiety. 
In  this  reign  began  the  separation  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches, 
in  the  excommunication  of  Photius,  whose  election  to  the  patriarchate 
had  been  disapproved  by  Nicholas  I.  The  infatuated  prince  was  mur¬ 
dered  in  an  hour  of  intoxication,  and  the  sceptre  passed  to  the 

Macedonian  Dynasty,  a.  d.  867. — Basil  I.  was  said  to  count  among 
his  ancestors  the  Persian  Arsacides,  the  great  Constantine,  and  the 
Macedonian  Alexander.  His  youth  had  been  spent  among  the  Bulga¬ 
rians  ;  but,  uniting  with  some  fellow-captives,  he  boldly  made  his  way  to 
the  Grecian  capital.  Here  he  gradually  rose  to  the  highest  offices  of 
state,  not  more  by  his  great  personal  merits  than  by  his  compliance  with 
the  vices  of  the  emperor;  and  under  this  founder  of  the  new  dynasty  the 
empire  began  to  revive  from  its  decay.  He  passed  the  Euphrates,  forced 
several  emirs  to  acknowledge  his  power,  protected  Dalmatia  and  the 
rising  city  of  Ragusa  against  the  Aglabites,  and  re-established  the  throne 
of  Lombardy  by  expelling  the  Arabs  from  Apulia  and  Calabria.  His 
arms  were  formidable  to  the  barbarians,  while  his  prudent  administration 
in  financial  matters  replenished  an  exhausted  treasury,  and  promoted  the 
happiness  of  his  people.  He  began  the  revisal  of  the  Justinian  code; 
and  the  Basilics,  completed  by  his  son,  are  an  honour  to  his  genius  and 


214 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


philanthropy.  Accident  put  an  end  to  his  life  in  a  stag-hunt,  and  he 
was  succeeded  by  Leo  VI.  the  Philosopher,  886,  who  trod  in  the  steps 
of  his  father.  He  was  not,  however,  equally  successful  in  his  foreign 
wars,  being  compelled  to  yield  to  the  superior  valour  of  the  Arabs  and 
Bulgarians.  His  marriage  to  a  fourth  wife,  Zoe,  caused  a  schism  be¬ 
tween  him  and  the  church.  He  died  in  911. 

ARABIA. 

The  political  decline  of  the  Arabian  empire  began  in  the  reign  of  its 
greatest  caliph,  Haroun.  In  756,  Spain  became  independent;  in  789, 
Fez  was  built,  destined  to  be  the  capital  of  a  petty  kingdom ;  and  at  the 
end  of  the  century  the  Aglabite  dynasty  was  founded,  which  governed 
a  territory  extending  from  Tunis  to  the  Egyptian  frontier.  It  was  in 
combating  against  a  rebel  chief  in  Khorassan  that  Haroun  ai  Raschid 
met  his  death,  808. 

Almamon,  a.  d.  813,  after  several  years  of  internal  dissension,  raised 
himself  to  the  throne  of  his  father.  He  continued  the  patronage  which 
the  other  had  accorded  to  literature,  eagerly  seeking  and  translating  the 
philosophical  writings  of  Greece.  In  his  reign,  a  degree  of  the  great 
circle  of  the  earth  was  measured,  determining  the  circumference  of  the 
globe  at  *24,000  miles.  In  the  science  of  medicine,  Rhazes  and  Avi¬ 
cenna  rank  with  Hippocrates  ;  and  chemistry,  though  degraded  by  being 
connected  with  alchymy,  owes  its  origin  and  improvement  to  the  Ara¬ 
bians.  Al  Motassem,  who  had  succeeded  Almamon,  in  833,  was 
recalled  from  quelling  some  civil  commotions,  to  face  the  active  Theo- 
philus,  838.  One  dearly-purchased  battle,  followed  by  the  obstinate 
siege  of  Amorium,  wThich  had  fallen  into  the  power  of  the  Greeks, 
terminated  a  war  in  which  200,000  lives  were  sacrificed. 

Arab  Sects.  —  Motassem  was  unable  to  take  advantage  of  his  successes; 
for,  while  the  Greeks  were  pressing  him  in  the  north,  he  had  to  contend  with 
formidable  internal  enemies.  Heresies  appeared  in  Islamism  almost  from  its 
very  commencement ;  in  659  the  Karidjies  took  exception  to  the  doctrines  of 
fatalism,  and  it  was  one  of  this  sect  that  assassinated  Ali.  In  737,  new  attacks 
were  made  upon  several  of  the  dogmas  and  practices  of  the  Mohammedans. 
In  742,  Djead  Ibn  Dirkhem  impugned  the  Koran,  denying  its  divine  origin, 
and  founded  a  considerable  sect  in  the  East.  In  758,  Achmet  Ravendi  preached 
the  Indian  tenet  of  metempsychosis,  and  pretended  that  the  soul  of  Adam  had 
been  transmitted  to  the  body  of  the  Caliph  Almonsor.  Seventeen  years  later, 
Hakem  with  the  golden  mask  revived  this  doctrine  and  added  to  its  absurdities. 
When  he  was  besieged  in  the  city  to  which  he  had  retired,  and  was  on  the 
point  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  orthodox  Mussulmans,  he  set  fire  to  his 
habitation  and  flung  himself  into  the  midst  of  the  flames,  exclaiming,  “  I  depart 
for  heaven;  let  him  who  desires  to  share  in  my  felicity  imitate  my  example.” 
His  wife,  children,  and  partisans,  all  precipitated  themselves  into  the  burning 
mass. 

But  of  all  those  various  heresies,  the  one  which  was  checked  with  the  greatest 
amount  of  human  suffering  was  that  of  Babek  Khourremmi.  The  Persians 
had  long  been  regarded  as  the  freest  and  most  civilised  people  of  the  East ;  and, 
after  the  Arabs  had  destroyed  their  empire,  being  unable  to  struggle  with  their 
conquerors  in  the  open  field,  they  cunningly  sapped  the  power  and  religious 
authority  of  the  caliph  by  propagating  doctrines  in  opposition  to  those  of  the 
Koran.  Their  most  daring  advocate  was  Babek,  m  uo  proclaimed  the  indiffer 
ence  of  human  actions,  and  a  community  of  goods, — opinions  that  tended  to 
dissolve  all  society,  civil,  political,  or  religious.  So  numerous  were  his  follower* 


NINTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


215 


that  for  twenty  years  he  was  able  to  contend  against  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad. 
The  quelling  of  this  revolt,  which  is  said  to  have  cost  the  lives  of  a  million  of 
men,  failed  to  eradicate  entirely  the  doctrines  of  Babek. 

Motassem,  to  support  his  tottering  throne,  introduced  into  his  armies 
and  palace  a  body  of  50,000  Turks,  a  warlike  Tartar  race  from  beyond 
the  Oxus,  841.  These  praetorian  guards,  despising  the  weakness  of 
their  employers,  soon  provoked  the  public  indignation  by  their  licentious 
behaviour.  Motawakkel,  the  cruel  son  of  Motassem,  was  murdered  in 
his  palace  by  these  barbarians  ;  and  Montasser,  stained  with  his  father’s 
blood,  was  placed  on  the  throne  in  862.  The  mercenary  soldiers  now 
assumed  the  right  of  choosing  their  sovereign,  and  the  rapid  succession 
of  caliphs  perplexes  the  historian.  Every  province  began  to  shake  off 
its  allegiance;  new  principalities  were  formed  in  Syria  and  Mesopo¬ 
tamia  ;  and  the  caliphate  at  last  was  confined  to  the  city  of  Bagdad. 
The  Emir  of  Egypt,  formerly  a  Turkish  slave,  assumed  the  sovereign 
power  in  869,  and  founded  the  dynasty  of  Thelonides.  The  Aglabites, 
as  well  as  the  Edrisites,  had  already  made  themselves  independent  in 
Africa  ;  both  of  whom  wTere  subdued  by  the  Fatimites  in  912. 

Motamed,  870,  had  to  contend  not  only  against  revolted  chiefs  but  also 
against  impious  sectarians.  In  the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign  the  doctrines  of 
Babek  were  revived  by  Abdallah,  but  they  were  preached  in  secret,  and  only 
fully  revealed  to  those  who  had  undergone  a  course  of  six  preparatory  tests, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  seventh  of  the  series  that  these  opinions,  subversive  of 
all  religion  and  morality,  were  clearly  developed.  One  of  Abdallah’s  mission¬ 
aries,  surnamed  Karmath,  did  not  imitate  the  prudence  of  his  chief;  but  when 
he  had  gained  over  a  certain  number  of  partisans,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt 
against  the  caliph,  defeated  several  generals,  and  recruited  his  own  army  by 
his  successes  and  the  license  granted  to  his  soldiers.  Mecca  was  taken  by 
these  insurgents,  when  thirty  thousand  Islamites  perished  in  defence  of  the 
Caaba.  A  hundred  battles  were  fought  before  the  sect  of  the  Karmathiavss 
was  exterminated. 

Read :  Crichton’s  History  of  Arabia,  2  vols,  in  the  Edinburgh  Cabinet 
library. 

SPAIN. 

The  Caliphate. — The  reigns  of  Hashem  I.  and  Hakem  I.,  Abdal- 
rahman’s  successors,  were  troubled  by  rivals  to  the  throne,  and  by  the 
Franks  who  took  Lerida,  plundered  the  environs  of  Huesca,  and  laid 
siege  to  Barcelona,  which,  after  a  lengthened  blockade,  fell  into  their 
hands  in  801.  To  repel  these  invaders,  the  caliph,  Hakem,  established 
a  regular  military  force,  and  equipped  a  numerous  fleet,  which  ravaged 
the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  without  making  any 
permanent  conquest.  Four  years  before  his  death,  a  sedition  which 
broke  out  in  the  suburbs  of  Cordova  was  severely  repressed  ;  three 
hundred  of  the  rioters  were  impaled,  and  the  remainder,  to  the  number 
of  fifteen  thousand,  transported  to  Africa.  The  attacks  of  the  Christians 
of  Oviedo,  who  advanced  as  far  as  the  Tagus,  and  the  revolts  of  the 
Arabian  governors  under  Hakem’s  successors,  brought  premature  decay 
on  the  caliphate.  Still  it  was  at  this  period  that  a  troop  of  Spanish 
Moors  became  the  terror  of  Italy  and  Provence.  A  small  party  of 
Saracens  took  the  village  of  Fraxinet  by  surprise,  and  from  this  almost 
inaccessible  position  ravaged  the  neighbouring  country,  isolating  them¬ 
selves  entirely  from  the  rest  of  Provence  on  the  landward  side,  while 


216 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


the  sea  lay  before  them  always  exposed  to  their  piratical  expedi¬ 
tions.  The  destruction  of  Frejus  opened  the  passes  into  Italy,  of 
which  they  instantly  took  possession,  whence  they  devastated  Bur¬ 
gundy  and  even  Swabia  by  sudden  incursions.  They  long  occupied 
the  fortified  monastery  of  St.  Maurice  in  Transjurane  Burgundy;  and 
traces  of  their  establishments  may  still  be  seen  in  Switzerland  and 
Provence. 

Christian  Spain. — The  Christians  had  met  with  almost  uninter¬ 
rupted  success  until  about  the  middle  of  this  century,  when  they  were 
checked  by  internal  disorder,  and  by  the  ravages  of  the  Northmen  on 
the  coast  of  Biscay.  Ordogno  I.  defeated  these  barbarians,  vanquished 
the  Emir  of  Saragossa,  and  extended  the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom  of 
Leon  to  the  river  Tonnes.  In  866,  Alphonso  the  Great,  who  had  been 
expelled  from  Oviedo  by  the  governor  of  Galicia,  returned  after  the 
rebeks  death,  and  conquered  the  insurgent  Count  of  Alava.  He  con¬ 
ducted  thirty  successful  campaigns  against  the  infidels,  seized  on  the 
country  between  the  Douro  and  the  Minho,  and  forced  the  Moors  to  sue 
for  a  truce  of  six  years.  But  domestic  troubles  put  an  end  to  his  con¬ 
quests  ;  and  as  his  subjects  murmured  at  the  heavy  taxes  imposed  to 
fortify  the  frontier  towns,  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  his 
son,  910.  He  died  the  next  year  in  battle  against  the  Arabs,  fighting  as 
general  of  the  army.  * 

FRANCE. 

Origin  of  Modern  France,  a.  d.  840.  —  Louis  the  Debonnaire 
succeeded  his  father,  814  ;  but  the  mighty  empire  of  Charlemagne  had 
already  begun  to  decay.  It  was  the  misfortune  of  Louis  to  mistake 
petty  reforms  for  a  salutary  attention  to  the  public  good.  His  life  was 
passed  in  a  long  struggle  against  three  sons,  who  were  supported  by  the 
clergy  in  their  violation  of  all  filial  duties.  Alternately  victorious  and 
vanquished,  he  was  once  actually  deposed  by  Pope  Gregory  IV.  At 
his  death  in  840,  the  kingdoms  of  Germany  and  France  were  for  ever 
separated  ;  the  former  being  assigned  to  Louis,  the  latter  to  Charles 
the  Bald,  while  Lothaire  inherited  the  rest  of  the  imperial  dominions. 
The  last  appears  to  have  entertained  a  design  of  universal  monarchy, 
hut  his  schemes  were  frustrated  by  the  battle  of  Fontenay,  which,  with 
the  alliance  of  Strasburg,  contributed  to  produce  the  celebrated  treaty  of 
Verdun,  843.  Charles  had  to  contend  against  the  Northmen  and  Bre¬ 
tons  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine  and  of  the  Loire.  The  people  of  Aqui- 
tania  took  up  arms  successively  in  favour  of  Pepin  II.  and  of  Louis  of 
Germany,  in  order  to  form  an  independent  kingdom  ;  but,  in  the  end, 
they  were  incorporated  with  Neustrian  France,  which  maintained  over 
them  a  nominal  supremacy.  The  deaths  of  Lothaire  and  his  three  sons 
were  the  cause  of  fresh  divisions.  The  kings  of  Germany  and  France, 
by  the  treaty  of  Mersen,  shared  the  dominions  of  Louis  II.,  the  emperor; 
but  Charles  soon  boldly  laid  hands  on  the  German  portion  and  wrested 
Provence  from  his  rival. 

The  death  of  Louis  II.  having  created  a  vacancy  in  the  empire,  the 
King  of  France  hastened  to  Rome,  where  he  received  the  diadem  from 
the  hands  of  Pope  John  VIII.,  to  which  was  afterwards  added  the  iron 
crown  of  Lombardy.  After  the  demise  of  Charles  the  Bald,  the  imperial 


NINTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


217 


throne  remained  unoccupied  until  881,  during  part  of  which  time  Louis 
the  Stammerer  ruled  over  France,  which  he  exhausted  by  his  pro¬ 
digalities.  His  sons  Louis  III.  and  Carloman,  who  succeeded,  aban- 
doned  French  Lorraine  to  the  King  of  Saxony,  at  the  same  time  that 
Boson  detached  the  Burgundian  provinces  from  France.  By  the  treaty 
of  Amiens,  concluded  in  880,  the  two  brothers  made  a  partition  of  their 
father’s  inheritance  :  Louis  w’as  declared  king  of  Neustria,  and  Carlo- 
man  obtained  Aquitaine  with  a  right  of  Burgundy. 

In  the  same  year,  the  two  French  princes  met  in  congress  at  Gondre- 
ville  with  the  two  kings  of  Germany,  Louis  the  Saxon,  and  Charles  of 
Swabia,  all  being  alike  interested  in  the  defence  of  their  dominions 
against  the  Northmen,  and  of  the  Carlovingian  legitimacy  against  a 
usurping  aristocracy.  But  this  royal  league  attained  no  better  success 
than  those  which  had  preceded  it.  The  wife  of  Boson  held  Vienne 
against  the  united  efforts  of  three  kings ;  and,  though  she  at  length 
yielded  to  one  of  Carloman’s  lieutenants,  the  crown  of  Provence  never¬ 
theless  remained  on  the  head  of  the  usurper.  A  brilliant  victory  gained 
over  the  Northmen  at  Saucourt  in  Vimeux,  covered  the  Neustrian 
sovereign  with  a  renown  that  was  long  celebrated  in  the  popular  songs. 
But  Louis  III.  did  not  live  to  realize  the  hopes  that  the  nation  enter¬ 
tained  of  him.  His  death,  wThich  happened  in  882,  reunited  the  two 
crowns  of  France  on  the  head  of  Carloman,  wTho  descended  to  the  tomb 
in  884.  His  heir  was  a  posthumous  brother,  whom  the  Franks  excluded 
from  the  throne  on  account  of  his  youth,  and  elected  Charles  the  Fat 
in  his  place.  This  monarch,  who  had  previously  been  crowned  emperor, 
ruled  over  a  territory  not  less  extensive  than  that  of  Charlemagne,  but 
his  weakness  was  unable  to  support  the  heavy  burden,  and,  under  the 
pretext  of  his  inability  to  defend  the  empire  against  the  northern  pirates, 
he  was  deposed  by  his  vassals,  887. 

Eudes,  a.  d.  887. — On  the  deposition  of  Charles,  there  was  not  in 
France,  among  the  many  independent  princes,  one  who  was  capable  of 
seizing  the  crown  and  inspiring  due  respect  for  his  power.  Yet  the 
remembrance  of  the  exploits  of  Count  Eudes,  the  defender  of  Paris, 
induced  most  of  the  bishops  and  nobles  of  Neustria  to  proclaim  him 
king.  There  remained,  however,  one  descendant  of  Charlemagne, 
Charles  the  Simple,  who  had  been  excluded  on  account  of  his  youth 
from  all  the  Carlovingian  thrones  to  which  he  had  any  claim.  Eudes 
had  two  other  competitors,  descended  from  the  first  emperor  of  the  West 
by  the  female  side :  these  were  Guy,  duke  of  Spoleto,  and  Arnulph, 
king  of  Germany.  But  their  distance  from  the  scene  of  action,  and  the 
necessity  of  directing  their  forces  to  another  quarter,  left  the  new  king 
in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  crown.  The  whole  of  France  did  not 
acknowledge  this  sovereign  :  the  Count  of  Poitiers,  duke  of  Aquitaine, 
was  independent,  and  even  bore  the  title  of  king;  the  Duke  of  Brittany 
assumed  the  royal  authority ;  as  did  also  the  Dukes  of  Gascony  and 
Burgundy,  with  the  Counts  of  Flanders,  Vermandois,  and  Anjou. 
Eudes  justified  anew  the  choice  of  his  vassals  by  delivering  Paris  from 
another  siege,  and  defeating  in  the  terrible  battle  of  Montfaucon  the 
Northmen,  wTho  lost  19,000  men.  Emboldened  by  this  success,  he  com¬ 
pelled  the  discontented  princes  to  acknowledge  his  authority,  and  when 
he  died  in  898,  named  Charles  III.  for  his  successor.  "The  mstory 
19 


218 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


of  the  twelve  succeeding  years  is  entirely  unknown,  except  that  the 
ravages  of  the  northern  invaders  were  still  continued  with  their  usual 
ferocity.* 

CARLOVINGIAN  DYNASTY. 

*  *  *  *  ****** 


6.  Eudes,  k.  888,  f  898 

*  *  *  *  * 

8.  Robeet  I.  k.  922, 
t  923. 


3.  Louis  III.,  k.  879, 

t  882. 


11.  Lothaire,  k.  954  f  986. 

t — - A~ - - 

12.  Louis  V.,  k.  986,  t  987. 


1.  Charles  the  Bald, 
k.  840,  f  879. 


2.  Louis  II.,  the  Stammerer, 
k.  877,  f  879. 


5.  Charles  the  Fat, 
k.  884,  f  888. 
****** 

9.  Rodolph,  k.  923, 
t  936. 


4.  Carloman,  k.  879,  f  884.  7.  Charles  the  Simple, 

k.  893,  dep.  923. 


10.  Louis  IV.,  Outremer, 
k.  936,  |  954. 


Charles ,  duke  of  Basse  Lorraine, 
excluded  from  the  throne. 


THE  NORTHMEN. 

The  Northmen  were  originally  from  the  countries  now  known  as  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden.  This  people  professed  the  warlike  religion  of  Odin, 
who  in  times  beyond  the  reach  of  credible  history  had  quitted  the  banks  of  the 
Tanais,  and  conquered  most  of  the  regions  on  the  Baltic.  This  warrior  gave 
laws  to  his  followers,  and  established  a  religious  system,  perfectly  in  harmony 
with  their  wants,  which  could  only  be  satisfied  by  war.  He  was  himself  the 
principal  divinity,  adored  as  the  father  of  carnage.  His  people,  whose  chief  oc¬ 
cupation  appears  to  have  been  piracy,  infested  all  the  seas  of  the  North  until 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  Christianity  had  softened  their 
manners,  and  attached  these  vagrant  adventurers  to  their  native  soil.  At  this 
period  the  history  of  the  Scandinavian  states  assumes  an  air  of  greater  credibility, 
without,  however,  inspiring  deeper  interest.  To  know  these  ancient  inhabitants 
of  the  north,  it  will  be  necessary  to  follow  them  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their 
own  country.  From  the  fourth  century  they  carried  desolation  to  Rome  and 
even  into  Africa ;  and,  though  restrained  by  the  vigilance  of  Charlemagne, 
they  found  ail  the  passages  open  under  his  successors.  Their  rude  barks,  im¬ 
pelled  at  once  by  sails  and  oars,  and  bearing  each  about  100  men,  wasted  the 
shores  of  western  Europe,  ascended  the  rivers,  arid  pillaged  all  on  which  they 
could  lay  hands.  In  843,  they  entered  France  by  the  Seine,  and  plundered 
Rouen  ;  another  fleet,  sailing  up  the  Loire,  devastated  Touraine.  In  the  follow¬ 
ing  year,  they  made  simultaneous  descents  on  England,  France  and  Spain. 
.They  afterwards  reached  Paris,  which  they  burnt  in  the  face  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  who  was  intrenched  at  St.  Denis.  Between  845  and  861,  the  modern 
capital  of  France  was  thrice  ravaged  by  these  daring  barbarians.  In  886,  they 
reappeared,  but  met  with  a  vigorous  resistance — Eudes,  count  of  Paris,  whose 
valour  afterwards  raised  him  to  the  throne,  animating  the  citizens  to  repel  the 
invasion  by  force.  He  was  aided  by  the  courageous  Bishop  Goslin,  who  every 
day,  after  having  given  his  benediction  to  the  people,  placed  himself  in  the 
breach,  with  a  helmet  on  his  head  and  a  battle-axe  in  his  hand,  and  planting 
his  crosier  on  the  ramparts,  fought  heroically  in  defence  of  the  city.  One  of 
the  pirate  chiefs,  Rollo,  tired  of  his  wandering  life,  and  desirous  of  a  permanent 
settlement,  obtained  the  territory  which  extends  from  the  rivers  Andelle  and 

*  Charles  the  Bald,  840,  is  by  many  considered  the  first  king  of  France,  properly  so 
called  ;  others  date  the  commencement  of  the  French  monarchy  and  nation  from  888, 
when  the  people  dwelling  between  the  Meuse  and  the  Loire  became  French;  they  con¬ 
sequently  reckon  Eudes  as  the  first  king.  France  long  preserved  the  limits  assigned  by 
the  treaty  of  Verdun,  843,  all  beyond  being  derived  from  the  conquests  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  Romance  became  the  language  of  the  court  ;  and  by  gradual  changes  it 
formed  the  polished  dialect  of  Louis  XIV.  Under  the  sons  of  Clovis,  the  name  of  Franco 
appears  to  have  been  first  used. 


NINTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


219 


Aure  to  the  Ooean.  To  this  was  afterwards  added  the  country  between  the 
Andelle  and  Epte,  with  Brittany.  In  return,  the  Norman  was  baptized  by  the 
name  of  Robert,  and  entering  the  Christian  communion,  did  homage  by  the 
title  ol  Duke  of  Normandy,  912.  His  country  afforded  greater  security  than 
the  rest  of  France:  labourers  returned,  population  increased,  towns  were 
rebuilt,  monasteries  and  churches  repaired,  and  laws  enacted  for  the  punish¬ 
ment  of  the  evil-doer.  Besides  the  Normans,  the  Saracens  from  Africa  made 
frequent  incursions  into  France,  and  established  a  colony  at  Fraxinet  (now  La 
Garde)  in  Provence,  where  they  continued  independent  for  many  centuries. 

Read :  Crichton’s  Scandinavia,  Ancient  and  Modern,  2  vols,  in  the  Edin¬ 
burgh  Cabinet  Library. 


GERMANY. 

Louis  the  German,  son  of  Louis  the  Debonnaire  who  received 
Germany  as  his  heritage,  had  not  only  to  combat  against  the  Normans, 
but  all  the  Sclavonic  tribes  on  the  eastern  frontiers  of  his  dominions. 
To  repel  their  ravages,  it  was  necessary,  in  Germany  as  well  as  in 
France,  to  create  officers  ( margraves )  charged  with  the  duty  of  guard¬ 
ing  the  frontiers  against  all  invaders.  From  846  to  874,  the  barbarians 
on  the  eastern  borders  were  in  a  state  of  almost  continual  insurrection  ; 
in  the  latter  year,  however,  most  of  the  Sclavonic  tribes  swore  fealty  to 
Louis  at  the  diet  of  Forcheim.  These  wars  did  not  prevent  the  German 
monarch  from  observing  wffiat  was  passing  in  the  other  Carlovingian 
states.  After  the  death  of  Lothaire  and  his  son,  to  whom  Lorraine  had 
been  allotted,  he  divided  this  province  with  Charles  the  Bald ;  thereby 
augmenting  his  kingdom  by  the  cities  of  Basle,  Strasburg,  Metz, 
Cologne,  Treves,  Utrecht,  and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Louis  II.,  another  of 
Lothaire’s  children,  who  possessed  Italy  with  the  title  of  emperor,  dying 
in  875,  Louis  the  German,  as  the  eldest  survivor  of  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty,  was  desirous  to  obtain  his  dominions;  but  in  this  he  was  an¬ 
ticipated  by  the  activity  of  Charles  the  Bald. 

In  the  following  year,  Louis  the  German  expired,  leaving  three  sons 
to  share  his  dominions.  Carloman  had  Bavaria,  with  Carinthia,  Aus¬ 
tria,  Moravia,  and  Bohemia ;  Louis  the  Young  received  Eastern 
France,  Thuringia,  Saxony,  Frisia,  and  part  of  Lorraine;  and  Charles 
the  Fat  obtained  Swabia,  Alsace,  and  Switzerland.  But  this  arrange¬ 
ment  was  soon  disturbed,  first  by  the  death  of  Carloman,  and  next  by 
the  decease  of  Louis  of  Saxony.  Charles  the  Fat,  in  consequence, 
reunited  without  much  trouble  all  the  Germanic  states,  to  which  he 
added  Italy,  with  the  dignity  of  the  imperial  throne.  In  his  reign  the 
Normans  ravaged  all  the  country  south  of  the  Rhine  from  the  sea  to 
Mentz;  Cologne  and  Aix-la-Chapelle  with  other  cities  were  re  luced  to 
ashes ;  the  palace  of  Charlemagne  was  converted  into  a  stable,  and  for 
eight  years  remained  in  that  degraded  condition.  To  remove  these 
formidable  enemies,  Charles  raised  a  numerous  army,  and  besieged 
them  in  their  camp  at  Maestrich,  but  just  as  they  were  on  the  point  of 
surrendering,  he  offered  to  give  them  2400  pounds  of  silver  to  evacuate 
a  position  no  longer  tenable.  In  884,  his  difficulties  were  increased  by 
the  death  of  Carloman  and  the  offer  of  the  throne  of  France.  But  h.nv 
could  he  protect  his  new  kingdom,  when  he  had  proved  himself  unaole 
to  maintain  the  honour  of  the  five  other  crowns  which  had  fallen  to 
him  I  The  Normans  continued  their  incursions,  and  besieged  Paris, 
which  was  nobly  defended  by  Eudes.  The  imbecility  of  the  emperor 


220 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


becoming  every  day  more  evident,  he  was  deposed  at  the  diet  of  Tribui 
on  the  Rhine,  887. 

Arnulph  was  the  newly-elected  king  of  Germany.  His  policy  was 
a  continuation  of  the  imperial  system  :  he  sought  to  bring  back  Italy 
and  Burgundy  to  his  obedience,  to  revive  the  homage  of  the  French 
monarch,  and  to  be  crowned  emperor.  At  the  diet  of  Worms  in  888, 
and  also  in  893,  he  received  the  fealty  of  the  various  competitors  for  the 
crown  of  France.  He  made  a  vigorous  resistance  to  the  Norman 
invaders,  and  in  a  battle  fought  near  the  Dyle  routed  them  with  great 
slaughter,  two  kings  being  killed  and  thirteen  standards  captured,  896. 
The  Sclavonians  also  were  reduced  to  seek  peace  by  the  decisive 
measures  of  the  new  sovereign.  Of  the  fruit  of  his  expeditions  into 
Italy  he  retained  little  more  than  the  imperial  title ;  and  not  long  after 
his  return  to  Germany,  he  expired  at  Ratisbon,  899,  where  his  tomb 
may  still  be  seen. 

ITALY. 

On  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  a.  d.  814,  Bernard  the  son  of  Pepin 
obtained  the  kingdom  of  Italy ;  but  rebelling  against  his  uncle  Louis, 
who  inherited  the  empire,  he  was  condemned  to  lose  his  eyes, —  a  pun¬ 
ishment  which  was  so  cruelly  inflicted  as  to  cause  his  death,  817.  The 
son  and  lieutenant  of  Lothaire,  afterwards  Louis  II.,  who  kept  the 
Romans  in  obedience,  compelled  also  the  Dukes  of  Benevento  to  respect 
the  imperial  authority,  and  drove  the  Saracens  from  Apulia.  In  844, 
his  father  resigned  to  him  the  Italian  provinces.  This  peninsula  was 
incessantly  menaced  by  Sclavonian  tribes  in  the  direction  of  Friuli,  by 
the  Mohammedans  on  the  southern  shores,  by  the  Normans,  whose 
vessels  approached  even  the  coasts  of  Tuscany,  and  also  by  the  Greeks, 
who  were  always  ready  to  support  the  rebellious  dukes  of  Benevento, 
Friuli,  and  Spoleto,  the  princes  of  Salerno,  or  the  counts  of  Capua. 
The  Aglabite  Saracens  of  Africa  had  possessed  Messina  and  Palermo 
since  the  year  832 ;  from  which  ports  they  ravaged  all  maritime  Italy, 
and  threatened  Rome,  the  suburbs  of  which  they  destroyed  by  fire. 
But  Gregory  IV,  fortified  against  them  the  city  of  Ostia,  and  Leo  IV., 
surrounding  with  walls  the  churches  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  on 
the  Vatican  mount,  formed  a  new  quarter,  called  by  the  inhabitants  the 
Leonine  city,  and  which  protected  Rome  on  the  Tuscan  side.  Some 
Time  afterwards,  the  people  of  Amalfi,  Naples,  and  Gaeta,  who  were 
enacting  on  a  smaller  scale  the  part  which  Genoa  and  Venice  performed 
somewhat  later,  entered  into  a  league  against  the  infidels,  and,  by  the 
destruction  of  their  fleet,  checked  their  plundering  expeditions  for  several 
years.  But  the  Saracens  re-appeared  more  formidable  than  ever;  and 
when  two  competitors  disputed  the  duchy  of  Benevento,  Louis,  hoping 
to  terminate  their  differences,  divided  it  between  them,  giving  to  one, 
Benevento  with  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Apennines,  to  the  other.  Salerno 
with  the  western  declivity.  He  thus  weakened  the  only  power  that 
could  have  effectually  guarded  the  shores  of  Southern  Italy.  Soon,  in 
fact,  all  the  cities  and  monasteries  were  pillaged  by  the  Saracens,  who 
advanced  even  to  the  convent  of  Mount  Cassino,  the  abbot  of  which 
was  forced  to  pay  a  ransom  of  three  thousand  gold  pieces.  In  self- 
defence  Louis  was  compelled  to  make  an  appeal  to  all  the  military 
population  of  Italy ;  though  an  alliance  with  the  Greek  emperor,  who 


Adelaide ,  m  1.  Lothaire,  k.  of  Italy. 

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CARL0VINGIAN  EMPEBOES  AND  KINGS  0E  ITALI. 


222 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


sent  him  two  hundred  vessels,  was  more  useful  to  him.  Bari  was 
recovered  from  the  Saracens,  and  Otranto  besieged;  but  the  treachery 
and  rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Benevento  neutralized  this  success;  and 
when  Louis  died  in  875,  Southern  Italy,  divided  between  the  Greeks, 
Saracens,  and  dukes  of  Benevento,  who  had  transferred  their  allegiance 
to  the  Byzantine  court,  was  entirely  detached  from  the  Frank  monarchy. 
In.  the  central  portion  of  the  peninsula,  the  pope,  who  had  become  a 
temporal  prince  in  consequence  of  the  donations  of  Pepin  and  Charle¬ 
magne,  no  longer  sought  from  their  successors  the  confirmation  of  his 
election  before  seating  himself  in  St.  Peter’s  chair.  Lastly,  in  the 
northern  section  were  several  powerful  feudal  princes,  whose  ambition 
harassed  those  fine  provinces  for  nearly  a  century. 

Louis  the  German,  being  the  eldest  surviving  prince  of  the  Carlovin- 
gian  dynasty,  claimed  Italy ;  but  was  anticipated  by  Charles  the  Bald, 
who  had  passed  the  Alps  with  a  numerous  army,  and  hastened  to  Rome, 
where  the  pope  and  citizens  appeared  to  be  the  sole  persons  invested 
with  the  right  of  conferring  the  imperial  dignity.  Subsequent  events 
placed  that  country,  with  the  rest  of  the  Frank  empire,  in  the  hands  of 
Charles  the  Fat,  again  to  be  divided  on  the  deposition  of  this  monarch 
in  888.  Guy,  duke  of  Spoleto,  and  Berenger,  duke  of  Benevento,  dis¬ 
puted  the  crown  of  Italy,  the  river  Adige  forming  the  boundary  of  their 
respective  dominions.  Guy,  who  was  proclaimed  king  at  the  diet  of 
Pavia,  went  to  Rome  and  was  crowned  Emperor  and  King  of  the 
Romans,  having  associated  his  son  Lambert  in  the  imperial  dignity, 
891.  Arnulph  of  Germany  did  not  look  with  indifference  on  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  affairs  southward  of  the  Alps,  and  to  vindicate  his  claims  to 
the  titles  usurped  by  Guy,  crossed  the  mountains  and  advanced  as  far 
as  Piacenza,  without  gaining  the  object  of  his  expedition,  894.  Two 
years  later  he  proceeded  to  Rome,  and  was  consecrated  emperor  by 
Pope  Formosus.  After  the  retreat  of  the  German,  Lambert  effected  a 
reconciliation  with  Berenger,  who  preserved  the  title  of  king,  which 
had  been  conferred  on  him  by  the  Lombard  nobles,  immediately  after 
the  death  of  Charles  the  Fat. 


BRITAIN. 

From  the  mission  of  Augustin  to  the  accession  of  Egbert,  king  of 
Wessex,  the  history  of  Britain  offers  little  worthy  of  the  historian’s 
notice,  except  the  quarrels  of  the  petty  rulers,  the  erection  of  numerous 
convents,  the  frequent  pilgrimages  to  Rome,  and  the  levying  of  Peter- 
pence,  a  tax  of  one  penny  on  each  family  to  be  paid  annually  to  the 
Roman  see. 

Egbert,  a.  d.  800,  who  had  been  elected  king  of  Wessex,  added  the 
tributary  states  of  Kent,  Essex,  Sussex,  and  East  Anglia  to  his  domin¬ 
ions,  and  compelled  the  independent  sovereigns  of  Northumbria  and 
Mercia  to  pay  tribute.  From  this  period  England  may  be  considered  as 
forming  a  single  kingdom, —  a  happy  change  to  a  nation  which,  by  its 
insular  position,  seemed  protected  against  foreign  invasion.  But  that 
which  might  have  been  considered  as  an  advantage  became  the  primary 
cause  of  its  ruin ;  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarchy  was  doomed  to  sup¬ 
port  in  succession  the  yoke  of  the  Northmen  of  Denmark  and  of  the 
Neustrian  Normans.  The  descents  of  the  Danes,  begun  in  793,  were 


NINTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


223 


resumed  in  83*2,  but  were  checked  by  the  victories  of  Egbert.  These 
inroads  became  more  terrible  and  more  frequent  when,  after  Ethelwolfs 
death  in  857,  the  partition  of  his  territory  and  the  quarrels  of  the  several 
princes  exposed  this  island,  like  France,  to  those  pirates.  Here  per¬ 
manent  settlements  were  founded  by  the  Danes  earlier  than  on  the  Con¬ 
tinent;  and,  supported  by  the  alliances  of  the  Welsh  and  Scotch,  they 
subjugated  at  first  East  Anglia,  and  finally  the  whole  kingdom. 

Alfred,  a.  d.  871. —  One  great  man  sufficed  to  check  the  conquests 
of  the  Danes  for  nearly  a  century.  Alfred,  the  youngest  of  Ethel  wolf’s 
sons,  carried  to  the  throne  all  the  virtues  of  a  philosopher  with  the 
qualities  of  a  hero.  Seven  years  of  misfortune  taught  him  wisdom  and 
moderation.  After  the  disastrous  result  of  the  battle  of  Wilton,  871, 
everything  appeared  lost,  when  the  victory  of  Edindon  in  Wiltshire 
restored  to  him  the  heritage  of  his  brother,  then  in  possession  of  the 
foreigner,  878.  The  Danes  of  East  Anglia  and  Northumbria  recognised 
his  authority  and  embraced  the  Christian  faith,  to  which  course  they 
were  influenced  by  the  example  of  Gothrun  their  ruler.  The  country 
being  now  at  peace,  Alfred  turned  his  mind  to  the  civilisation  and 
security  of  his  people.  London,  which  he  enlarged  and  fortified,  became 
the  capital  and  naval  arsenal  of  the  kingdom;  and  the  ships  construct¬ 
ed  in  its  port  served  to  protect  the  distant  coasts  and  harbours,  or  were 
employed  in  promoting  commerce.  Prosperity  began  to  reappear  under 
this  prince,  who  was  equally  capable  of  maintaining  the  national  peace 
by  his  laws  and  by  his  sword.  To  facilitate  the  administration  of  jus¬ 
tice,  Alfred  introduced  or  revived  the  division  of  the  whole  kingdom 
into  counties,  hundreds,  and  tithings ;  the  laws  of  Ina,  Offa,  and  Ethel- 
bert  were  collected  and  remodelled;  and  the  clergy,  ashamed  of  their 
ignorance,  applied  to  study,  that  they  might  gratify  a  monarch  who 
founded  schools  and  invited  the  most  learned  of  all  nations  to  his  court 
But  his  great  designs  perished  with  him  a.  d.  901;  and  the  rival  of 
Charlemagne  was  not  more  fortunate  than  his  model. 

Character  of  Alfred. 

Alfred  is  celebrated  not  only  for  the  fifty-six  battles  which  he  fought  in  de¬ 
fence  of  his  kingdom,  but  also  for  the  efforts  he  made  to  civilize  his  subjects. 
In  his  court  were  seen  Asser,  the  learned  Welshman,  Grim  bald  of  Rheims, 
John  Erigena  (the  Irishman),  and  Plegmund,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He 
left  several  compositions  of  his  own  in  prose  and  verse,  remarkable  for  their 
imagination  and  that  pomp  of  figure  peculiar  to  the  ancient  Germanic  languages. 
He  translated  the  Consolations  of  Philosophy  by  Boethius,  and  greatly  enhanced 
the  value  of  the  original  work  by  his  commentaries  ;  he  also  rendered  int<r 
Anglo-Saxon  the  fables  of  iEsop,  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  venerable 
Bede,  the  Geography  of  Orosius,  to  which  he  annexed  much  important  matter 
on  Germany,  and  on  a  voyage  towards  the  Arctic  Pole.*  In  addition  to  his 
other  accomplishments  he  cultivated  poetry  with  a  success  that  places  him  on  a 
level  with  any  of  the  bards  of  his  own  time.  His  private  character  has  been 
thus  summed  up; — “He  was  humble  to  all,  affable  in  conversation,  mild  in 
transacting  business,  venerable  in  aspect,  serene  in  countenance,  moderate  even 
in  his  walk,  sincere,  upright,  calm,  temperate,  and  charitable,”  to  which  may 
be  added  the  traditional  epithet  of  “truth-teller.”  All  his  life  Alfred  was  oc¬ 
cupied  in  devising  means  for  the  happiness  of  his  subjects,  while  his  own  was 
almost  hourly  interrupted  by  an  excruciating  pain,  which  did  not  quit  him  from 
his  twentieth  year  to  the  day  of  his  death. 

*  The  mission  which  Alfred  sent  to  the  Christians  of  India,  is  of  itself  a  proof  of  the 
geographical  knowledge  of  this  prince. 


224 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Anglo-Saxon  Constitution. 

In  that  form  of  government  instituted  by  the  Saxons  may  be  found  the  germs 
of  that  constitution  which  has  been  characterized  as  the  envy  and  the  admiration 
of  the  world.  This  warlike  people,  jealous  to  an  excess  of  their  liberty,  were 
governed  by  elective  chiefs,  who  were  generally  selected  from  the  same  family  ; 
but  their  authority  was  precarious  and  controlled  by  the  regulations  of  the 
national  assembly  called  the  Witenagemot — assembly  of  wise  men.  After  the 
introduction  of  Christianity,  the  Bishops  and  abbots  became  members  of  these 
assemblies  ;  but  the  vanquished  Britons  were  never  allowed  to  form  part  of 
them.  The  thanes  or  lords  were  the  highest  class  ;  the  ceorls  or  free  men 
constituted  the  second  ;  while  the  third  class  or  serfs  was  composed  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country,  of  the  prisoners  of  war,  and  of  those  Saxons, 
who  had  from  one  cause  or  another  been  reduced  to  slavery.  Every  free  male 
of  twelve  years  of  age  was  required  to  be  enrolled  in  some  tithing,  the  members 
of  which  were  accountable  for  each  other’s  conduct  (frank-pledge).  The  prin¬ 
cipal  seat  of  justice  was  then  the  county  court :  the  various  members  assembled 
twice  a-year,  under  the  presidency  of  a  bishop  and  an  alderman,  charged  with 
the  civil  and  military  administration.  To  these  was  added  the  sheriff,  who  re¬ 
lieved  them  of  part  of  their  duties.  The  judicial  authority  did  not  belong 
exclusively  to  these  magistrates  ;  for  in  certain  cases  justice  was  administered 
by  twelve  freeholders  on  oath.  Crimes  were  atoned  for  by  pecuniary  penalties, 
at  first  given  to  the  plaintiff,  but  afterwards  divided  between  him  and  the 
government.  This  organization  was  still  imperfect ;  nevertheless  it  existed, 
was  recognised,  and  appealed  to  by  those  who  violated  or  protected  it.  To 
this  the  Saxons  owed  the  comparatively  mild  treatment  they  received  from  the 
Normans,  who  did  not  oppress  them  like  the  unfortunate  Britons. 

THE  CHURCH. 

While  zealous  missionaries  were  disseminating  Christianity  among 
the  numerous  barbarous  tribes  that  still  roamed  in  the  wild  forests  of 
northern  Europe,  the  clergy  were  corrupting  its  simplicity  by  their  im¬ 
piety  and  licentious  lives.  Few  of  the  prelates  who  sat  in  St.  Peter’s 
chair  were  distinguished  either  for  learning  or  virtue.  Monastic  insti¬ 
tutions  were  then  in  high  esteem,  and  men  of  all  ranks  deserted  their 
proper  sphere  of  duty  to  take  shelter  in  the  gloom  and  leisure  of  the 
cloister.  But  as  such  retreats  were  not  free  from  irregularity,  many 
councils  were  held  to  repress  their  disorders,  and  to  establish  the  far- 
famed  rule  of  St.  Benedict.  The  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  almost 
ceased  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  ;  while  the  veneration  paid  to 
the  fictitious  relics  of  the  departed  saints,  and  the  multiplication  of 
canonized  individuals,  proved  the  ignorance  and  depravity  of  the  priest¬ 
hood. 

Greek  Schism. — The  son  of  Theodora,  led  into  vicious  habits  by 
the  example  of  his  uncle  Bardas,  and  irritated  by  the  remonstrances  of 
the  patriarch  Ignatius,  threw  this  faithful  minister  into  prison,  and 
elevated  in  his  stead  the  learned  Photius,  a  captain  of  his  guards.  This 
change  was  approved  of  by  a  council,  which  did  not  however  prevent 
Pope  Nicholas  I.  from  excommunicating  the  intruder,  who  in  his  defence 
made  use  of  the  same  spiritual  weapon.  Soon  afterwards,  the  tragical 
end  of  his  two  protectors  left  Photius  without  any  support ;  and  Basil, 
the  new  emperor,  deposed  him  and  restored  Ignatius,  a  proceeding  which 
was  ratified  by  the  eighth  general  council.  The  death  of  the  latter  in 
877  restored  to  Photius  the  patriarchal  dignity  ;  and  Pope  John  VIII. 
received  him  into  communion,  hoping  by  this  means  to  recover  the 
government  of  the  Bulgarians,  which,  since  its  formation  in  869,  had 


TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


225 


♦ 


been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Constantinople.  His  expectations,  how¬ 
ever,  were  disappointed  ;  and  from  this  period  the  division  became  still 
wider  between  the  Roman  pontiff  and  the  Greek  patriarchs,  until  the 
complete  separation  of  the  two  churches  in  1054. 

Saint-worship. —  One  of  the  greatest  corruptions  grew  out  of  the 
reverence  paid  to  the  memory  of  departed  saints.  “  He  whose  heart,” 
says  Southey,  “is  not  excited  upon  the  spot  which  a  martyr  has  sanc¬ 
tified  by  his  sufferings,  or  at  the  grave  of  one  who  has  largely  benefited 
mankind,  must  be  more  inferior  to  the  multitude  in  his  moral,  than  he 
can  possibly  be  raised  above  them  in  his  intellectual  nature.”  But  the 
best  thing  are  the  most  easily  abused.  The  prayer  was  at  length 
offered  to  the  martyr  himself,  and  the  remains  of  his  body  or  the  rags  of 
garments,  nay,  even  the  instruments  of  his  torture  or  death,  became  ob¬ 
jects  of  veneration. 

In  this  century  the  dangerous  doctrine  was  first  established  by  Adrian 
II.,  “  that  the  pope  can  release  from  the  obligation  of  an  oath  !”  Pope 
Nicholas,  also,  by  his  conduct  in  the  divorce  of  Thietberga,  wife  of 
Lothaire  II.,  king  of  Lorraine,  and  in  the  deposition  of  Rothad,  bishop 
of  Soissons,  confirmed  the  principle  on  which  reposes  the  supremacy  of 
the  apostolic  chair,  namely,  that  the  decrees  of  the  pontiff  shall  be  re¬ 
ceived  as  law  throughout  the  church. 


TENTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — 912,  Constantine  VII. — 919,  Romanus  I. — 963,  Nicephorus 
I. — 969,  John  Zimisces. 

Italy. — Papal  Disorders. — 962,  Otho  crowned  Emperor. — 990,  Crescentius. 
France. — 912,  Normans  established  by  Treaty. — 915,  Feudal  Aristocracy  com¬ 
plete. — 987,  Hugh  Capet. 

Germany. — 911,  Saxon  Line. — 919,  Henry  the  Fowler. — 936,  Otho  I. — 955, 
Battle  of  Augsburg. 

Britain. — 901,  Edward  the  Elder. — 925,  Athelstan. — 937,  Dunstan. 

Spain. — 912,  Abdalrahman’s  Conquests — University  of  Cordova. — 932,  Madrid 
taken  by  the  Christians. 

Arabian  Empire. — 936,  Mohammed,  Emir  al  Omra. — Fatimites  in  Egypt. 
Church. — 999,  Pope  Sylvester  II.  (Gerbert) — Odo  of  Cluny — Penance. 
Inventions. — Coats  of  Arms;  1000,  Arabic  Numerals;  Watches. 

Learned  Men. — Suidas,  philosopher. —Gerbert  (Pope  Sylvester  II.) — Olym- 
piodorus. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Constantine  VII.,  Porphyrogenitus — born  in  the  purple  chamber — 
ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  five  years,  a.  d.  912,  under  the  guar¬ 
dianship  of  his  uncle  Alexander,  whose  death,  brought  on  by  dissolute 
courses,  saved  the  life  of  his  ward.  Zoe,  who  had  been  banished,  was 
now  recalled  ;  but  she  and  all  other  competitors  for  the  regency  were 
forced  to  yield  to  the  daring  ambition  of  Romanus,  a  low-born  soldier, 
who  soon  threw  aside  his  mask,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed,  in 
919,  Caesar  and  Augustus,  which  titles  he  bore  nearly  twenty-five  years. 


226 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


The  lawful  monarch  escaped  the  usual  fate  of  deposed  princes  in  that 
age  by  his  studious  habits,  mild  character,  and  love  of  retirement.  In 
945,  he  was  restored  to  his  throne  by  means  of  the  usurper’s  sons,  who 
conspired  against  their  father’s  life.  His  second  reio-n  lasted  fifteen 
years;  and  when  he  died,  in  959,  the  afflicted  Greeks  at  once  excused 
his  vices  and  pitied  his  misfortunes.  During  the  preceding  fifty  years, 
the  empire  was  scarcely  ever  free  from  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians. 
The  Bulgarians  twice  besieged  Constantinople,  in  913  and  916,  defeated 
several  of  her  generals,  ravaged  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  took  Adrianople, 
and  even  proclaimed  their  khan  emperor  in  the  suburbs  of  the  Eastern 
capital,  9*22.  The  Russians  also  appeared  before  the  imperial  city  with 
a  thousand  barks,  and  pillaged  all  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  Romanus 
II.,  a  dissolute  prince,  appears  to  have  adopted  his  father’s  example 
rather  than  to  have  obeyed  his  precepts.  His  death  was  caused  by 
poison  administered  by  his  vicious  wife  Theophania,  in  963. 

Nicephorus  II.  united,  in  the  popular  opinion,  the  characters  of  a 
hero  and  a  saint.  In  the  preceding  reign,  he  had  recovered  Candia  from 
the  Arabs  ;  and  after  his  accession,  which  he  owed  to  his  marrying  the 
late  emperor’s  widow,  he  conquered  Cyprus,  Cilicia,  and  Antioch;  from 
which  last  place  he  brought  home  as  a  trophy  the  sword  of  Mohammed. 
The  Byzantine  empire  now  began  to  recover,  as  that  of  the  Saracens 
decayed;  and  under  John  I.  Zimisces,  who  had  murdered  his  predeces¬ 
sor,  even  the  cities  beyond  the  Euphrates  were  added  to  his  territory. 
He  spent  most  of  his  time  in  the  camp,  and  by  his  defeat  of  the 
Bulgarians  and  the  Russians  ensured  the  safety  of  the  empire.  This 
warlike  ruler  is  said  to  have  met  with  an  untimely  death  by  poison,  pre¬ 
pared  for  him  hy  those  who  dreaded  the  consequences  of  some  meditated 
reforms,  976. 

Basil  II.  was  acknowledged  sovereign  of  Constantinople ;  but  the 
early  years  of  his  reign  were  disturbed  by  the  revolt  of  two  veteran 
generals,  Phocas  and  Sclerus,  who  oppressed  Asia  Minor.  These 
enemies  being  defeated,  he  made  several  successful  campaigns  against 
the  Saracens ;  but  his  most  important  triumph  was  the  reduction  of 
Bulgaria  to  a  Grecian  province,*  in  1018.  He  was  greedy,  ignorant, 
and  superstitious  ;  and,  after  a  reign  of  nearly  fifty  years,  died,  neither 
loved  nDr  respected,  in  1025. 


ITALY. 

Adelaide. — After  the  death  of  Berenger  I.,  the  last  duke  of  Friuli, 
his  successors  bore  no  other  title  than  that  of  King  of  Italy.  The  young 
Lothaire  II.,  who  died  childless,  was  succeeded  in  950  by  his  guardian, 
Berenger  II.,  marquis  of  Ivrea.  This  prince  demanded  for  his  son  the 
hand  of  Lothaire’s  widow ;  but  on  Adelaide’s  refusal  to  accept  a  deformed 
husband,  he  plundered  her  of  her  possessions  with  brutal  violence,  and 
confined  her  in  a  tower  on  the  Guarda  lake  :  she  afterwards  escaped  by 
the  aid  of  her  almoner,  who  had  contrived  to  make  a  secret  passage 
through  the  base  of  the  building.  Disguised  in  male  attire,  and  accom- 
panied  by  the  priest,  she  was  conveyed  in  a  fishing-boat  to  a  neighbour- 


*  In  1014,  Basil  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Bulgarians,  took  fifteen  thousand 
prisoners,  who,  after  their  eyes  were  plucked  out,  were  sent  back  to  their  own  country 
Such  a  terrible  spectacle  hastened  the  death  of  their  aged  khan. 


TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


227 


ing  forest,  where  they  subsisted  some  time  on  fish  which  was  bestowed 
in  charity.  At  length  she  found  an  asylum  with  a  chieftain  dependent 
on  the  Roman  see;  and,  in  951,  married  Otho  of  Germany,  who,  after 
beino*  called  to  her  assistance  in  948,  had  become  a  widower.  In  right 
of  this  union,  the  German  sovereigns  aspired  to  the  royal  and  imperial 
dignities  of  Italy.* 

Papal  Disorders. — The  power  of  the  popes  was  gradually  confirmed, 
at  the  same  time  that  their  vicious  lives  were  bringing  the  church 
into  contempt.  Two  sisters  of  infamous  character,  Theodora  and  Ma- 
rozia,  with  their  mother  the  Margravine  of  Tuscia,  disposed  of  the  triple 
crown  at  their  pleasure.  John  XII.,  placed  in  the  pontifical  chair  when 
only  eighteen  years  of  age,  was  charged  with  the  most  revolting  crimes. 
To  consolidate  his  authority,  he  solicited  the  assistance  of  Otho  I.,  whose 
services,  in  quelling  the  sanguinary  feuds  which  harassed  Rome,  were 
repaid  with  the  title  of  emperor,  in  96*2.  He  then  assumed  the  appella¬ 
tions  of  Caesar  and  Augustus,  and  received  the  oaths  of  fidelity  tendered 
by  the  pope  and  the  Roman  nobles.  While  he  wras  occupied  in  Ifpper 
Italy  in  the  reduction  of  a  few  castles  which  still  held  out,  he  learnt  that 
the  pontiff,  discontented  with  the  feudal  superior  whom  he  had  recog¬ 
nised,  w*as  labouring  to  restore  the  vanquished  Berenger.  The  emperor, 
hastily  returning  to  Rome,  assembled  a  council  to  inquire  into  the  state 
of  the  papacy ;  and,  by  the  decision  of  forty  bishops  and  seventeen  car¬ 
dinals,  John  was  deposed  for  his  scandalous  life.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Leo  VIII.,  who  acknowledged  Otho’s  claims  to  dispose  of  the  crown 
of  Italy  as  he  pleased,  to  confirm  the  papal  election,  and  to  invest  the 
prelates.  But  the  country  was  never  at  peace,  and  the  Romans  lost  no 
opportunity  of  endeavouring  to  throw  off  the  barbarian  yoke. 

Crescentius. — Circio,  or  Crescentius,  on  the  demise  of  Otho  I., 
headed  an  insurrection  against  the  pope,  whom  he  put  to  death  in  974. 
With  the  title  of  consul  he  was  master  of  Rome,  and  held  the  pontiff, 
whom  he  had  himself  appointed,  in  such  subjection,  that  his  holiness 
urgently  solicited  the  German  monarch  to  come  to  his  relief.  Otho  III. 
arrived  in  Rome  in  the  year  996,  when  he  received  the  imperial  crown, 
and  two  years  after  caused  the  demagogue  to  be  thrown  from  the  battle¬ 
ments  of  St.  Angelo.  His  own  death  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by 
poison  administered  by  the  widow  of  Crescentius. 

FRANCE. 

On  the  death  of  Eudes  in  898,  the  crown  devolved  on  Charles  the 
Simple,  the  legitimate  sovereign,  the  history  of  the  first  twelve  years 
of  whose  reign  is  entirely  unknown,  except  that  the  ravages  of  the  Nor¬ 
mans  and  Saracens  were  continued.  This  feehle  prince  expected  to  find 
an  auxiliary  in  the  Norman  Rollo  against  his  rebel  barons,  but  this  hope 
failed  him  when  the  nobles  were  excited  to  revolt,  and  their  suffrages 
had  conferred  the  crown  on  Robert,  brother  of  the  late  king,  Eudes,  who 
perished  in  battle,  and  Charles,  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Count 


*  The  kingdom  of  Italy  comprised  the  Italian  Alps  (except  Savoy),  the  plains  of  the 
Po  (except  Venice),  Istria,  Tuscany.  States  of  the  Church,  and  the  Abruzzi.  In  the 
south  were  the  independent  principalities  of  Benevento,  Salerno.,  and  Capua  ;  the  dukes 
of  Naples,  Gaeta,  and  Amalfi,  suzerains  of  the  Greek  emperor;  lastly,  the  territories 
of  Bari,  Otranto,  arid  Calabria,  under  Grecian  officers.  The  African  Saracens  held 
Sicily,  except  its  eastern  coast,  with  Malta,  Corsica,  and  Sardinia. 


228 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


of  Vermandois,  beheld  another  prince,  not  of  the  royal  family,  seated  on 

the  throne,  923.  This  new  usurper  was  Raoul  or  Rodolph,  duke  of 

Burgundy,  who  owed  his  elevation  to  the  influence  of  his  brother-in-law, 

Hugh  the  Great,  count  of  Paris.  The  principal  vassals  of  the  South  and 

the  Norman  dukes  withheld  their  homage  from  Rodolph  until  929,  when 

Count  Herbert  of  Vermandois  had  almost  succeeded  in  restoring  the 

© 

deposed  Charles.  But  the  powerful  support  of  Hugh  maintained  the 
interests  of  Rodolph  ;  and  the  necessity  of  union  to  repel  the  Hungarians 
produced  a  reconciliation  between  the  vassals  and  their  superior,  which 
led  to  a  defensive  treaty  between  the  kings  of  France,  Germany,  and 
Burgundy,  in  935. 

Hugh  possessed  almost  regal  power  during  the  reign  of  the  succeed¬ 
ing  monarch,  Louis  IV.,  who  was  surnamed  Outremer,  from  his  having 
resided  in  England.  When  this  king  expired,  the  sovereignty,  which 
w'as  not  divided,  was  for  the  first  time  transmitted  like  the  fiefs.  Lo- 
thaire  in  954,  and  Louis  V.  in  986,  were  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians 
who  bore  the  title  of  King  of  France,  already  become  to  them  an  empty 
honour. 

Hugh  Capet. — In  956,  Hugh,  surnamed  Capet,  from  the  kind  of  hat 
which  he  wore,  succeeded  his  father  as  Count  of  Paris,  and  in  the  power 
which  his  vast  domains  in  Picardy  and  Champagne  conferred  upon  him. 
While  Louis  V.  was  slowfly  expiring,  of  a  fatal  disease,  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty,  Hugh  assembled  his  forces,  and,  seizing  on  the  throne  as 
soon  as  it  became  vacant,  was  crowned  at  Rheims  in  987.  His  first  act 
was  to  secure  the  succession  in  his  family,  by  the  coronation  of  his  son 
Robert  at  Orleans  ;  by  uniting  to  the  royal  domains  the  duchies  and 
earldoms  which  he  had  hitherto  possessed  as  a  vassal ;  and  by  declaring 
those  to  be  hereditary  which  were  in  the  hands  of  other  feudatories. 

Charles  of  Lorraine,  as  son  of  Louis  IV.,  did  not  patiently  submit  to 
the  usurpation  of  his  rights ;  hut  his  efforts  were  unavailing,  and  a  brief 
struggle  was  terminated  by  his  confinement  in  the  castle  of  Orleans, 
where  he  died  in  994.  Those  of  the  great  vassals  who  had  declared  for 
the  pretender  now  did  homage  to  Hugh  Capet,  whose  authority,  how¬ 
ever,  was  still  obstinately  resisted  by  many  nobles  south  of  the  Loire. 
He  died  at  Paris  in  996. 

Robert,  surnamed  the  Wise,  ascended  his  father’s  throne  without 
opposition,  but  experienced  a  less  tranquil  reign.  He  had  married,  in 
opposition  to  the  canons  of  the  church,  Bertha  of  Burgundy,  widow  of 
the  Count  of  Blois,  and  his  cousin  in  the  fourth  degree,  for  one  of  whose 

o  # 

children  he  had  also  stood  godfather.  Pope  Gregory  V.,  a  relation  of 
the  Emperor  Otho  III.,  excommunicated  Robert,  and  laid  the  kingdom 
under  an  interdict.  The  French  king  obeyed  the  papal  mandates  with 
deep  regret,  but  shortly  after  espoused  Constance  of  Toulouse,  a 
frivolous  and  wicked  princess,  who  corrupted  the  court,  domineered  over 
her  good-natured  husband,  and  lighted  the  first  fires  against  heretics. 

O  7  C1  O 

Feudal  System. —  Gaul,  after  its  invasion  by  the  transrhenane  tribes,  re¬ 
lapsed  into  barbarism,  and  the  inhabitants  were  long  without  holding  any  social 
relation  one  with  another.  About  the  eighth  century,  order  began  to  appear 
in  the  formation  of  a  number  of  isolated  confederacies, — the  commencement  of 
feudality,  or  that  system  of  government  which  divide  d  society  into  two  classes, 
lords  and  dependants  The  feudal  system  was  the  child  of  circumstances,  and 
probably  originated  with  the  Lombards.  Charles  Martel,  son  of  Pepin,  con- 


TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


229 


ferred  benefices  (fiefs),  the  holders  of  which  were  bound  to  fidelity  and  to  mili¬ 
tary  service.  They  were  called  vassals ;  but  they  had  only  temporary  posses¬ 
sion  of  their  fiefs  as  leudes  or  antrustions  of  their  suzerain*  or  lord  paramount. 
Charles  the  Bald  made  these  benefices  hereditary,  877,  when  they  took  the 
name  of  fiefs  (fides,/e).  The  feudal  system  now  took  a  different  form.  The 
royal  authority  was  prostrated,  and  the  counts  usurped  their  governments  as 
sovereignties,  their  wives  taking  the  appellation  of  countess.  Feudality  still 
formed  a  chain  of  obligations  from  the  king,  as  lord  paramount,  down  to  the 
meanest  of  his  subjects.  The  lands  under  this  system  were  divided  into  three 
classes : — 

1.  The  noble  lands,  i.  e.  the  fiefs,  which  were  divisible  into  two  species ;  the 
simple  fiefs,  and  the  fiefs  of  dignity  or  the  title  lands,  such  as  the  duchies,  earl¬ 
doms  or  counties,  and  baronies. 

2.  The  rotures,  or  lands  enfranchised  from  the  fiefs,  possessed  by  roturiers, 
liable  to  feudality  and  subject  to  their  seigneurs.t 

3.  The  allodial  lands,  which  every  man  possessed  in  his  own  right,  without 
owing  any  rent  or  service  to  his  superior. 

Each  vassal  held  his  fief  on  conditions  of  fidelity  and  homage  to  his  suzerain. 
There  were  two  classes  of  them  : — 1.  The  great  vassals  dependent  immediately 
on  the  crown  ; — 2.  The  small  vassals  subordinate  to  the  great  for  the  fiefs  which 
they  held  by  homage.  Each  was  the  liegeman  of  his  superior,  i.  e.  bound 
(ligatus)  in  indissoluble  allegiance  by  the  duties  of  his  rank.  These  were, — 
military  service,  the  defence  of  his  lord  from  the  machinations  and  arms  of  his 
enemies,  and  attendance  in  the  courts  of  justice.  He  was  also  to  pay  his  lord’s 
ransom  if  he  were  captured,  and,  in  some  cases,  to  be  detained  as  hostage.' 
The  vassals  were  summoned  to  the  field  by  the  bann  and  arriere  bann  ;  the 
one  was  composed  of  gentlemen  who  mounted  at  the  sound  of  the  king’s  trum¬ 
pet  ;  the  latter  were  the  tenants,  or  coutumiers  (serfs)  of  the  bann.  But  after 
the  establishment  of  corporations  by  Louis  the  Fat,  in  1108,  the  condition  of  the 
commons  was  greatly  meliorated.  Philip  Augustus,  the  tribune  of  the  nobles,  * 
1180,  kept  the  vassals  in  due  restraint  by  his  large  armies;  and  Louis  IX.,  1226, 
destroyed  the  judicial  powers  of  the  seigneurs  by  establishing  regular  tribunals 
of  justice.  Philip  the  Fair  deprived  the  barons  of  their  power  of  coining  money  ; 
and  thus  they  lost  between  1108  and  1300  the  four  supports  of  feudality.  Louis 
Hutin  emancipated  all  the  serfs  on  the  royal  domains,  by  a  general  edict  in 
1315  ;  but  the  fiefs  existed  till  the  revolution  of  1789;  nor  was  prsedial  servitude 
actually  abolished  until  that  period,  the  peasants  being  attached  to  the  soil  and 
forbidden  to  leave  it  without  their  lords’  consent. 

GERMANY. 

House  of  Saxony. — The  connexion  between  France  and  Germany 
was  broken  by  the  death  of  Charles  the  Fat  in  888.  Arnulph  was  the 
first  elected  king  of  the  latter  country  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Louis  IV.  in 
911,  Conrad,  duke  of  Franconia,  was  chosen  by  the  general  assembly 
of  the  eight  nations  composing  the  Germanic  confederation.  His  brief 
reign  of  eight  years  was  exposed  to  external  enemies,  in  fighting  against 
whom  he  received  a  mortal  wound,  and,  having  no  male  heirs,  the  crow  n 
was  bestowed  on  Henry  the  Fowler,  duke  of  Saxony,  in  whose 
family  it  remained  till  1024.  This  able  prince  began  by  reducing  to 
subjection  his  powerful  and  turbulent  vassals.  He  united  Lorraine  to 
the  empire  ;  protected  the  country  against  the  inroads  of  the  Hungarians ; 
and  besides  fortifying  many  of  his  principal  towns,  added  the  march  of 
Misnia  to  his  original  territory.  To  him  Germany  is  farther  indebted 


*  The  leudes  and  antrustions  were  men  of  rank,  nobles  attendant  upon  the  court. 

f  Roiure  has  been  compared  with  our  soccage  freehold.  14  We  have  no  word,”  says 
Hallam,  ‘  that  conveys  the  full  sense  of  the  word  roturier.  How  glorious  is  this  defi¬ 
ciency  in  our  political  language,  and  how  different  are  the  ideas  suggested  by  commoner!” 

20 


230 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


for  the  establishment  of  its  first  municipal  towns,  which,  together  with 
the  monasteries,  was  one  of  the  chief  means  of  civilizing  the  people. 

Otho  I.,  936,  justly  named  the  Great,  completed  what  his  father  had 
began.  He  reconquered  Italy,  and  gave  a  final  blow  to  the  Hungarian 
power  by  the  victory  of  Merseburg.  In  96*2,  he  was  crowned  at  Milan, 
with  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  and  at  Rome  by  Pope  John  XII., 
with  the  golden  crown  of  the  empire.  The  discovery  of  the  gold  and 
silver  mines  of  Goslar,  and  the  settlement  of  the  Saxon  frontier,  rendered 
that  part  of  his  territories  the  richest  and  most  important  under  his  rule. 
Otho  had  the  skill  to  unite  all  the  great  governments  in  his  family;  but 
the  necessity  of  resigning  his  duchy  of  Saxony,  prevented  the  formation 
of  solid  monarchical  power  in  Germany.  Nevertheless,  repaying  the 
mistrust  of  his  vassals  by  similar  suspicion,  he  placed  them  under  the 
inspection  of  the  palatine  counts,  and  also  subjected  the  temporal 
power  of  the  bishops  to  the  control  of  certain  imperial  officers.  By 
these  means  he  checked  the  progress  of  feudalism,  which,  however, 
proceeded  uninterruptedly  after  his  death. 

Otho  II.  the  Bloody,*  973,  was  allied  by  marriage  to  the  Byzantine 
court.  His  wars  in  France,  and  in  Lower  Italy  against  the  Saracens, 
were  not  generally  successful. 

Otho  III.,  983,  was  scarcely  six  years  of  age  when  he  ascended  the 
throne  of  his  father,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother  Theophania, 
by  whom  his  education  had  been  intrusted  to  the  learned  Gerbert, 
afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II.  The  early  portion  of  this  reign  was 
harassed  by  the  continual  wars  of  the  great  vassals  against  each  other, 
and  by  the  incursions  of  the  Danes  and  Sclavonians.  Like  his  predeces¬ 
sor,  he  took  much  interest  in  all  that  passed  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Alps ;  and  to  establish  his  authority  in  the  Italian  peninsula  and  at 
Rome,  was  almost  the  sole  occupation  of  his  reign  after  he  was  left  to 
his  own  guidance.  He  died  childless,  and  was  succeeded  by  Henry 
duke  of  Bavaria,  the  last  of  the  Saxon  house,  in  1002. 


SAXON  LINE. 


The  succession  of  German  kings  is  reckoned  from  Louis  the  German. 


Otho , 

d.  of  Saxony,  presumed  descended  from  Witikind 
m.  Hedwige,  d.  of  Emperor  Arnulph. 

- .A - - - . 


****** 

7.  Conrad  I.  of  Franconia 
emp.  9]  1,  f  919. 


8.  Henry  I.  the  Fowler,  king  of  Germany,  919,  f  936. 


9.  Otho  the  Great, 
k.  of  Germany,  936 ; 
emp.  962  ;  m.  1.  Editha, 
sister  of  Athelstan. 

2.  Adelaide,  q.  of  Italy. 

- - * - 


Tancmar. 


Bruno,  archbp. 
of  Cologne,  and 
archduke  of 
Lorraine. 


Three 

daughters. 


Henry,  d. 
of  Bavaria, 
m.  Judith  of 
Bavaria,  955. 


10.  Otho  II.  emp. 
973,  m.  Theophania 
of  Constantinople. 


Ludolph ,  d. 
of  Franconia, 
t  957. 


Three 

daughters. 


William ,  nat. 
son  of  archbp. 
of  Mentz. 


Henry ,  995. 


11.  Otho  III.  emp.  983,  |  1002.  Four  daughters. 


12.  Henry  II.  emp. 
1002,  f  1024. 

Note. — A  collateral  branch  con¬ 
tinued  in  Saxony  until  1111. 


*  He  derives  this  epithet  from  the  perfidious  massacre  of  the  Roman  senators  whom  he 
had  invited  to  share  his  hospitality. 


TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


231 


BRITAIN. 

The  successors  of  Alfred  persevered  in  that  monarch’s  career  of  con¬ 
quest.  Edward,  surnamed  the  Elder,  901,  deprived  the  Danes  of  the 
eastern  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  to  the  Wash.  This  king 
must  be  ranked  among  the  founders  of  the  English  monarchy,  as  besides 
securing  his  people  from  a  Danish  domination,  he  prepared  the  way  for 
the  overthrow  of  that  power  in  England.  Like  his  father,  he  paid  great 
attention  to  education,  and  his  sons  received  the  best  instruction  that 
the  age  could  afford,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  the  station  to  which 
they  were  born. 

Athelstan,  a.  d.  925,  the  grandson  of  Alfred,  was  the  first  monarch 
really  entitled  to  the  name  of  King  of  England.  As  he  had  attained 
the  age  of  thirty  before  he  was  called  to  the  exercise  of  royal  power,  he 
commenced  his  reign  with  the  advantage  of  a  matured  judgment  and 
extensive  experience.  Passing  the  Humber,  he  took  the  city  of  York, 
and  routed  at  Brunanburgh  in  Northumbria  a  numerous  army,  in  which 
were  assembled  the  principal  enemies  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race.  He 
was  a  prince  of  very  great  influence  at  home  and  abroad ;  and  his  reign, 
from  his  connexion  with  the  Continent,  is  of  more  importance  than  those 
of  any  of  his  family.  He  ravaged  Scotland  with  his  troops,  while  his 
fleet  spread  dismay  to  the  extremity  of  Caithness.  The  cause  of  this 
invasion  was  the  refusal  of  Constantine,  the  Scottish  King,  to  perform 
the  conditions  of  an  international  treaty.  England  began  now  to  lose 
its  insular  seclusion,  and  to  take  part  in  the  transactions  of  foreign 
states.  The  sovereign  of  Brittany,  when  driven  out  by  the  Normans, 
had  been  hospitably  received  at  Athelstan’s  court,  and  there,  too,  the 
queen  of  Charles  the  Simple,  with  her  son  Louis,  found  a  refuge.* 
Hugh  the  Great,  count  of  Paris,  married  Ethilda,  one  of  Athelstan’s 
sisters,  and  when  Louis  Outremer  ascended  the  throne  of  France,  a 
friendly  treaty  was  made  between  the  two  countries,  and  the  English 
monarch  aided  his  ally  with  his  fleet  in  939.  Two  other  sisters  of 
Athelstan  were  married,  one  to  Otho  the  Great,  the  other  to  a  German 
prince  in  the  emperor’s  court.  Haco,  the  son  of  Harold  Harfager  of 
Norway,  was  educated  here,  and,  by  the  aid  of  the  king,  was  placed  on 
his  father’s  throne.  Thus  England  began,  and  has  ever  continued,  to 
be  the  asylum  of  the  persecuted.  Athelstan  rebuilt  several  monastic 
edifices,  and  bestowed  on  them  hooks,  ornaments,  or  estates.  He  did 
not  neglect  the  poor,  and  decreed,  under  a  penalty,  that  each  of  his 
bailiffs  should  feed  one  pauper,  and  taxed  his  own  farms  to  raise  the 
necessary  funds.  A  new  invasion,  attempted  in  946,  was  repelled  by 
Edred,  who  succeeded  his  brother  Edmund,  and  all  England,  from  the 
Tweed  to  the  Land’s  End,  was  united  into  one  political  body.  But  this 
state  of  things  was  not  of  long  duration.  The  Danes  soon  re-appeared 
in  greater  numbers,  and  again  commenced  their  piracies  in  the  reign  of 
Ethelred  II.,  an  effeminate  prince,  who  sought  to  free  his  kingdom  of 

*The  presents  made  to  Athelstan  afford  a  curious  insight  into  the  manners  and  civi¬ 
lisation  of  England  and  France.  Hugh  sent  over  some  brilliant  emeralds,  many  richly 
caparisoned  horses,  a  beautifully  carved  and  polished  vase  of  onyx,  the  sword  of  Con¬ 
stantine  the  Great,  the  spear  of  Charlemagne,  a  diadem  of  gold  and  jewels,  and  some 
venerable  relics.  At  another  time,  the  Norwegian  Harold  presented  a  magnificent  ship 
with  a  golden  beak  and  purple  sails,  surrounded  with  shields  gilt  on  their  inner  surface. 
—Turner’s  Angle- Saxons. 


232 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


its  invaders  by  large  bribes  rather  than  by  courage  and  decision.  The 
miseries  of  the  Saxons  were  increased  by  several  years  of  scarcity,  by  a 
contagious  disease  among  the  cattle,  and  by  a  most  fatal  dysentery  that 
carried  off  many  thousands  of  the  people. 

Dunstan.  —  The  national  tranquillity  was  interrupted  during  the 
middle  of  this  century  by  the  ambition  of  the  monks,  who,  meddling 
with  public  affairs,  were  on  the  point  of  abolishing  the  secular  clergy. 
Edwy,  who  succeeded  his  uncle  Edred,  955,  had  married  Elgiva,  a 
princess  within  the  degrees  forbidden  by  the  ecclesiastical  laws.  Dun¬ 
stan,  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  in  concert  with  several  of  the  nobles,  offered 
the  most  unwarrantable  insult  to  the  king  on  the  very  day  of  his  corona¬ 
tion;  but  although  the  churchman  was  compelled  to  flee  in  order  to 
avoid  his  sovereign’s  indignation,  his  party  was  too  powerful  to  be 
resisted,  and  the  queen  was  dragged  from  the  palace  by  an  armed  troop, 
branded  in  the  face  with  a  red-hot  iron,  and  banished  to  Ireland.  Return¬ 
ing  some  time  after,  when  her  wounds  were  healed,  Elgiva  was  dis¬ 
covered  and  cruelly  murdered. 


SPAIN. 

Moorish  Spain. — The  effeminacy  of  the  Arabian  monarchs  of  Cor¬ 
dova  cost  them  part  of  their  empire.  Some  successful  rebels  made 
themselves  independent  in  the  states  of  Toledo,  Huesca,  and  Saragossa, 
and  by  their  mutual  contests  endangered  the  Moorish  dominion.  Ab- 
dalrahman  III.,  912,  reduced  all  these  turbulent  governors  to  submis¬ 
sion,  and  under  his  wise  rule  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  commerce 
flourished.  He  extended  his  dominions  by  conquests  in  Africa,  but 
these  advantages  were  counteracted  by  the  terrible  defeat  at  Simancas, 
in  938,  when  80,000  Mussulmans  were  left  dead  on  the  field, — a  proof 
of  the  fury  of  the  battle  and  the  valour  of  their  antagonists.  These 
losses  were,  however,  after  a  time  skilfully  repaired,  and  more  than 
twenty  times  Abdalrahman  advanced  into  the  very  heart  of  the  Christian 
states.  By  this  emir  the  first  medical  school  was  established  in  Europe, 
and  its  celebrity  is  attested  by  the  cure  of  the  king,  Don  Sancho,  who 
had  obtained  permission  to  be  attended  by  Arabian  physicians.  The 
gdorious  reign  of  this  caliph,  which  terminated  in  961,  was  closely 
followed  by  the  decay  of  the  Mohammedan  power ;  yet  it  was  maintained 
during  half  of  the  tenth  century  by  the  great  vizier  Almansor,  who  made 
fifty-four  successful  campaigns  against  the  Christians,  penetrating  even 
to  the  sanctuary  of  Compostella.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who 
worthily  trod  in  his  father’s  footsteps. 

Christian  Spain. — Meanwhile  the  Christians,  pent  up  in  the  Bis¬ 
cayan  mountains,  were  preparing  to  contend  with  their  conquerors. 
Ramires  II.  took  Madrid  in  932,  threatened  Toledo,  and  after  the  glori 
ous  victory  at  Simancas,  extended  his  dominions  to  the  range  of  hills 
which  separates  New  from  Old  Castile.  In  the  year  960,  about  a  cen 
tury  after  the  foundation  of  Burgos,  may  be  placed  the  formation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Castile  under  Ferdinand  Gonzales,  who  severed  it  from 
Leon.  But  between  982  and  990,  the  Christian  sovereignties  were 
menaced  with  the  greatest  peril.  The  vizier  of  Cordova  drove  Bermudes 
[I.  to  seek  refuge  in  the  wilds  of  Asturias,  and  was  only  compelled  to 
retire  by  the  breaking  out  of  a  terrible  pestilence  among  his  troops,  in 


TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


233 


997.  The  presence  of  the  enemy  at  last  reunited  the  discordant  princes 
of  Northern  Spain;  and  the  Count  of  Castile,  being  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  troops  of  Leon,  Navarre,  and  Castile,  destroyed  the  army  of  Al- 
mansor,  which  had  been  hitherto  victorious. 

ARABIAN  EMPIRE. 

Emir  al  Omra. — The  decline  of  the  Arabian  dominion  was  rapid  and 
certain ;  for  the  Turkish  guard  held  the  caliph  almost  a  prisoner  in  his 
own  palace,  while  the  governors  of  the  provinces  threw  off  their  alle¬ 
giance,  contenting  themselves  with  merely  acknowledging,  in  their 
daily  prayers,  the  existence  of  their  supreme  lord,  and  by  the  payment 
of  certain  unimportant  tributes.  Al  Radhi,  934,  the  twentieth  of  the 
Abbassides,  was  the  last  of  his  order  that  enjoyed  the  power  and  privi¬ 
leges  as  well  as  the  splendour  of  royalty.  Even  in  his  reign,  Mohammed, 
a  Turk,  was  appointed  to  the  new  office  of  emir  al  omra — commander  of 
commanders — which  conferred  on  the  possessors  unlimited  authority 
in  the  state,  not  unlike  that  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace  in  France 
Violent  and  ambitious  men  were  always  ready  to  seize  upon  this  office, 
which,  in  944,  became  hereditary  in  the  family  of  the  Persian  governor, 
and  henceforth  the  caliphs  were  mere  ecclesiastical  regents.  In  this 
decline  of  their  power  they  were  also  condemned  to  witness  the  loss  of 
part  of  their  dominions.  Between  963  and  975,  the  Byzantine  armies 
had  recovered  Syria,  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and  also  subjected  all  the 
Ottoman  dominions  in  Europe. 

Fatimites. — Africa  was  entirely  lost  to  the  Abbassides,  who  had  the 
mortification  of  beholding  a  new  caliph  establish  a  rival  throne.  In  908, 
Obeidallah,  one  of  the  Karmathians,  all  of  whom  were  supposed  to  have 
been  exterminated,  was  proclaimed  ruler,  as  a  descendant  of  Ismael,  son 
of  Djafar  Sadik,  the  seventh  visible  Imam.  He  was  soon  sufficiently 
powerful  to  overthrow  the  Aglabite  dynasty  of  Kairwan  and  the  Edris- 
ites  of  Fez.  Mahadia,  in  Africa,  which  he  founded,  became  the  residence 
of  the  Fatimites,  a  name  preferred  by  the  new  monarchs  to  that  of  Ali, 
as  marking  with  greater  clearness  their  descent  from  the  prophet’s 
daughter,  Fatima.  Sicily  and  the  Arab  dominions  in  Italy  soon  fell  into 
the  power  of  Obeidallah;  and  his  fourth  successor,  Al  Moez,  completed 
in  960  the  conquest  of  Sardinia  and  Egypt,  in  the  latter  of  which  he 
built  Cairo,  the  metropolis  of  the  African  caliphate. 

By  the  reduction  of  Egypt  the  Fatimites  soon  lost  their  other  posses-' 
sions  in  Africa,  in  which  independent  principalities  arose  so  soon  as  the 
seat  of  government  was  transferred  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  The 
history  of  this  dynasty  presents  the  same  vicissitudes  as  all  others  of 
Arabian  origin ;  the  sovereigns,  who  for  the  most  part  lived  retired  in 
their  palaces,  were  elevated  or  dethroned  according  to  the  interests  of 
ministers,  or  the  caprice  of  the  officers  of  the  body-guard. 

The  Ghaznevides. — While  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad  was  thus  falling 
into  ruin,  a  vast  monarchy  was  rising  in  the  East.  The  Suffarides, 
established  in  Khorassan,  had  been  dethroned,  after  a  reign  of  thirty 
years’  duration,  by  the  Samanides,  a  Turkish  family,  who  maintained 
their  power  till  the  end  of  the  century.  But  in  961,  a  slave  named  Alp 
Tegin,  seized  on  the  castle  of  Ghasna,  and  founded  the  dynasty  of  the 
Ghaznevides.  Mahmoud,  997,  who  united  the  reputation  of  a  sage  with 

20*  is 


234 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


the  glory  of  a  conqueror,  reduced  Lahore,  Moultan,  and  Guzerat,  extend¬ 
ing  his  conquests,  and  with  them  the  Mussulman  faith,  far  into  the 
Indian  peninsula.  From  these  victories  arose  the  Hindostanee ,  the 
modern  language  of  India,  which  has  taken  the  place  of  the  Sanscrit, 
now  become  the  exclusive  idiom  of  the  learned  in  that  country. 

The  Turks. — The  Turks  were  a  people  of  Tartar  origin,  condemned 
by  their  first  conquerors,  the  Gevugen,  to  work  in  the  mines  of  the 
Imaus,  and  to  forge  arms  for  their  masters.  But  these  victims  soon 
quitted  their  mountains,  overthrew  their  oppressors  in  552,  and  founded 
a  state  which  continued  until  585.  At  this  epoch  they  separated :  those 
of  the  East  were  reduced  by  the  Chinese  in  744;  those  of  the  West 
exhausted  their  resources  by  intestine  divisions,  and  by  degrees  ceased 
to  exist  as  a  formidable  nation.  In  the  ninth  century,  numerous  bands 
of  the  Western  Turks  entered  into  the  service  of  the  caliphs,  and  net 
long  after  into  that  of  the  Ghanzevide  sultans.  The  chief  of  the  tribe 
Seljuk,  who  inhabited  Bokhara,  was  able  alone  to  arm  200,000  men. 
Mahmoud  it  is  true  distributed  them  among  his  cities  on  the  banks  of 
the  Oxus;  but  when  he  died  in  1028,  they  returned  to  their  former  pas¬ 
toral  life,  supporting  themselves  chiefly  by  plunder. 

THE  CHURCH. 

The  tenth  century  is  generally  characterized  as  one  of  the  darkest  of 
the  dark  ages ;  and  in  the  history  of  the  church  there  is  little  to  relieve 
the  gloom  that  overhangs  the  secular  annals  of  this  period. 

The  Christian  religion  had  been  propagated  successfully  in  the  East, 
beyond  the  Imaus,  and  among  the  barbarians  in  the  north  and  east  of 
Europe.  About  the  year  720,  the  Nestorian  patriarch  appointed  metro¬ 
politans  in  China  and  at  Samarcand,  while  in  India  and  Ceylon  the 
gospel  appears  to  have  been  received  much  earlier.  The  Normans  were 
converted  about  910,  the  Poles  in  964,  and  the  Russians  and  Hungarians 
at  the  end  of  the  century.  In  Europe  the  purity  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
church  was  obscured  by  the  vicious  lives  of  many  of  the  clergy,  and  the 
strange  opinions  every  day  introduced.  The  pontiffs  are  described  as 
monsters  rather  than  men,  and  the  see  of  Rome  has  been  represented  by 
its  own  historians  as  the  spoil  of  profligate  women  who  disposed  of  it 
at  their  pleasure.  At  the  end  of  the  century,  the  papal  chair  was  ably 
filled  by  the  learned  Gerbert,  Sylvester  II.  Notwithstanding  the  rapid 
succession  of  twenty-five  popes,  between  905  and  1003,  the  influence 
of  the  church  gradually  increased,  partly  by  open  violence,  partly  by 
fraudulent  usurpation ;  and  it  was  now  for  the  first  time  maintained  that 
“  the  authority  of  the  bishops,  though  divine  in  its  origin,  was  conveyed 
to  them  by  St.  Peter,  the  prince  of  the  apostles.” 

The  invasions  of  the  Normans  were  always  disastrous  to  ecclesiastical 
edifices,  which  they  pillaged  and  destroyed  without  mercy.  Profound 
ignorance  necessarily  followed  such  havoc,  since  the  cloisters  were  the 
sole  asylum  of  learning ;  and  the  priests  and  monks,  being  suddenly 
deprived  of  their  means  of  subsistence,  were  obliged  to  seek  relief  in 
occupations  foreign  to  their  profession.  Hence  arose  negligence  of  their 
duties,  which  became  the  more  palpable  as  the  means  of  instruction  and 
disciplined  were  withdrawn.  Berno,  at  Cluny,  in  910,  commenced  the 
reform  of  the  monasteries  in  France,  by  introducing  the  Benedictines, 


TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


235 


the  severity  of  whose  regulations  was  increased  by  Odo  in  the  convent 
of  Fleury,  whither  the  body  of  the  founder  had  been  transported  from 
Mount  Cassino.  This  discipline  rapidly  became  popular,  and  was 
adopted  generally  within  a  very  short  period. 

During  this  century,  a  groundless  panic,  arising  from  a  false  interpre¬ 
tation  of  the  twentieth  chapter  of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  seized  all 
Europe.  Temples  and  palaces  were  suffered  to  fall  into  decay,  and 
language  vainly  attempts  to  describe  the  confusion  and  despair  that  tor¬ 
mented  the  minds  of  the  ignorant  multitude.  The  sacerdotal  order  did 
not  scruple  to  profit  by  this  delusion.  Many  charters  begin  with  these 
words  :  “  As  the  world  is  now  drawing  to  its  end;”  and  an  army  march¬ 
ing  under  Otho  I.  was  so  terrified  by  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  was 
conceived  to  announce  this  consummation,  as  to  disperse  hastily  on  all 
sides. 

Penance. — St.  Augustin  gave  some  countenance  to  the  Manichean  ideas  of 
Two  Principles,  Good  and  Evil,  existing  in  each  individual,  and  constantly  at 
war  as  in  the  struggle  between  the  flesh  and  the  spirit.  This  doctrine  exhibited 
at  once  the  weakness  and  strength  of  human  nature  :  at  one  time  degrading  it 
below  the  beasts,  at  another  elevating  it  almost  above  humanity.  Enthusiasts, 
in  order  to  attain  heaven,  spent  their  lives  in  inflicting  the  greatest  torture  on 
themselves.  They  disfigured  the  body  by  neglect  and  filth,  weakened  it  by 
fasting  and  watching,  and  tore  it  with  stripes.  Linen  was  proscribed  among  the 
monastic  orders,  and  the  use  of  the  warm  bath  ceased,  because  cleanliness 
itself  was  a  luxury,  and  therefore  a  positive  sin.  They  bound  chains  round  the 
body,  which  wore  into  the  flesh  ;  Arnulph  of  Villars  in  Brabant  had  an  under¬ 
waistcoat  of  hedgehog  skins ;  St.  Dominic  the  Cuirassier  was  clothed  in  an  iron 
dress,  and  scourged  himself  with  both  hands  night  and  day  ;  and  the  English 
saint,  Simon  Stock,  obtained  his  name  from  passing  many  years  in  a  hollow 
tree. 


THE  WORLD  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  TENTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — At  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  known  world  was 
under  the  control  of  three  great  monarchies, — the  East ,  the  West ,  and  the 
Caliphate.  Of  these,  one  only  now  remained  ;  and  the  Eastern  Empire,  lying 
between  the  Saracens  and  Franks,  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  the  latter,  and  was  often  tributary  to  the  former.  It  still  however 
maintained  considerable  power,  though  but  a  shadow  of  what  it  had  been,  and 
was  a  continual  prey  to  civil  dissensions  and  external  war. 

The  Caliphate  was  parcelled  out  into  a  number  of  petty  states,  leaving 
scarcely  a  trace  of  its  existence  except  in  the  pomp  which  still  surrounded  the 
rulers  as  ministers  of  religion. 

The  Frank  Kingdom,  at  one  period  the  terror  of  the  West,  existed  in 
several  different  sovereignties  founded  upon  its  ruins,  of  which  the  chief  were 
the  kingdoms  of  France  and  Germany.  These  two  states  at  first  sight  present 
an  equality  of  force  which  disappears  on  a  closer  examination. 

France  was  exhausted  by  anarchy  and  tyranny  ;  each  province  had  its  inde¬ 
pendent  sovereign,  duke  or  count,  one  of  whom  (Hugh  Capet)  violently  seized 
the  crown.  Thus  we  see  a  king  of  Burgundy,  a  duke  of  Paris  or  of  France, 
dukes  of  Aquitaine,  Normandy,  and  Brittany  ;  counts  of  Champagne,  Flanders, 
Toulouse,  and  Anjou, — all  of  whom  reigned  as  independent  princes  in  their 
own  territories.  Under  this  crowd  of  masters,  mutually  jealous  of  each  other 
and  continually  at  war,  the  people  were  always  suffering  and  enslaved.  They 
recognised  a  sort  of  hereditary  chief,  upon  whom  they  conferred  the  title  of 
king ;  but  this  ruler,  without  authority,  money,  or  arms,  was  always  at  the 
mercy  of  his  powerful  vassals. 

Germany  was  as  extensive  as  France,  and  its  nobles  were  scarcely  less 
numerous.  The  sovereignty  was  elective,  but  the  electors,  while  they  reserved 


236 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


the  honour  of  choosing  the  common  master,  had  the  good  sense  to  surrender 
part  of  their  privileges  to  give  him  more  authority.  Hence  the  king  had  fiefs  at 
his  disposal,  officers  at  his  command,  and  armies  to  execute  his  orders. 

Spain  was  but  little  changed.  The  North,  occupied  by  the  Christians,  was 
perpetually  at  war  with  the  xMoors  of  the  South.  In  both  the  states  were 
numerous  and  feeble ;  but  the  former  always  gained  ground,  while  the  Sara¬ 
cens,  equally  brave  and  enlightened,  were  weakened  by  civil  dissensions. 

England  was  entirely  changed.  The  seven,  or  rather  eight  little  kingdoms 
were  now  united  into  a  single  monarchy ;  but  its  powers  were  still  enfeebled 
by  the  divisions  of  the  Danish  and  Saxon  inhabitants,  who  made  the  island  a 
theatre  of  revolution  and  bloodshed. 

Italy,  which  presented  the  spectacle  of  cities  overthrown,  was  oppressed  by 
tyrants,  and  ruined  by  anarchy.  Venice  alone,  separated  from  all  others  by  its 
peculiar  situation  and  policy,  enjoyed  a  period  of  calmness  and  prosperity. 

Rome  contained  a  rising  and  ambitious  power,  which  threatened  to  overthrow 
the  ascendency  of  the  Germans.  The  papal  territories  were  of  small  size,  but 
no  prince  had  a  more  extensive  power  than  the  pope :  by  his  dominion  over 
men’s  consciences  he  completed  the  great  work  of  a  spiritual  monarchy. 

Prepare :  A  map  of  the  world,  and  fill  up  two  lateral  columns  with  the  ne¬ 
cessary  explanations  of  the  changes  that  have  taken  place. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — 1028,  Romanus  III. — Bulgarian  Invasion. — 1057,  Comneni 
— 1081,  Anna  Comnena — Varangian  Guards. 

Italy. — 1046,  Norman  Kingdom. — 1057,  Robert  Guiscard — Italian  Republics. 
Germany. — 1024,  Conrad  II. — Franconian  House. — 1073,  Investitures — Saxon 
Wars. 

France. — 1031,  Henry  I. — 1060,  Philip  I. — 1095,  Synod  of  Clermont. 

Spain. — 1080,  New  Castile  recovered. — 1081,  Kingdom  of  Portugal. — The  Cid. 
Arabian  Empire. — 1038,  Togrul-Beg — Seljukians. — 1050,  Invasion  of  Arme¬ 
nia. — 1063,  Alp  Arslan. — 1074,  Malek-Shah — Gelalaean  Era. — 1076,  Jerusa 
lem  taken  by  the  Turks. 

Britain. — 1002,  Massacre  of  the  Danes. — 1017,  Danish  Dynasty. — 1041,  Ed¬ 
ward  the  Confessor. — 1066,  Norman  Conquest. — 1080,  Domesday  Book.— 
1087,  William  Rufus. 

Church. — 1027,  Truce  of  God. — 1038,  Benedict  IX.  deposed. — 1073,  Gregory 
VII. — Investitures — Cistertians  and  Carthusians — The  Holy  Lance. — 1096, 
First  Crusade. 

Celebrated  Men. — Ferdousi,  d.  1020;  Avicenna1;  Guido  of  Arezzo. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Zoe. — By  the  death  of  Basil,  in  1025,  Constantine  VIII.  remained 
sole  master  of  the  empire ;  but  he  occupied  himself  little  with  the 
government,  which  his  daughters  Zoe  and  Theodora  managed,  and  con¬ 
tinued  to  direct,  even  under  his  two  successors.  Romenus  III.,  who 
had  been  compelled  to  repudiate  his  wife  and  marry  Zoe,  Constantine’s 
eldest  daughter,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1028.  He  met  with  several 
disastrous  reverses  in  his  campaigns  against  the  Saracens ;  and  by  his 
injudicious  attempt  to  replenish  his  exchequer,  caused  successive  com- 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


237 


motions,  which  were  aggravated  by  a  dreadful  plague,  followed  by 
famine  and  an  earthquake.  He  died  of  poison  administered  by  his  wife, 
who  with  criminal  haste  married  Michael  IV.,  1034.  This  prince,  after 
defeating  the  Bulgarians,  who  had  crossed  the  frontiers  of  the  empire, 
and  rolling  back  the  tide  of  war  into  their  own  forests,  divested  himself 
of  the  purple,  and  finished  his  days  in  a  monastery,  1041. 

Michael  V.,  who  had  been  nominated  Caesar  during  his  uncle’s  reign, 
caused  the  empress  to  be  imprisoned;  but  the  people  deploring  her 
exile,  a  formidable  tumult  of  three  days  terminated  in  her  recall  and  in 
the  deposition  of  the  sovereign,  after  a  reign  of  scarcely  four  months,  in 
1042.  The  third  husband  of  Zoe,  Constantine  IX.,  was  now  declared 
emperor,  the  beginning  of  whose  reign  was  disquieted  by  the  revolt  of 
ten  of  his  best  generals.  They  were  scarcely  defeated  before  Togrul 
Beg  conquered  Erzeroum,  and  800,000  Bulgarians  crossed  the  Danube 
on  the  ice;  but,  fortunately  for  the  empire,  they  perished  from  the  com¬ 
bined  effects  of  war  and  disease.  After  the  monarch’s  death  in  1054, 
Theodora  reigned  two  years,  and  chose  Michael  VI.  for  her  successor; 
but  he  was  dethroned  by  a  conspiracy  formed  among  his  most  distin¬ 
guished  commanders. 

The  Comneni,  1057,  were  a  noble  family  from  the  shores  of  the 
Euxine,  but  of  Italian  origin.  Manuel,  the  first  of  their  line,  distin¬ 
guished  himself  in  the  East;  while  Isaac  and  John,  for  their  great 
merits,  had  been  promoted  to  the  highest  posts  in  the  army.  The  sol¬ 
diery  had  long  viewed  with  disgust  the  succession  of  vicious  and  feeble 
emperors  who  had  worn  the  purple,  and  on  the  plains  of  Phrygia 
unanimously  raised  Isaac  to  the  imperial  dignity  in  1057.  After  two 
years,  his  delicate  health  determined  him  to  abdicate,  and  having  vainly 
offered  the  throne  to  his  brother  John,  he  was  succeeded  by  Constan¬ 
tine  X.,  Ducas,  1059.  Selfish  and  short-sighted  in  his  policy,  this 
monarch  endeavoured  to  aggrandize  his  family,  while  he  left  the  fron¬ 
tiers  unguarded  against  the  inroads  of  the  Turks,  who  invaded  and 
occupied  Iberia  and  Mesopotamia,  as  Thrace,  Macedon,  and  Greece 
were  by  the  Utzes.  He  was  followed  by  his  three  sons,  governing 
under  the  regency  of  their  mother  Eudocia,  who  married,  in  1068,  Ro- 
manus  IV.,  Diogenes,  by  whom  Alp  Arslan  was  defeated  while  his 
hordes  were  ravaging  Cilicia  and  Cappadocia.  Romanus  was  taken 
prisoner  in  a  second  campaign,  but  restored  to  liberty  on  promise  of  a 
heavy  ransom.  In  the  interval,  Michael  VII.,  Parapinaces,  was  raised 
to  the  throne,  by  whom  his  predecessor  was  deprived  of  his  eyes,  pre¬ 
viously  to  his  being  exiled.  In  1074,  Soliman  conquered  Romania 
(Roum),  and  chose  Nice  for  his  residence.  The  Greeks  now  possessed 
little  more  of  Asia  Minor  than  the  seacoast  and  a  few  strong  towns, 
while  their  feebleness  was  increased  by  losing  those  territories  in  Italy 
which  were  seized  by  the  Normans.  Wearied  of  a  prince  who  had 
abandoned  the  cares  of  government  to  an  infamous  and  incapable 
minister,  the  troops  proclaimed  as  emperor  their  general  Nicephorus 
III.,  and  Michael,  divested  of  his  power,  received  the  title  of  Archbishop 
of  Ephesus.  But  Alexius  I.,  Comnenus,  in  1081,  seized  on  Constan¬ 
tinople,  and  obliged  Nicephorus  to  retire  into  a  monastery.  For  the 
history  of  the  life  of  this  emperor,  we  are  indebted  to  the  fluent  pen  of 
his  affectionate  daughter  Anna.  In  the  disorder  of  the  times,  compre¬ 
hending  every  calamity  which  can  afflict  a  declining  empire,  Alexius 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


steered  the  imperial  vessel  with  courage  and  dexterity.  His  warlike 
demonstration  alone  sufficed  to  check  the  incursions  of  the  Turks ;  but 
his  Norman  opponents  under  Robert  Guiscard  were  more  serious  anta¬ 
gonists,*  and  he  was  only  freed  from  them  by  the  dissolution  of  the 
army  on  the  death  of  their  commander,  1085.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
century,  the  7'urks  again  threatened  Constantinople ;  and  the  supplicatory 
letters  of  Alexius  to  the  several  princes  of  Europe  were  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  crusades.  We  shall  trace  their  history  elsewhere,  but  it 
may  here  be  remarked,  that  the  crafty  emperor  trod  in  the  footsteps  of 
the  victorious  Franks,  and  secured  to  himself  those  fruits  for  which  they 
were  too  impatient  to  wait.  He  died  in  1118. 

ITALY. 

Normans. — Some  of  the  armed  pilgrims  of  Normandy,  while  visiting 
the  Italian  shrines,  were  employed  by  a  Lombard  prince  of  Salerno 
against  the  Saracens,  a.  d.  1016.  Their  success  led  to  fresh  engage¬ 
ments,  and  attracted  many  of  the  restless  spirits  of  the  age  to  their  vic¬ 
torious  standard.  By  them  a  great  part  of  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily 
was  torn  from  the  grasp  of  the  infidels ;  and  to  indemnify  themselves 
for  an  unjust  division  of  the  spoil,  they  seized  upon  Apulia,  under  the 
first  count,  William  of  the  Iron  Arm,  one  of  the  sons  of  Tancred  de 
Hauteville,  1046.  Leo  IX.,  who  did  not  regard  these  formidable  and 
unscrupulous  neighbours  without  anxiety,  endeavoured  by  fraud  and 
force  to  drive  them  from  the  peninsula.  He  did  not,  however,  succeed, 
but  fell  into  their  hands,  and  the  condition  of  his  release  was  a  present 
of  Apulia  and  Calabria,  as  a  fief  of  the  holy  see,  1053.  Robert  Guis¬ 
card,  another  of  the  twelve  sons  of  Tancred,  was  the  most  remarkable 
of  the  dukes  of  Apulia.  His  ambition  led  him  to  aim  at  the  conquest 
of  the  Greek  empire;  and,  in  1081,  he  besieged  Dyrrachium  (Durazzo) 
with  a  resolute  army  of  somewhat  less  than  30,000  men.  The  Emperor 
Alexius  marched  against  him  in  person,  and  suffered  a  disgraceful  defeat. 
The  dissensions  of  Italy  recalled  Robert ;  and  while  preparing  a  second 
armament,  he  engaged  in  three  naval  battles  with  various  success  against 
the  combined  fleet  of  Venice  and  Constantinople.  An  epidemic  disease, 
which  attacked  him  at  Corfu,  proved  fatal  next  year,  and  carried  him  off 
in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age,  1085 ;  but  the  conquest  of  Sicily  was 
completed  by  his  brother  Roger.  The  latter  island,  then  a  prey  to  civil 
-  discord,  was  occupied  by  a  number  of  emirs,  who  no  longer  recognised 
the  authority  of  their  sovereigns  in  Africa,  and  had  divided  the  country 
into  petty  principalities.  The  chivalrous  Norman  crossed  to  Messina, 
and  at  the  head  of  only  sixty  men  attacked  the  Saracens.  The  spoils 
he  acquired  soon  attracted  others  to  his  standard,  and  after  thirty  years 
he  became  master  of  the  island,  1090,  with  the  title  of  grand  count. 
His  exploits  during  the  earlier  campaigns  in  Sicily  are  quite  romantic. 
To  strengthen  his  power,  Roger  behaved  with  mildness  and  toleration 
towards  the  vanquished,  and  the  Mussulmans  had  no  reason  to  complain 
of  a  change  of  masters.  Not  less  skilful  as  a  politician  than  valiant  as 


*  In  the  Greek  armies  were  many  English  nobles,  who,  to  avoid  the  oppression  of  the 
Norman  William,  and  despairing  of  the  fortunes  of  their  country,  had  sought  refuge  at 
the  court  of  Constantinople.  These,  under  the  name  of  Varangians,  proved  true  and 
faithful  supporters  of  the  Byzantine  empire  till  its  fall. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


239 


a  warrior,  he  had  the  address  to  turn  to  his  own  advantage  all  the  pre¬ 
tensions  of  the  pope;  and,  in  order  to  preserve  the  right  of  conferring 
ecclesiastical  benefices,  he  declared  the  Sicilian  princes  to  be  perpetual 
and  hereditary  legates  of  the  holy  see. 

Italian  Republics. — The  origin  of  these  republican  states  cannot 
now  be  precisely  ascertained,  but  we  may  place  them  after  a.  d.  990. 
Of  their  history  during  this  century  little  is  known,  except  that  they 
restored  the  Roman  municipal  government,  which  had  never  entirely 
ceased,  and  were  engaged  in  continual  hostilities.  The  rural  nobility 
were  soon  brought  into  subjection,  and  their  fortresses  dismantled ;  the 
towms  were  wisely  thrown  open  to  all  who  chose  to  settle  in  them  ;  and 
the  military  habits  of  the  populace  protected  them  against  the  violence 
of  their  enemies.  But,  from  a  desire  of  tyrannizing  over  their  neigh¬ 
bours,  they  imitated  the  example  of  the  ancient  Greek  republics,  44  with 
all  its  circumstances  of  inveterate  hatred,  unjust  ambition,  and  atrocious 
retaliation,  though  with  less  consummate  actors  on  the  scene.” 

Venice  had  subdued  the  Istrian  pirates,  a.  d.  939  ;  and  conquered 
Dalmatia,  in  1000,  before  any  rivals  to  her  commercial  power  had  arisen 
in  the  cities  of  Genoa  and  Pisa,  or  any  other  marts  were  formed  for  the 
merchandise  of  the  East  and  West.  The  democracy  naturally  lost  its 
predominance  in  the  augmented  riches  of  the  state  ;  but  lest  the  supreme 
power  of  the  doge  should  be  abused,  he  was  reduced  to  a  mere  cipher 
by  the  annual  election  of  councillors  to  superintend  his  conduct,  1002. 
In  the  contests  against  Robert  the  Norman,  the  Venetians  took  part 
with  the  Greeks,  but  were  defeated,  1081.  The  crusades  which  occur¬ 
red  shortly  after  paved  the  way  to  their  subsequent  riches,  insolence, 
and  power. 

Genoa  and  Pisa. — These  two  republics  derive  their  origin  from  the 
anarchy  that  followed  the  deposition  of  Charles  the  Fat,  in  888.  To 
this  year  the  Genoese  assign  the  election  of  their  first  consuls,  the  crea¬ 
tion  of  their  senate,  and  the  assemblies  of  the  people,  with  all  the 
ancient  municipal  forms  recognised  by  Berenger  II.,  in  his  charter  of 
958.  Pisa  adopted  nearly  the  same  institutions  in  the  tenth  century ; 
and,  like  the  other,  directed  all  its  energies  to  maritime  commerce.  The 
Saracens  were  the  first  enemies  which  these  two  cities  had  to  contend 
with;  Genoa  was  pillaged  in  936,  and  Pisa  in.  1005. 

GERMANY. 

Henry  II.  did  not  receive  the  crown  of  Germany  in  1002,  without 
opposition ;  but  eventually  his  claims  and  authority  were  recognised  in 
the  whole  of  the  duchies  and  by  all  the  electors.  The  peace  of  the 
kingdom  was,  however,  soon  disturbed  by  the  war  in  Franconia  and  on 
the  eastern  march.  Italy  was  for  a  time  estranged  from  Germany  by 
the  enemies  of  the  Marquis  of  Ivrea  ;  and  the  towns  of  Lombardy, 
divided  between  the  partisans  of  Ardouin  and  Henry,  were  a  prey  to 
civil  strife.  In  1012,  Henry’s  intervention  was  formally  demanded;  for 
the  Romans,  being  formed  into  two  parties  in  the  election  of  a  pontiff, 
each  faction  nominated  its  own  candidate;  one  of  whom,  Benedict  VIII., 
having  been  driven  out  of  the  city,  came  to  Paderborn  in  great  state, 
and  entreated  the  assistance  of  the  German  monarch  to  establish  him 
in  his  dignity.  The  urgent  solicitations  of  the  pope  were  seconded  by 


240 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


the  complaints  preferred  by  the  Archbishop  of  Milan  against  Ardouin. 
In  the  campaign  of  1014,  Henry  advanced  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
crowned  emperor.  Returning  across  the  Alps,  and  visiting  Burgundy 
and  Lorraine,  he  stopped  at  the  monastery  of  Saint  Vannes,  near  Ver¬ 
dun,  where  he  w~as  prevented  from  embracing  a  cloistered  life  only  by 
the  good  sense  and  firmness  of  the  superior. 

House  of  Franconia. — Conrad  II.,  the  Salic,  descended  from  Otho 
the  Great,  was  elected  to  fill  the  vacant  throne,  and^with  him  began  the 
line  of  Franconian  emperors,  a.  d.  1024.  To  secure  the  crown  in  his 
family,  he  endeavoured  to  increase  its  influence  by  conferring  various 
duchies  and  principalities  on  his  relatives.  His  son,  Henry  III.,  who 
succeeded  him  in  1039,  was  perhaps  the  most  powerful  and  absolute  of 
the  German  rulers.  Having  defeated  the  Hungarians,  he  obtained  the 
cession  of  all  the  country  between  Kahlenberg  and  the  Leitha ;  and 
when  he  had  confirmed  his  power  at  home,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
Italy,  where  three  popes  were  urging  their  claims  to  the  triple  crown. 
None  of  them  met  with  the  approbation  of  the  German  king,  and  the 
Bishop  of  Bamberg  was  elected,  with  the  title  of  Clement  II.  He  also 
nominated  the  three  successors,  who  honoured  the  tiara  by  their  virtues, 
and  commenced  the  reform  of  the  clergy.  Uniting  the  fief  of  Franconia 
to  the  imperial  domain,  he  bestowed  the  forfeited  duchy  on  his  wife, 
Agnes, —  entirely  laying  aside  the  usual  forms  of  popular  concurrence 
which  were  deemed  necessary  to  various  acts  of  sovereignty. 

H  enry  IV.  was  only  six  years  old  when  his  father  died  in  1056.  The 
care  of  his  minority  was  assigned  to  his  mother,  from  whom  it  was 
wTrested  by  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  Under  his  new  guardian  he 
was  allowed  to  indulge  in  all  kinds  of  excess,  and  the  Saxons,  among 
whom  he  resided,  soon  grew  weary  of  the  expenses  of  the  licentious 
court,  and  its  attacks  on  their  liberties.*  To  keep  this  warlike  people 
within  their  bounds,  he  constructed  a  great  number  of  castles  in  Saxony 
and  Thuringia,  compelling  the  inhabitants  to  raise  with  their  own  hands 
those  fortresses  whose  garrisons  were  to  be  maintained  at  their  expense. 
His  proceedings  at  last  excited  a  general  revolt  among  them,  wrhich  he 
soon  quelled,  but  at  a  great  cost  of  human  life,  1075. 

Lvvestiture. — Henry’s  adversary  was  the  celebrated  Gregory  VII., 
who  desired  to  free  the  church  from  the  temporal  authority  of  laymen; 
that  is,  to  deprive  all  princes  of  the  power  of  investing  bishops  with  the 
ring  and  crosier,  the  symbols  by  which  the  pope  himself  conferred  the 
spiritual  authority.  Gregory’s  first  attack  was  violent.  In  a  council 
held  in  the  Lateran  Palace,  it  was  declared  that  no  laics  should  confer 
ecclesiastical  benefices,  or  clerks  should  receive  them  from  a  layman, 
under  pain  of  excommunication.  This  decree  was  carried  to  Henry  by 
four  legates,  charged  with  the  removal  of  this  annoyance  throughout  the 
German  church.  The  king,  then  occupied  with  the  Saxon  war,  at  first 
promised  them  his  aid  ;  but  when  the  insurgents  submitted,  he  forgot 
his  pledge,  of  which  the  pope  reminded  him  in  a  threatening  manner. 
The  irritated  monarch  assembled  at  Worms  the  great  nobles  and  prelates 
of  his  kingdom,  who  pronounced  Gregory’s  deposition,  1076.  The  reply 


*  On  the  occasion  of  a  quarrel  between  Henry,  and  Otho,  duke  of  Bavaria,  the  latter 
was  deposed,  and  the  duchy  conferred  on  Otho’s  son-in-law,  Welf  or  Guelph,  from  whom 
descended  the  Brunswick  line,  now  occupying  the  British  throne. 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


241 


of  the  Papal  See  was  the  excommunication  or  the  king,  aecorrq  anitd  by 
an  act  depriving  him  of  his  regal  dignity,  and  absolving  his  subjects 
from  their  oaths  of  allegiance. 

The  German  aristocracy,  oppressed  by  Henry  III.,  and  the  Saxons, 
vanquished  by  his  son,  ran  to  arms,  as  much  to  avenge  their  private 
injuries,  as  to  enforce  the  papal  encroachments.  The  rebel  chiefs,  at 
whose  head  were  Rodolph  of  Swabia,  and  Guelph  of  Bavaria,  met  at 
Tribur,  suspended  the  emperor  from  his  functions,  and  threatened  to  de¬ 
pose  him,  if  he  did  not  procure  the  retractation  of  the  Romish  anathemas. 
Henry  yielded  to  the  storm,  and  visited  Italy,  where  he  became  reconciled 
to  the  pope,  on  certain  humiliating  Conditions,  1077.  But  he  had  sub¬ 
mitted  only  to  gain  time,  and  being  encouraged  by  the  fidelity  of  his 
Lombard  vassals,  he  broke  the  treaty  to  which  he  had  given  his  assent, 
and  marched  against  the  rebellious  Germans,  who  had  already  elected 
Rodolph  of  Swabia  to  the  throne.  The  decisive  victory  of  Wolksheim 
in  Thuringia,  1080,  was  fatal  to  Rodolph,  who  perished  by  the  lance  of 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  afterwards  so  distinguished  in  the  First  Crusade. 
In  Italy,  also,  Henry  was  triumphant ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the  death 
of  Pope  Gregory  in  exile,  1085,  relieved  him  from  much  disquietude. 
But  he  did  not  long  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  victory,  and  his  latter  days 
were  clouded  with  increasing  misfortunes.  First,  he  had  to  contend 
against  a  new  competitor;  afterwards  against  his  own  son  Conrad; 
while  the  confessions  of  his  wife  Bertha  added  to  his  domestic  afflictions. 
But  he  continued,  in  despite  of  all  these  miseries,  to  struggle  with  firm¬ 
ness,  and  by  his  courage  effaced  at  least  his  earlier  faults.  When 
Conrad  died,  his  brother  Henry  appeared  in  arms  against  their  father, 
who  was  forced  to  flee  before  his  rebellious  child.  So  great  was  his 
distress,  that  he  begged  the  humble  post  of  reader  in  a  church  which  he 
himself  had  founded,  and  was  refused.  Laying  himself  down  on  the 
steps,  he  died  of  hunger  in  1106,  and  his  body  was  left  without  sepul¬ 
ture,  as  being  that  of  an  excommunicated  person.* 

FRANCONIAN  DYNASTY. 


13.  Conrad  II.,  the  Salic,  duke  of  Franconia,  elected  emp.  1024,  m.  Oisela, 
granddaughter  of  Conrad  d.  of  Bourges,  herself  of  Swabian  origin. 

- - - - * - - - - 

14.  Henry  III.,  the  Black,  emp,  1039,  Two  daughters, 

m.  1.  Qunegunda,  d.  of  Canute  the  Great ; 

2.  Agnes  of  Poitou,  afterwards  regent. 

/  ■— - A - 

15.  Henry  IV.  emp.  1056,  Matilda  m.  Rodolph ,  Sophia 

m.  1.  Bertha  of  lvrea  ;  d.  of  Swabia  ;  elected  m.  1.  Solomon ,  k.  of  Hungary, 

2.  Adelaide  of  Russia,  emp.  and  killed  in  1080.  2.  Ladisla.us,  k.  of  Poland. 


Conrad  rebels  16.  Henry  V.,  emp.  1106,  Agnes  Adelaide 

m  Matilda  of  m.  Matilda  of  England.  m.  Frederick  of  m.  Bolcslas  III. 

Sicily.  Hohenstaufen.  k.  of  Poland. 

*********** 

17.  Loth  aire  II.,  son  of  Gerhard  of  Supplinbourg, 
d.  of  Saxony,  1106,  emp.  1125,  |113?  ;  m.  Richenza,  heiress  of  Henry  the  Fat, 
d.  of  Saxony,  and  last  descendant  of  Henry  the  Fowler. 


*  Other  accounts  state  that  Henry  died  at  Liege  in  extreme  want.  On  one  occasion  he 
was  compelled  to  sell  his  books  to  purchase  bread  ;  and  shortly  before  his  death  he  for¬ 
warded  his  sword  to  his  son  with  the  brief  message  :  “  Si  mihi  plus  dimisses,  plus  tibi 
misissem.” 

21 


242 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


FRANCE. 

In  102*2,  Robert  shared  the  regal  power  with  Hugh,  his  eldest  son, 
who  was  soon  driven  to  revolt  by  the  harshness  of  his  mother  Constance, 
who  required  from  him,  as  king,  the  same  implicit  obedience  which  he 
had  given  when  a  child.  Robert  vanquished  and  pardoned  the  rebel.  On 
the  demise  of  Hugh,  soon  afterwards,  the  king  elevated  his  third  son 
Henry  in  his  stead.  Constance,  however,  preferred  the  youngest,  named 
Robert,  and,  by  her  ungracious  behaviour,  drove  Henry,  as  she  had  be¬ 
fore  compelled  his  brother,  to  revolt.  But  the  youthful  prince  was  far 
from  seconding  his  mother’s  projects,  and  in  fact  united  with  his  brother 
against  her  tyranny.  They  returned  to  their  duty  a  short  time  before 
the  death  of  their  father,  which  took  place  at  Melun,  in  the  sixty-hrst 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  thirty-fifth  of  his  government,  1031. 

During  this  reign  the  Church  began  to  take  measures  against  the  heretics, 
who  appeared  in  great  numbers;  some  of  whom  pretended  to  change  the  doc¬ 
trines.  others  to  reform  the  manners,  but  all  were  persecuted  alike.  In  a 
council  assembled  at  Orleans,  a  multitude  of  these  unfortunate  persons  were 
condemned  to  ihe  flames.  King  Robert  and  his  queen  were  present  at  their 
execution  ;  when  Constance  remarking  among  the  victims  an  ecclesiastic  who 
had  been  her  own  confessor,  thrust  out  one  of  his  eyes  with  an  iron  rod. 

Robert’s  devotion  and  goodness,  the  chief  qualities  that  can  be  praised 
in  him,  were  not  very  elevated.  His  principal  occupation  was  founding 
churches,  chanting  with  the  priests,  and  correcting  the  liturgies.  Yet 
this  piety,  however  erroneously  directed,  was  accompanied  by  an  ardent 
charity  that  should  ever  cons-crate  the  memory  of  this  king.  The  poor 
were  his  friends  ;  every  day  he  fed  three  hundred,  sometimes  a  thousand  ; 
on  Holy  Thursday,  kneeling  and  in  sackcloth,  he  washed  their  feet,  and 
served  them. 

Henry  I.,  1031,  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  before  Robert,  his 
brother,  was  urged  to  assert  his  claims  to  the  crown ;  but  the  kin  or  be- 
ing  triumphant,  the  other  was  contented  to  accept  the  duchy  of  Burgundy, 
which  his  descendants  possessed  until  1361.  Another,  but  far  less  suc¬ 
cessful  war,  occupied  the  remainder  of  his  reign.  The  Duke  of  Nor¬ 
mandy,  Robert  the  Devil,  by  whose  aid  Henry  had  been  maintained  on 
the  throne,  having  died  in  1035,  while  returning  from  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  left  William  the  Bastard,  afterwards  the  conqueror  of  Eng¬ 
land,  to  succeed  him.  The  French  king  took  advantage  of  the  minority 
of  the  young  prince  to  weaken  his  power ;  but  no  sooner  had  William 
reached  man’s  estate,  than  he  attacked  his  enemy  and  defeated  him  in 
three  battles,  1054. 

Philip  I.  succeeded  his  father  in  1060,  and  commenced  the  longest 
reign  which  occurs  in  the  French  annals.  His  personal  acts  must  be 
carefully  separated  from  those  which  so  highly  characterized  the  chivalry 
of  France  during  this  period.  He  distinguished  himself  in  several  wars, 
but  in  his  private  life  indulged  in  vices  that  drew  upon  him  the  censures 
of  the  church  and  the  contempt  of  his  subjects.  He  trafficked  in  holy 
matters,  sellincr  to  the  highest  bidder  the  vacant  benefices  and  sees. 
Gregory  VII.  menaced  him  with  an  interdict,  but  the  pontiff’s  severity 
was  exhausted  in  his  German  quarrel.  He  was  afterwards  successively 
excommunicated  by  two  popes,  at  the  councils  of  x\utun  and  Clermont, 
on  account  of  his  divorce,  but  was  eventually  restored  by  the  council  of 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  243 

Paris,  held  in  1104.  The  latter  years  of  Philip’s  reign  were  passed  in 
all  the  excitement  of  the  First  Crusade.  He  died  in  1108. 

CAPETIAN  DYNASTY:  Portion!. 


Conrad  Welf. 


Robert  the  Strong ,  or  the  Angevin , 
d.  of  France,  861-866. 

Hugh  the  Abbot ,  d.  of  France 

866-886. 

Eudes,  ct.  of  Paris,  d.  of  France,  886; 
k.,  888 -t  898. 

Robert  I.,  d.  889  ;  k.  922,  f  923 

Emma,  wife  of  Rudolph  of  Burgundy 
q.  of  France,  923-936.  No  issue. 

r-  - 

Hugh  the  Great ,  d.  of  France,  &c., 
923-956,  in.  Hedvnge ,  sister  of  Otho 
the  Great. 

- - - , 

Hugh  Capet,  d.  956  ;  Otho,  d.  of  Bourses,  Henry ,  d.  of  Bourges, 

k.  987-996.  956-963.  '  965-1002. 

(Both  without  issue.) 


/ - - 

Robert  II.,  k.  996-1031, 
in.  1.  Bertha  of  Burgundy. 

2.  Constance  of  Toulouse. 

* - ^ - - - % 

Henry  I.,  d.  of  Burgundy,  1015  ;  Robert ,  d.  of  Burgundy,  1032,  stock 

k.  1031-1060  ;  m.  Anne  of  Russia.  of  the  first  hereditary  dukes. 


/ -  - ^ 

Philip  I.,  k.  1060-1108. 
m.  1.  Bertha  of  Holland. 

2.  Bertrade  of  Mont  fort. 

A 

Hugh  the  Great ,  ct.  of  Vermandois 
and  Valois,  in  right  of  his  wife 
Adelaide 

(Branch  extinct  in  the  sixth  generation.) 

r  "  ^ 

Louis  VI.,  the  Fat,  k.  1108. 

SPAIN.  • 

The  Almoravides. — Moorish  Spain  presented  in  every  quarter  the 
appearance  of  anarchy  and  dismemberment,  at  the  very  period  when  its 
existence  was  threatened  by  two  formidable  enemies  :  on  the  one  side 
by  Alphonso  V.,  who,  after  uniting  Galicia  to  the  kingdoms  of  Leon 
and  Castile,  took  possession  of  Toledo,  Madrid,  and  Guadalaxara;  on 
the  other,  by  African  tribes  bent  on  a  war  of  extermination. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  there  appeared  in  Africa, 
beyond  Mount  Atlas,  in  the  deserts  of  ancient  Gaetulia,  two  tribes  of 
Arab  origin,  known  by  the  appellations  of  Gudala  and  Lamtuna.  When 
these  were  converted  to  Islamism,  they  assumed  the  name  of  Murabitins 
or  Almoravides — that  is,  men  of  God.  Excited  by  the  enthusiasm  of 
their  new  faith,  they  crossed  the  mountains ;  when  the  Arabs  of  the 
desert,  uniting  with  the  new  people,  founded  the  city  of  Morocco.  Yus- 
suf  was  its  first  emir,  and  being  summoned  by  Mohammed,  sovereign 
of  Cordova,  made  three  expeditions  into  Spain;  and,  on  learning  the 
feebleness  of  all  the  petty  kings,  resolved  to  subject  them  to  his  power. 
In  1094,  he  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  all  the  Mohammedan  states 
in  the  peninsula;  but  soon  felt  himself  incapable  of  appropriating  their 
territories  as  he  had  intended.  It  is  true,  however,  he  gained  a  few 
advantages  over  the  Christians,  and  ravaged  Catalonia  after  a  terrible 
battle,  in  which,  it  is  said,  30,000  men  were  slain. 

Christian  Spain. — With  the  death  of  Bermudes  III.,  in  1037,  the 
dynasty  of  the  Kings  of  Leon  expired,  and  this  ancient  sovereignty  was 
united  to  Castile  in  the  person  of  Ferdinand  of  Navarre,  son  of  that 


244 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Garcia  III.  who,  notwithstanding-  his  great  valour,  was  surnamed  the 
Trembler.  This  family  possessed  the  four  Christian  thrones  of  Spain, 
which  were  reduced  to  three,  in  1038,  by  the  death  of  Gonzales  of 
Sobrarva. 

At  tiiis  time  the  Moors  still  possessed  Andalusia,  Granada,  Murcia, 
part  of  New  Castile,  and  all  the  seacoast  from  Barcelona  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Tagus.  The  war  with  the  infidels  was  renewed  by  the  new  King 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  whose  frontiers  were  even  extended  to  the  Mon- 
dego,  and  the  Arab  princes  of  Saragossa,  Toledo,  Cordova,  and  Seville, 
w’ere  compelled  to  pay  him  tribute.  On  Ferdinand’s  death  in  1065,  his 
kingdom  was  divided  among  his  three  sons:  Sancho  had  Castile;  Al- 
phonso,  Leon  and  the  Asturias  ;  Garcia,  a  part  of  Portugal  with  Galicia. 
Little  variety  characterizes  the  history  of  these  states  until  1081,  when 
Henry  of  Burgundy,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  received  the  hand  of  Theresa, 
Alphonso’s  natural  daughter,  and,  as  dowry,  whatever  he  could  wrest 
from  the  Moors  in  Portugal.  Other  French  knights  were  found  in  the 
Spanish  armies,  and  on  one  occasion  an  auxiliary  force  crossed  the 
Pyrenees  to  aid  Alphonso,  with  whose  assistance  the  Moors  were  driven 
into  Andalusia. 

The  Cid. — Although  Capmany,  with  an  excess  of  critical  scepticism, 
throws  doubts  upon  the  existence  of  this  warrior,  it  is  not  the  less 
necessary  to  be  acquainted  with  his  history.  Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Vivar, 
surnamed  Campeador  (the  battler),  and  Cid  (chief),  illustrated  the  reign 
of  Ferdinand  I.,  founder  of  the  Castilian  monarchy.  He  was  born  of 
a  noble  and  ancient  family  at  Burgos,  and  aided  Don  Sancho  to  deprive 
the  brothers  and  sisters  of  the  latter  of  the  heritage  which  Ferdinand 
had  left  to  them  ;  but  Sancho  having,  in  1072,  been  killed  at  Zamora, 
his  brothers  recovered  their  estates.  The  Cid  shortly  after  falling  into 
disgrace,  retired  from  court,  not  to  an  inactive  life,  for  with  his  own  fol¬ 
lowers  alone  he  took  Alcazar,  and  maintained  himself  on  a  rock  near 
the  Guadalaviar,  which  still  bears  the  name  of  Pena  de  el  Cid.  One  of 
his  most  remarkable  exploits  was  the  siege  of  Toledo,  wrhich  lasted 
twelve  months,  and  attracted  many  cavaliers  from  Italy  and  France. 
From  the  number  of  French  families  which  settled  in  that  town,  their 
privileges  derived  the  name  of  Franchise.  The  Cid  next  conquered 
Valencia,  which  he  governed  with  the  authority  of  an  independent 
sovereign.  He  died  in  1099. 

ARABIAN  EMPIRE. 

Turkish  Conquests. — In  1038,  an  unsuccessful  battle  terminated  the 
Ghaznevide  dynasty,  and  the  choice  of  the  victorious  Turks  fell  on 
Togrul-beg,  founder  of  the  family  wrhich  bears  the  name  of  Seljukian. 
In  the  space  of  sixteen  years  he  conquered  Balkh,  Carmania,  Taberistan, 
and  obeying  the  summons  of  the  caliph,  he  overthrew  the  Bowudes,  w  hc 
had  long  reigned  at  Ispahan.  Togrul  next  assumed  the  title  of  Emir  a! 
Omra :  seated  behind  a  black  curtain  and  holding  the  sceptre  of  the 
prophet,  the  Abbasside  invested  him  with  seven  robes,  gave  him  seven 
captives  born  in  the  seven  climates  which  obeyed  the  Arab  dominion, 
presented  him  the  mystic  veil,  placed  two  crowms  on  his  head,  and  girt 
him  with  two  swords,  to  show  that  he  was  master  both  of  the  East  and 
the  West.  Dying  without  children,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


245 


Alp  Arslan,  in  the  title  and  prerogatives  of  sultan,  1063.  The  Valiant 
Lion,  for  such  is  the  meaning  of  his  name,  gallantly  attacked  the  Greek 
empire,  and  the  provinces  of  Armenia  and  Georgia  fell  in  three  years. 
Romanus  Diogenes  bravely  opposed  him,  but  after  a  few  trivial  suc¬ 
cesses,  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner,  1071.  The  fairest  part  of  Asia 
submitted  to  Arslan;  his  throne  was  surrounded  by  1200  princes,  and 
guarded  by  200,000  hardy  warriors.  He  died  in  1073,  and  on  his  tomb 
might  be  read  the  following  inscription:  —  “O  ye  who  have  seen  the 
glory  of  Alp  Arslan  exalted  to  the  heavens,  repair  to  Maru,  and  you 
will  behold  it  buried  in  the  dust !” 

Malek-Shah,  the  eldest  son  of  Alp,  was  victorious  over  all  his  com¬ 
petitors  for  the  sovereignty,  and  extended  his  dominions  from  the  Chinese 
frontier  to  Arabia  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Constantinople.  Twelve 
times  this  active  monarch  is  said  to  have  travelled  through  his  vast 
kingdom.  He  embellished  the  cities  of  Asia  with  public  buildings ; 
revived  and  honoured  the  pursuits  of  literature ;  and  by  his  reformation 
of  the  calendar,  approximated  nearly  to  the  accuracy  of  the  Gregorian 
style.  The  era  named  Gelalasan  (i.  e .  glory  of  the  faith),  from  one  of 
Malek’s  titles,  is  fixed  to  the  15th  of  March  a.  h.  471,  a.  d.  1079.  The 
shah’s  death,  in  1092,  was  preceded  by  the  murder  of  the  vizir  Nizam, 
the  wise  and  virtuous  minister  of  two  sovereigns.  Thirty  years’  faith¬ 
ful  service  could  not  screen  him  from  the  attacks  of  faction,  and  at  the 
age  of  ninety-three  he  fell  beneath  the  dagger  of  a  fanatic  —  the  first 
victim  of  Hassan  Sebek,  the  celebrated  founder  of  the  Assassins. 

With  the  son  of  Alp  Arslan  disappeared  the  unity  of  the  empire. 
Barkiarok  succeeded  in  Persia;  but  already  three  separate  dynasties 
reigned  in  Carmania,  Syria,  and  Iconium,  which,  though  they  had 
obeyed  Malek-shah,  became  nearly  independent  at  his  death.  The  most 
powerful  of  these  petty  kingdoms  was  Roum,  which  had  been  founded 
by  a  prince  of  the  royal  family  in  1084.  Towards  the  end  of  the  tenth 
century  Jerusalem  had  fallen  under  the  power  of  the  Turks,  but  access 
to  its  holy  places  was  still  allowed  to  the  Christians.  In  1076,  it  was 
taken  by  the  Turks,  who  insulted  and  oppressed  the  citizens  and  pil¬ 
grims  during  the  twenty  years  that  their  domination  lasted.  The  Caliph 
of  Egypt  obtained  possession  of  it  in  1096,  but  three  years  afterwards  it 
was  captured  by  the  crusaders. 

BRITAIN. 

% 

Danish  Line. — Ethelred  II.,  in  the  hope  of  freeing  himself  and  his 
subjects  from  the  odious  tribute  of  Danegelt ,  plotted  the  massacre  of 
every  Dane  within  his  kingdom.  At  the  appointed  time,  13th  Novem¬ 
ber  1002,  the  treacherous  design  was  executed,  but  failed,  as  it  merited, 
in  its  results.  Sweyn  reappeared  with  a  numerous  force,  and  after 
some  years  of  hostility,  compelled  the  native  sovereign  to  take  refuge  in 
Normandy,  and  wras  himself  proclaimed  king  of  England,  1014.  Ed¬ 
mund  Ironside,  1016,  struggled  manfully  for  his  father’s  crown,  and  was 
several  times  victorious  over  Canute,  Sweyn’s  successor ;  but  his  death 
established  the  foreigner  on  the  throne  in  1017.  This  prince,  justly 
named  the  Great,  wTas  affable,  wise,  and  virtuous.  By  his  marriage 
with  Emma,  Ethelred’s  w7idow,  he  conciliated  the  vanquished,  and  dis¬ 
armed  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  wdiile  the  powerful  Earl  Godwin  was 
21  * 


246 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


gained  over  by  receiving  the  hand  of  his  daughter.  His  reproof  of  the 
flatteries  addressed  to  him  by  his  courtiers  is  well  known,  and  throws  a 
favourable  light  on  his  character.  Preserving  the  authority  of  the  laws, 
he  added  to  their  efficiency  by  other  good  institutions  of  his  own ;  and 
effectually  checked  the  incursions  of  the  Scotch  on  the  northern  frontier. 
He  composed  songs  which  were  sung  alike  by  Danes  and  Saxons ;  and 
patronized  the  literature  of  the  monks  not  less  than  the  wild  poems  of  the 
scalds.  In  1030,  he  visited  Rome  as  a  pilgrim ;  and  after  a  reign  of 
twenty  years,  he  died  with  a  reputation  inferior  to  no  monarch  of  his 
age.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  sons  Harold,  1036,  and  Hardicanute, 
1039  ;  on  the  death  of  the  latter  the  crown  returned  to  the  ancient  family, 
in  the  person  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  1041.  The  accession  of  the 
Danish  kings  had  produced  little  change  in  England,  since  most  of  their 
followers  had  embraced  Christianity,  and  assimilated  themselves  gradu¬ 
ally  to  the  natives,  whose  laws  and  language  were  not  unlike  their  own. 
The  mildness  of  Edward’s  character  endeared  him  to  his  subjects,  in 
spite  of  his  Norman  favourites;  but  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  the 
rebellion  of  Godwin,  earl  or  governor  of  Kent,  which  was  soon  quelled, 
and  by  occasional  hostilities  with  the  Welsh  and  Scotch.  In  1054, 
Siward,  earl  of  Northumberland,  and  Macduff,  earl  of  Fife,  led  an  army 
against  Macbeth,  whose  usurpation  of  the  northern  throne  has  been  im¬ 
mortalized  by  the  pen  of  Shakspeare.  Edward  died  in  1066,  and  was 
buried  in  the  magnificent  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Westminster,  which  he 
had  rebuilt  from  its  foundation,  his  subjects  bewailing  his  loss  like  that 
of  an  affectionate  parent.  Harold,  the  son  of  Godwin,  immediately 
claimed  the  sceptre,  and  procuring  his  election  by  the  witan,  to  the 
prejudice  of  Edgar  Etheling,  the  legitimate  heir,  was  crowned  in  1066. 
Two  rivals,  the  king  of  Norway,  and  his  own  brother  Tostig,  now 
appeared  to  endanger  his  kingdom,  but  they  were  soon  defeated.  Wil¬ 
liam,  duke  of  Normandy,  proved  a  more  formidable  competitor,  founding 
his  claim  to  the  crown  on  the  purpose,  if  not  the  testament,  of  Edward, 
and  on  the  oath  which  Harold  himself  had  made  to  promote  the  duke’s 
succession  to  it.  The  king’s  reply  was,  that  the  promise  had  been 
extorted  by  violence,  and  that  as  he  had  been  elected  by  the  people,  he 
would  endeavour  to  show  himself  worthy  of  their  choice. 

Each  party  immediately  prepared  for  war,  but  it  was  unfortunate  for 
Harold,  that  he  had  meanwhile  to  march  against  the  Norwegian  king, 
who  had  landed  in  the  north  of  England.  The  two  armies  met  at  Stam¬ 
ford  Bridge ;  and  the  ranks  of  the  hostile  cavalry  having  been  broken, 
their  leader  was  slain,  and  his  army  almost  annihilated.  In  the  midst 
of  the  rejoicings  which  followed  this  victory,  the  news  was  announced 
that  the  Normans  had  landed  on  the  coast  of  Sussex. 

No  sooner  had  William  received  the  answer  of  Harold,  and  heard  of 
his  coronation,  than  he  began  to  make  vigorous  preparations  for  invading 
England.  Ships  were  immediately  constructed,  supplies  collected  from 
all  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  Continent,  and  volunteers  from  every  quarter 
crowded  to  his  camp  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dive,  eager  to  share  in  the 
danger  and  plunder  of  the  campaign.  Unfavourable  winds,  and  the 
loss  of  several  vessels,  depressed  for  a  time  the  spirit  of  the  adventurers. 
At  length  the  favourable  moment  arrived  ;  and  quitting  St.  Valery  wffth 
seven  hundred  ships,  he  landed  at  Pevensey,  28th  September  1066. 
Thither  Harold  flew  with  all  the  forces  he  could  muster,  and  at  a  place 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


247 


cabled  Senlac,  about  nine  miles  from  Hastings,  was  fought  the  battle 
tha  decided  his  fate.  From  an  early  hour  until  sunset  the  fight  was 
continued  with  varying  success,  until  the  king  fell  pierced  with  an  arrow 
and  his  soldiers  fled  panic-stricken  from  the  field. 

44  It  was  ordained  (says  Turner),  by  the  supreme  Director  of  events, 
that  England  should  no  longer  remain  insulated  from  the  rest  of  Europe  ; 
but  should  for  its  own  benefit  and  the  improvement  of  mankind,  become 
connected  with  the  affairs  of  the  Continent.  The  Anglo-Saxon  dynasty 
was  therefore  terminated ;  and  a  sovereign,  with  great  continental  pos¬ 
sessions,  was  led  to  the  English  throne.  By  the  consequences  of  this 
revolution,  England  acquired  that  interest,  and  established  that  influence 
in  the  transactions  and  fortunes  of  its  neighbours,  which  have  continued  to 
the  present  day,  with  equal  advantages  to  its  inhabitants  and  to  Europe.” 

The  Norman  Conquest,  1066. — William  I.  did  not  even  yet  succeed 
to  the  crown  without  further  struggle.  Edgar,  surnamed  Etheling  or 
the  Illustrious,  who  had  been  nominated  king  on  the  death  of  Harold, 
was  supported  by  the  Londoners  and  others;  but  disunion  and  disaffec¬ 
tion  prevented  them  from  taking  advantage  of  William’s  delay  in 
marching  upon  the  capital.  At  length,  when  he  appeared  before  the  city, 
after  devastating  all  the  surrounding  country,  a  deputation  of  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  waited  upon  him  with  an  offer  of  the  crown,  which  was  accepted, 
and  the  festival  of  Christmas  appointed  for  the  coronation. 

The  Saxon  chiefs,  Edwin  and  Morcar,  whose  fatal  retreat  into  their 
northern  provinces  had  led  to  the  surrender  of  London,  being  now 
overawed  by  the  additional  power  which  the  invader  had  acquired  by 
his  possession  of  the  capital  and  his  title  of  king,  took  the  custom¬ 
ary  oaths  of  submission.  Meanwhile  the  Normans  were  almost  wholly 
engaged  in  dividing  the  riches  of  the  conquered  territory.  Commis¬ 
sioners  overran  all  the  country  that  was  in  the  power  of  their  army, 
making  inventories  of  every  kind  of  property,  public  and  private; 
inscribing  and  enregistering  each  article  with  the  greatest  care.  Parti¬ 
cular  inquiries  were  made  as  to  the  names  of  the  individuals  who  died 
in  battle  under  Harold,  of  such  as  had  survived,  as  well  of  those  who 
had  been  prevented,  by  w7hat  cause  soever,  from  joining  his  standard. 
All  those  persons  or  their  heirs  were  deprived  of  their  possessions  ;  and 
the  immense  proceeds  of  this  universal  spoliation  w?ere  the  pay  of  the 
adventurers  wiio  had  been  enrolled  in  William’s  host.  He  himself 
retained  for  his  own  share  all  the  treasures  of  the  ancient  kino's,  the 
church-plate,  and  the  most  precious  of  the  articles  found  in  the  ware¬ 
houses  of  the  merchants.  The  barons  and  knights  received  vast 
domains,  castles,  villages,  and  even  entire  towns,  while  the  vassals 
wrere  rewarded  by  smaller  portions.  Towers  and  strong  places  arose  in 
every  direction ;  all  the  natives  were  disarmed,  and  compelled  to  swear 
obedience  to  their  new  sovereign.  To  overawe  the  city  of  London,  the 
conqueror  took  up  his  abode  in  the  Tower,  wThich  he  enlarged  and 
strengthened ;  here  he  raised  his  dreaded  banner  bearing  the  three  lions, 
and  similar  ensigns  floated  over  two  new  castles  towards  the  west  of 
the  city.  The  name  of  Saxon  became  a  term  of  reproach,  and  during  a 
whole  century  not  one  individual  of  this  race  was  elevated  to  any  civil 
or  ecclesiastical  dignity.  Even  their  language  and  alphabetical  charac¬ 
ters  were  rejected  as  barbarous ;  in  the  schools,  French  only  was 
allowed  to  be  taught;  the  Norman  idiom  was  employed  in  all  legal  acts 


248 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


until  the  reign  of  Edward  III. ;  and  some  slight  traces  of  it  may  be 
found  at  the  present  day. 

The  victor  having  thus  secured  his  conquest,  returned  to  his  dukedom 
to  receive  the  felicitations  of  his  Norman  subjects;  and  during  his 
absence,  the  Saxons,  incensed  by  the  arrogant  government  of  his  vice¬ 
roys,  rose  in  arms.  Their  revolt  however  was  of  brief  duration ;  for 
hastily  returning,  he  attacked  Exeter,  the  stronghold  of  the  insurgents, 
and  took  it  after  a  siege  of  eighteen  days. 

While  all  hopes  of  independence  were  thus  gradually  crushed  in  the 
West,  the  extensive  provinces  of  the  North  offered  an  asylum  to  the 
friends  of  liberty.  Edgar  had  early  taken  refuge  with  Malcolm  Can- 
more,  king  of  Scotland,  by  whom  he  was  received  as  legitimate 
sovereign,  and  whose  alliance  was  firmly  assured  by  his  marriage  with 
Margaret,  the  youngest  sister  of  the  English  prince.  William  did  not 
wait  for  his  antagonists  to  begin  the  campaign,  but  resolutely  marching 
northwards,  defeated  all  who  opposed  him,  cruelly  devastating  the 
whole  country,  at  the  cost,  it  is  said,  of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand 
lives.  Malcolm  was  soon  obliored  to  submit,  and  consent  to  hold  certain 

O  _ 7 

portions  of  his  kingdom  as  a  vassal  of  the  English  crown,  while  Edgar, 
the  last  male  descendant  of  Cerdic,  was  compelled  to  seek  a  reconcilia¬ 
tion  with  the  victor,  1072. 

The  conqueror  next  turned  his  attention  to  the  organization  of  his 
government,  and  as  his  power  depended  on  the  sword  alone,  all  grants 
and  fiefs  were  burdened  with  the  condition  of  furnishing,  whenever 
required,  a  certain  number  of  horsemen  completely  armed;  and  by  this 
regulation,  called  the  knights’  service,  the  king  was  enabled  to  raise  in 
a  brief  space  an  army  of  60,000  cavalry.  The  tenants  of  the  crown 
exacted  a  similar  and  proportional  service  from  their  dependants.  All 
the  followers  of  William  were  noble,  in  right  of  their  victory  and  foreign 
birth.  After  himself,  in  point  of  rank,  stood  the  governor  of  the  pro¬ 
vince,  or  count;  next  to  him  his  lieutenant  or  viscount  (vice-count) ; 
then  came  the  different  ranks  of  soldiers,  namely,  barons,  knights,  and 
esquires  or  sergeants.  A  general  survey  was  made  of  England,  the 
particulars  of  which  were  inserted  in  the  Domesday  Book,  or  Book  of 
Judgment.  From  this  account  and  other  equally  credible  sources,  we 
learn  that  the  daily  revenue  amounted  to  1061  pounds  weight  of  silver, 
or  nearly  one  million  and  a  quarter  sterling  per  annum ;  an  enormous 
sum,  when  we  consider  that  the  value  of  this  metal  was  perhaps  ten 
times  as  great  as  it  is  at  present. 

Robert,  William’s  eldest  son,  and  the  Norman  lords,  took  advantage 
of  the  absence  of  their  sovereign  to  revolt.  From  1078  to  1084,  the  king 
conducted  several  expeditions  into  France,  reduced  Manceaux,  and 
defeated  the  prince,  1079;  but  the  latter  again  took  up  arms,  on  the 
pretence  that  the  duchy  of  Normandy  fell  to  him  immediately  upon  his 
father  becoming  the  sovereign  of  a  foreign  nation.  He  wTas  supported 
by  the  king  of  France,  who  could  not  regard  without  uneasiness  the 
exaltation  of  his  vassal.  This  was  the  origin  of  a  long  series  of  wars 
between  the  two  countries,  during  which,  as  the  conqueror  was  march¬ 
ing  towards  Paris,  an  accident  caused  his  death,  1087.  In  the  previous 
year,  a  total  failure  of  the  harvest  in  England,  and  a  malignant  disorder, 
carried  off  many  thousands  of  the  inhabitants. 

William  Rufus,  1087,  the  second  son,  took  possession  of  his  father’s 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


249 


throne,  not  however  without  resistance,  for  revolts  broke  out  in  several 
parts  of  the  country,  which  were  put  down  by  the  aid  of  the  Saxons, 
who  flocked  to  the  royal  standard.  Normandy  was  at  this  time  in  a 
troubled  state,  owing  to  the  bad  government  of  Robert,  who,  after  two 
invasions  from  England,  resigned  the  administration  of  his  kingdom  to 
his  brother  for  ten  thousand  marks,  with  which  sum  he  raised  a  body  of 
troops  and  embarked  for  the  Crusades.  Rufus  governed  his  subjects 
with  a  rod  of  iron  ;  and  his  treasury,  soon  exhausted  by  his  prodigality, 
was  replenished  by  the  most  unscrupulous  means.  Taxes  and  fines 
were  imposed  on  the  liberty  of  hunting,  while  a  transgression  of  many 
of  the  forest-laws  was  made  punishable  with  death.  It  was  this  king, 
also,  who  established  the  44  benefit  of  clergy,”  by  virtue  of  which,  all 
persons  capitally  convicted,  saved  their  lives  by  proving  that  they  could 
read — a  most  convincing  proof  of  the  rarity  of  such  an  accomplishment. 
William,  who  had  now  become  odious  to  his  people,  was  shot  in  the 
New  Forest  of  Hampshire,  whether  accidentally  or  by  design,  is  un¬ 
certain,  2d  August  1100. 

Malcolm  Canmore. — In  1091,  William  entered  Scotland  to  revenge 
an  invasion  by  Malcolm,  whom  he  compelled  to  do  homage  for  the 
southern  counties.  The  Scottish  kin'g  and  his  eldest  son  perished  in 
battle  at  the  siege  of  Alnwick  castle,  1093,  when  the  throne  was  seized 
by  Donald  Bane,  who  in  a  few  months  was  deposed  by  Duncan,  an 
illegitimate  son  of  Malcolm’s;  and  he,  in  his  turn,  was  cut  off  by  Mal- 
peder,  Maormor  or  Earl  of  the  Mearns. 

THE  CHURCH. 

The  Roman  bishops  had  long  been  desirous  of  extending  the  Christian 
religion  into  the  countries  occupied  by  the  Mohammedans ;  but  the 
troubles  of  Europe  prevented  them  from  directing  a  full  share  of  their 
attention  to  that  object.  A  favourable  opportunity,  however,  occurred 
at  the  end  of  this  century,  and  Peter  the  Hermit  preached  a  holy  war 
throughout  Christendom.  The  papal  power  and  corruption  had  now 
nearly  attained  their  height.  Benedict  IX.  was  so  disorderly  in  his  con¬ 
duct,  that  even  the  Italians  degraded  him  from  his  office  in  1038,  and 
again  in  1044.  Leo  IX.,  a  pope  of  a  different  character,  was  not  the 
least  deserving  of  those  who  obtained  the  name  of  saint.  His  regula¬ 
tions  for  correcting  and  punishing  the  enormous  vices  of  the  clergy  may 
be  held  as  some  criterion  of  the  corrupt  state  of  the  church. 

Gregory  VII.,  Hildebrand,  who  was  the  first  pontiff  elected  by  the 
college  of  cardinals,  1073,  was  a  man  in  every  way  suited  to  maintain 
the  cause  of  the  Roman  see,  his  chief  object  being  the  attainment  of 
worldly  gain  and  authority.  While  he  disputed  with  the  emperor  for 
power,  he  contended  with  human  reason  in  support  of  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  and  with  the  clergy  for  the  enforcement  of  celibacy; 
a  practice  that  had  early  been  introduced  into  the  Christian  church  from 
the  Jewish  Essenes,  and  the  philosophical  sect  of  the  Gnostics.  He 
began  by  excommunicating  some  of  the  ministers  of  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.,  on  the  pretence  of  simony,  and  then  denied  to  the  sovereign  the 
right  of  investiture  by  the  ring  and  crosier  ;  maintaining  that  the  estates 
of  the  bishops  might  be  conferred  by  a  layman,  but  that  those  emblems 
)f  spiritual  power  could  only  be  bestowed  by  the  vicar  of  Christ.  The 


250 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


resistance  of  Henry  led  to  the  deposition  of  the  pope  by  the  council  of 
Worms  ;  when  Gregory  in  his  turn  excommunicated  the  king,  and  re¬ 
leased  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance,  1076.  His  majesty  obtained 
an  absolution  from  this  sentence  by  sitting  at  the  pope’s  gate  three  days 
barefooted,  and  clad  in  coarse  woollen.  Retreading  his  steps,  he  not 
only  subdued  the  German  rebellion,  but  also  banished  the  refractory 
pontiff,  and  commanded  himself  to  be  crowned  in  Rome  by  the  antipope 
Guibert  (Clement  III.),  1084.  Gregory  expired,  the  year  following,  at 
Salerno,  saying,  “  I  have  loved  righteousness  and  hated  iniquity,  there¬ 
fore  do  I  die  in  exile.” 

Towards  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  Hungarians  were  convert¬ 
ed,  and  their  king,  Stephen,  received  the  title  of  “Apostolic”  from  the 
pope.  In  France,  Berenger,  archdeacon  of  Angers,  openly  attacked 
the  new  opinions  on  the  eucharist,  for  which  he  was  twice  threatened 
with  excommunication  :  while  at  Constantinople,  the  patriarch  Ceru- 
larius  resisted  the  claims  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  to  the  chief  rank  and 
authority  among  the  faithful,  1053. 

Transubstantiation. — This  most  astonishing  doctrine  arose  from  taking  a 
figure  of  speech  in  a  literal  sense.  According  to  the  Romish  church,  when 
the  words  of  consecration  have  been  pronounced  by  the  priest,  the  bread,  and 
every  fragment  into  which  it  is  again  broken,  become  the  actual  body  of  flesh 
and  blood  in  which  our  Redeemer  suffered  upon  the  cross, —  remaining  bread 
to  the  sight,  touch,  and  taste,  yet  ceasing  to  be  so.  Of  all  the  corruptions  of 
pure  Christianity,  this  last  was  the  slowest  in  being  adopted.  It  was  first  pro¬ 
posed  in  831  by  Radbert,  afterwards  abbot  of  Corbey ;  but  it  was  not  declared 
the  doctrine  of  the  church  until  1215.  When  the  question  was  first  brought 
before  Hildebrand,  he  not  only  inclined  to  the  principle  of  Berenger,  by  whom 
it  was  opposed,  1079,  but  pretended  to  consult  the  Virgin  Mary,  who,  he 
asserted,  had  pronounced  against  it.  It  was  finally  declared  by  Innocent  III. 
to  be  a  tenet  necessary  to  salvation. 

La  Chartreuse. —  In  the  midst  of  the  troubles  which  at  this  time  agitated 
the  church,  there  arose  a  new  order  of  solitaries,  who,  by  holiness  of  life, 
mortification,  and  prayer,  at  once  edified  the  people  and  honoured  religion.  St. 
Bruno,  founder  of  the  order  of  Chartreuse,  was  born  at  Cologne  of  distinguish¬ 
ed  parents  ;  and  soon  became  so  skilful  in  theology,  that  he  passed  for  one  of 
the  most  learned  doctors  of  the  age.  While  filling  a  distinguished  station  in 
the  cathedral  of  Rheims,  he  suddenly  formed  the  resolution  of  withdrawing 
into  solitude.  With  some  of  his  friends,  in  whom  he  had  inspired  similar  feel¬ 
ings,  he  retired  into  the  desert  of  the  Chartreuse,  in  the  diocese  of  Grenoble, 
whither  the  report  of  their  sanctity  quickly  attracted  a  number  of  imitators. 
St.  Bruno  himself  was  invited  to  Rome  by  Urban  II. ;  but  the  disorders  which 
he  beheld  there  soon  disgusted  him,  and  he  retired  into  Calabria,  where  he 
founded  a  monastery,  in  which  he  died.  The  regulations  of  the  order  are  still 
preserved  with  the  same  strictness  as  when  first  drawn  up.  Each  brother  has 
a  separate  cell ;  they  live  upon  the  plainest  food,  and  that  in  small  quantifies  ; 
and  only  the  Sabbath  is  spent  in  each  other’s  society.  Their  clothing  is  simple 
and  coarse  ;  sackcloth  is  worn  next  the  skin  ;  all  gold  and  silver  ornaments  are 
expressly  forbidden,  even  in  their  religious  services,  with  the  exception  of  a 
silver  chalice  used  in  the  sacrament.  They  observe  the  strictest  silence,  com¬ 
municating  only  by  signs,  and  support  themselves  by  the  labour  of  their  hands. 

Truce  of  God. — In  these  ages,  when  a  country  was  it  peace  with  its  neigh¬ 
bours,  it  was  liable  to  be  disturbed  by  private  wars,  individuals  taking  upon 
themselves  the  right  of  deciding  their  own  quarrels.  In  consequence  of  the 
confusion  which  this  caused,  it  was  enacted  by  the  council  of  Clermont,  that 
from  sunset  on  Wednesday  to  sunrise  on  Monday,  in  every  week,  the  Truce 
of  God  should  be  observed  on  pain  of  excommunication.  But  the  same  coun- 
-  cii  also  published  a  canon,  which  has  ever  since  produced  the  most  disastrous 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


251 


effects  wherever  Romanism  is  tolerated  or  established:  namely,  that  “no 
bishop  or  priest  shall  promise  upon  oath  liege  obedience  to  any  king  or  layman.” 

Tradition. — With  the  decay  and  corruption  of  the  Latin  language,  the 
Latin  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  had  become  useless  to  the  people ;  and 
the  Roman  see  exerted  its  power  in  proscribing  the  use  of  such  vernacular 
translations  as  existed.  This  was  done  in  the  consciousness  that  what  was 
then  taught  as  Christianity  was  not  to  be  found  in  the  written  word  of  God.* 
Vague  unwritten  tradition,  the  artifice  of  the  early  heretics,  was  used  instead, 
on  the  assumption  that  many  things  had  been  revealed  which  had  not  been 
committed  to  writing.  Thus,  like  the  Pharisees,  the  Romish  clergy  corrupted 
the  ritual  and  faith  of  the  Western  Church.  Gregory  VII.  issued  the  first  of 
these  prohibitions,  refusing  to  the  Bohemians  the  liberty  of  performing  the 
service  in  Sclavonic. 


THE  CRUSADES. 

Peter  the  Hermit. — During  many  centuries  the  devout  Christians 
of  all  countries  had  gratified  their  curiosity  or  excited  their  piety  by 
laborious  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land,  the  theatre  of  the  mission  and 
sufferings  of  our  Blessed  Lord.  When  at  length  Palestine  fell  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Saracens — and  still  later,  when  the  Turkish  hordes 
overran  it, — these  visits  became  more  dangerous,  and  perhaps,  on  that 
very  account,  more  numerous.  The  humble  and  defenceless  palmers 
were  treated  with  the  greatest  contumely ;  and,  becoming  victims  of 
private  rapine  or  public  oppression,  they  often  sank  within  sight  of  the 
object  for  which  they  had  encountered  innumerable  perils.  Their  piteous 
tale  of  suffering  excited  the  sympathy  of  Christendom,  when  the  letters 
of  Alexius  and  the  eloquence  of  Peter  the  Hermit  set  fire  “to  that  in¬ 
flammable  mass  of  enthusiasm  that  pervaded  Europe.”  The  zealous 
apostle  of  the  Holy  War  had  been  himself  an  eyewitness  of  the  suffer¬ 
ings  of  the  natives  and  pilgrims  of  Palestine,  j- 

Sylvester  II.  and  Gregory  VII.  had  meditated  a  European  armament 
against  Asia ;  but  the  glory  of  the  enterprise  was  reserved  for  Urban  II. 
At  the  council  of  Clermont,  1095,  the  listening  thousands  shouted  with 
one  voice,  “  it  is  the  will  of  God,”  and  impressed  on  their  garments  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  Their  numbers  were  increased  by  the  offer  of  a 
plenary  indulgence,  extending  to  past  as  well  as  future  crimes.  Who 
would  hesitate,  when  the  crown  of  martyrdom  was  allotted  to  those  who 
fell  1  The  departure  of  the  expedition  had  been  fixed  for  the  15th  August 
1096 ;  but  before  that  period  arrived,  a  thoughtless  crowd  of  both  sexes 
issued  from  France  with  Peter  at  their  head,  and  Walter  the  Penniless 
as  his  lieutenant;  other  bands  of  enthusiasts  followed,  one  in  particular 
being  under  the  guidance  of  a  goose  and  a  goat.ij:  Their  earliest  exploits 

*  The  practice  of  Rome  has  not  changed  with  the  times.  In  1817,  a  papal  brief,  ad¬ 
dressed  to  the  Polish  primate,  was  issued  against  Bible  Societies,  describing  them  as  a 
vaferrimum  inventum,  pestem  quoad  fieri  potest  delendam. 

|  M.  Pouqueville  does  not  consider  Peter  as  a  mere  enthusiast  ;  he  shows  that  he  was 
employed  by  the  Frank  merchants  settled  in  Palestine,  to  plead  their  cause  at  the  court 
of  the  French  monarch,  and  point  out  the  danger  to  which  their  commerce  was  exposed 
from  the  ferocity  of  the  Seljukian  Turks,  who  had  overthrown  the  Saracenic  empire.— 
Mem.  de  Plnstitut.  tom.  x. 

X  Mr  W.  Billings,  in  his  account  of  the  Temple  Church  (London,  1838),  thinks  these  to 
be  allegorical  Manichee  or  Gnostic  standards.  “  The  goose  in  Egyptian  symbols  meant 
Divine  Son,  or  Son  of  God.  The  goat  meant  Typhon  or  the  Devil.  Thus  we  have  the 
Manichee  opposing  principles  of  good  and  evil  as  standards,  at  the  head  of  the  ignorant 
mob  of  crusading  invaders.  Can  any  one  doubt  that  a  large  portion  of  this  host  must 
have  been  infected  with  Manichee  or  Gnostic  idolatry  ?” — P.  5. 


252 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


were  against  the  Jews,  thousands  of  whom  along  the  Rhine  and  the 
Moselle  weie  pillaged  and  slain.  The  first  party  under  Walter  passed 
cafe  through  Hungary;  but  were  attacked,  and  one-third  of  their  number 
slain,  in  Bulgaria.  Peter,  who  followed  with  40,000  men,  seeing  on  the 
walls  of  Semlin  the  clothes  of  sixteen  crusaders  who  had  been  impaled, 
took  a  cruel  revenge,  massacring  all  the  prisoners  he  could  make.  No 
sooner  had  they  reached  Constantinople,  and  recovered  from  their 
fatigues,  than  their  riotous  behaviour  compelled  Alexius  to  hasten  their 
passage  aero  s  the  strait.  They  soon  fell  an  easy  prey  to  Soliman  on 
the  plains  of  Nice;  and  300,000  perished  before  one  single  place  was 
rescued  from  the  infidels. 

First  Crusade. — A  disciplined  army  was  now  assembled  under  God¬ 
frey  of  Bouillon,  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  and  Hugh  the  Great  of  Ver- 
mandois  ;  and  breaking  up  their  encampment  in  1096,  they  marched  by 
three  different  routes  for  Constantinople,  where  they  all  met  within  nine 
months.  Their  numbers  and  discipline  excited  the  fears  of  the  emperor, 
who  skilfully  extricating  himself  from  every  difficulty,  saw  all  of  them 
at  length  across  the  Bosphorus.  At  a  grand  muster  on  the  plains  of 
Bithynia  next  year,  100,000  armed  knights  were  counted,  the  flower  of 
European  chivalry ;  and  the  total  number  has  been  raised  to  600,000, 
not  including  priests,  women,  and  children.  The  city  of  Nice,  after  an 
obstinate  assault,  fell  into  their  hands;  and  one  fiercely  contested  battle 
at  Doryiseum  decided  the  fate  of  Asia  Minor.  A  fatiguing  march  under 
a  burning  sun,  during  which  they  suffered  intolerable  thirst,  conducted 
those  iron-clad  warriors  to  Antioch.  The  siege  being  formed  about  the 
middle  of  October,  the  town  yielded  to  treachery  at  the  end  of  seven 
months :  but  the  victors,  in  their  turn,  were  attacked  at  once  by  the 
garrison  in  the  citadel  and  by  an  innumerable  army  of  Turks  or  Arabians. 
During  twenty-five  days,  the  Christians  were  on  the  verge  of  destruc¬ 
tion ;  till,  taking  courage  from  despair,  they  sallied  out  and  annihilated 
the  besieging  host,  1098.  Famine  and  pestilence  now  made  deep 
ravages  among  them  :  the  Count  of  Flanders  was  reduced  to  beg  a 
dinner,  and  Duke  Geoffrey  is  said  to  have  borrowed  a  horse.  But  the 
fainting  spirits  of  the  army  were  in  due  time  revived  by  the  cunning  of 
a  priest  and  the  policy  of  the  chiefs.  St.  Andrew  had  thrice  appeared  to 
Peter  Bartholomew,  for  the  purpose  of  revealing  the  place  where  the 
steel  head  of  the  lance  that  pierced  the  side  of  our  Redeemer  lay  con¬ 
cealed.  He  was  told  to  seek  it  and  use  it  as  a  banner,  and  to  assure 
the  leaders  of  the  expedition  that  under  that  mystic  weapon  they  could 
not  fail  to  march  to  victory.  The  Holy  Lance  was  discovered,  and 
dazzled  the  eyes  or  the  imagination  of  a  fanatical  multitude.  After  a 
delay  of  ten  months,  caused  by  intemperance  and  distress,  the  army, 
diminished  to  40,000,  began  their  march  to  Jerusalem,  which  was  taken 
after  a  siege  of  six  weeks,  in  1099,  about  460  years  after  its  conquest 
by  Omar.  Three  days  were  spent  in  promiscuous  slaughter :  70,000 
Moslems  were  put  to  the  sword ;  the  Jews  were  burnt  in  their  syna¬ 
gogues  ;  and  a  multitude  of  unfortunate  captives  still  remained  to  gratify 
the  avarice  of  the  conquerors.  44  The  holy  sepulchre  was  now  free ; 
and  the  bloody  victors  prepared  to  accomplish  their  vow.  Bareheaded 
and  barefooted,  with  contrite  hearts,  and  in  an  humble  posture,  they 
ascended  the  Hill  of  Calvary,  amidst  the  loud  anthems  of  the  clergy ; 
kissed  the  stone  which  had  covered  *he  Saviour  of  the  world;  and 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  253 

bedewed  with  tears  of  joy  and  penitence  the  monument  of  their  redemp¬ 
tion.” 

The  unanimous  voice  of  the  army  elected  Godfrey  king  of  Jerusalem, 
1099,  but  he  refused  to  accept  the  title,  or  to  wTear  a  crown  of  gold  in 
that  city  in  which  his  Redeemer  had  been  crowned  with  thorns.  He 
was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne,  with  the  title  of  Baron  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  when  he  was  summoned  to  the  field  by  the  approach  of  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt  with  an  army  of  more  than  300,000  men.  The  total 
rout  of  the  latter  on  the  field  of  Ascalon  completely  established  the 
Latin  kingdom  in  Syria,  which,  by  the  arms  of  Godfrey  and  the  two 
Baldwins,  soon  equalled  in  extent  the  dominions  of  the  ancient  mon- 
archs  of  Judah  and  Israel.  The  laws,  language,  and  feudal  jurispru¬ 
dence  of  the  Franks  were  introduced;  the  orders  of  the  knights  of  the 
Hospital  of  St.John,  and  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  were  founded  — 
the  firmest  bulwarks  of  the  Christian  pow’er. 

Read:  Mill’s  History  of  the  Crusades;  or,  Michaud. 

GENERAL  TABLE  OF  THE  CRUSADES. 


FIRST  CRUSADE. 


Date. 

Kings,  Popes, 

&.C. 

Events. 

Remarkable 

Persons. 

Causes. 

Results. 

From 

A.  D.  — 

to 

A.  D.  — 

• 

Prepare :  A  similar  table  for  each  crusade.  Particulars  may  be  found  in 
Gibbon,  and  the  authors  just  named. 


CHIVALRY. 

The  extravagances  of  chivalry  long  caused  the  institution  itself  to  be  regard¬ 
ed  as  an  example  of  the  caprice  and  absurdity  of  the  human  mind.  The  his¬ 
torian  of  the  order  traces  its  rise  to  the  eleventh  century,  and  to  the  aggrandize¬ 
ment  of  the  French  barons  at  the  commencement  of  the  third  or  Capetian  race. 
Every  noble  in  his  castle  emulated  the  pomp  of  his  sovereign ;  in  each  district 
the  ceremony  of  a  court  was  maintained,  which  became  a  school  of  manners 
where  the  high-born  youth  received  their  education.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  they  were  eligible  to  the  honourable  distinction  of  knighthood.  Respect 
for  the  gentler  sex,  and  the  influence  of  the  Christian  religion,  contributed  to 
form  the  character  of  the  young  knight.  He  appears  as  a  man  actuated  by  a 
daring  and  martial  spirit,  seeking  his  reward  in  the  approbation  of  the  ladies, 
to  one  of  whom,  as  to  a  superior  being,  the  object  of  his  early  choice,  he  was 
bound  to  communicate  every  thought  and  action.  The  tournaments,  mock- 
fights  between  selected  individuals,  date  from  a  very  early  period,  but  their 
lutter  form  must  be  ascribed  to  the  regulations  of  Geoffrey  of  Preuilli,  10f6. 

Here  throngs  of  knights  and  barons  bold 
In  weeds  of  peace  high  triumph  hold, 

With  store  of  ladies,  whose  bright  eyes 

Rain  influence,  and  judge  the  prize 

Of  wit  or  arms.  '  Milton. 


22 


Z54 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


The  peacock,  pheasant,  and  swan,  were  regarded  as  emblems  of  the  parade 
and  pride  of  chivalry,  and  reverenced  with  such  religious  veneration  that  the 
knight  was  sometimes  bound  by  an  oath  made  to  his  Creator,  to  the  Virgin,  to 
the  ladies,  and  to  one  of  these  birds.  But  while  the  laws  of  chivalry  breathed 
nothing  but  religion,  virtue,  honour,  and  humanity,  the  times  were  marked  by 
profligacy,  violence,  and  barbarism.  It  flourished  during  these  centuries  of 
returning  order,  having  appeared  when  the  worst  period  of  barbarism  had  gone 
by,  and  society  was  beginning  to  assume  a  regular  form.  It  gradually  gave 
way  to  the  chivalry  of  modern  Europe,  as  mankind  became  capable  of  con¬ 
ducting  themselves  agreeably  to  reasonable  principles  of  action. 

STATE  OF  THE  WORLD  AT  THE  EPOCH  OF  THE 
CRUSADES,  FROM  1096  TO  1273. 

Rome  and  Germany  were  the  dominant  powers  of  the  West :  both  assumed 
the  right  of  creating  kings,  to  which  the  former  added  that  of  deposing  them. 
The  quarrel  of  investitures,  begun  by  Henry  IV.  and  Gregory  VII.,  set  Europe 
in  flames.  The  nobles  took  this  opportunity  of  securing  their  independence  ; 
anarchy  reigned  in  the  cities ;  and  the  fields  were  ravaged  by  undisciplined 
bands  of  armed  men. 

France  began  to  assume  a  more  tranquil  position,  the  number  of  states 
being  greatly  diminished ;  but  there  still  remained  several  powerful  vassals. 
The  Dukes  of  Normandy,  become  more  formidable  since  the  conquest  of 
England,  had  subjected  the  sovereigns  of  Brittany  ;  and  the  Dukes  of  Aqui- 
taine  reigned  over  the  vast  territory  lying  between  the  Loire  and  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Cevennes  and  the  Ocean.  The  greater  part  of  Languedoc  obeyed  the 
Counts  of  Toulouse  ;  those  of  Flanders  added  to  their  possession  of  that  fertile 
country  the  submission  of  their  neighbours ;  and  the  Counts  of  Champagne 
enjoyed  that  rich  part  of  France  which  still  bears  the  name.  The  Dukes  of 
Burgundy,  attached  to  the  monarchy  by  the  closest  ties  of  blood,  governed 
from  the  banks  of  the  Loire  to  the  Straits  of  Dover. 

In  Spain  two  kings  were  the  terror  of  the  Moors :  Sancho,  who  united 
Navarre  to  Aragon;  and  Alphonso  of  Castile,  who  gradually  extended  his 
southern  frontier.  Meanwhile,  the  new  Count  of  Portugal  planted  the  bannei 
of  Christianity  on  the  banks  of  the  Tagus. 

England,  under  the  resolute  conqueror  William,  was  at  once  oppressed  by 
his  exactions  and  strengthened  by  his  prudence. 

Bohemia ,  increased  by  the  conquest  of  Poland,  became  a  remarkable  power, 
and  sided  with  the  Emperor,  who  had  conferred  the  regal  title  on  its  chiefs. 
Hungary ,  in  a  weaker  state,  supported  the  interests  of  the  pope,  who  had 
given  its  princes  a  crown.  Poland  was  one  wide  scene  of  confusion,  under 
dukes  without  talent  and  without  authority.  Sweden ,  Denmark ,  and  Russia 
were  still  in  obscurity.  Apulia ,  Calabria ,  and  Sicily,  reunited  under  the  war¬ 
like  Normans,  were  respected  in  the  West,  being  at  once  the  terror  of  the 
Greek  empire,  and  the  protectors  of  Italy. 

The  Greek  Empire,  long  tending  towards  its  fall,  and  undermined  by  all 
the  evils  which  can  destroy  a  state,  was  still  preserved  by  the  extreme  prudence 
and  sagacity  of  Alexius  Comnenus. 

Venice  and  Genoa  were  the  only  maritime  powers  of  the  West ;  but,  rivals 
in  navigation  and  commerce,  they  began  to  view  each  other  with  jealousy,  and 
to  nourish  in  secret  the  seeds  of  those  quarrels  which  eventually  proved  fatal  to 
both. 

The  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  were  deprived  of  all  but  their  sacerdotal  power ; 
their  empire  was  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks.  Five  thrones  in  Asia  were 
filled  by  these  warriors  : — 1.  Persia,  whose  sultan  reigned  supreme  from  Ar¬ 
menia  to  the  Indus  ; — 2.  Antioch  and  Syria; — 3.  Damascus  and  Palestine; — 
4.  Cilicia  and  the  adjacent  provinces  ; — 5.  Nice,  the  seat  of  Soliman,  governor 
of  Bithynia. — The  Caliphs  of  Cairo  with  difficulty  maintained  themselves  upon 
the  throne  of  Egypt  ;  the  Miramolms  of  Africa  were  subdued  by  the  Kings  of 
Morocco,  who  protected  the  Saracen  power  in  Spain,  and  were  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  the  Castilian  monarchs. 

Construct :  A  map  of  the  world  at  this  period,  with  the  necessary  explana¬ 
tions  in  lateral  columns. 


TWELFTH  CENTURA  A.  D. 


255 


TWELFTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — 1118,  Armenia  recovered. — 1143,  Manuel  I. — 1185,  House 
of  Angelo. — Mourzoufle. 

The  East. — 1117,  Sangiar. — 1118,  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem — Knights 
Templars. — 1127,  Attabeks. — 1171,  Saladin. — 1187,  Jerusalem  taken  by 
Saladin. — 1191,  Crusaders  take  Acre. — 1191,  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain. 
Italy. — 1144,  Arnold  of  Brescia. — 1158,  Diet  of  Roncaglia. — Podesta. — 1174, 
Battle  of  Legnano. — Guelfs  and  Ghibellines. — 1183,  Treaty  of  Constance. 
Germany. — 1122, Concordat. — 1138,  Swabian  Line — Guelfs  and  Ghibellines. — 
1152,  Barbarossa. — 1194,  Conquest  of  Naples. 

France.— 1108,  Rise  of  Civil  Corporations. — 1113,  Wars  with  England  begun. 
— 1180,  Philip  Augustus — Parliament. 

Spain. — Alphonso  VI.  of  Castile. — 1139,  Alphonso,  first  king  of  Portugal — 
1150,  Commoners  in  the  Cortes,  Aragon. — Military  Orders. 

Britain. — 1100,  Henry  Beauclerc — First  Charter. — 1135,  Stephen. — 1138,  Bat¬ 
tle  of  the  Standard. — 1154,  Plantagenets. — 1164,  Constitutions  of  Clarendon. 
— 1172,  Invasion  of  Ireland. — 1189,  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion. 

Church. — 1154,  Adrian  IV. — Abbey  of  Fontevraud. — The  Carmelites. — 1147, 
Second  Crasade. — 1189,  Third  Crusade. 

Literature.  —  Anna  Comnena.  —  Eustathius.  —  Chroniclers  in  England. — 
Abelard,  d. — Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  d. — Peter  the  Lombard. — University  of 
Cambridge. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Manuel  I. — John  Comnenus,  who  had  recovered  Armenia  from  the 
Turks  and  driven  back  the  Scythians  to  their  deserts,  perished  by  a 
poisoned  arrow,  while  meditating  the  extension  of  his  empire  to  the 
Euphrates,  1143.  He  was  succeeded  by  Manuel,  whose  adventures 
resemble  a  tale  of  knight  errantry,  and  which  have  caused  him  to  be 
ranked  with  the  chivalrous  Richard  of  England  and  Charles  of  Sweden. 
His  lance  and  shield  could  scarcely  be  lifted  by  the  strongest  man.  At 
one  time  he  cut  his  way  alone,  without  a  wound,  through  a  squadron 
of  500  Turks ;  and  in  a  battle  against  the  Hungarians  he  was  the  first 
who  passed  the  bridge  which  separated  him  from  the  enemy.  In  one 
day  he  slew  forty  barbarians  with  his  own  hand,  and  returned  to  the 
camp  dragging  after  him  four  gigantic  Turks,  fastened  to  his  saddle-bow. 
But  he  w^as  wanting  in  sagacity  to  improve  his  victories,  for  though, 
like  Alcibiades,  he  was  in  wrar  a  pattern  of  endurance  to  his  soldiers,  in 
peace  he  spent  the  time  in  luxury  and  licentious  pleasure.  .Still  he  so 
far  succeeded  in  maintaining  the  dignity  of  the  empire  as  to  reduce  the 
Servians,  vThile  he  supported  the  Crusaders  in  their  expedition  against 
Egypt. 

Andronicus. — Alexius  II.,  a  minor,  who  succeeded  in  1180,  held  the 
sceptre  only  three  years,  under  the  regency  of  his  mother.  The  state 
of  the  frontiers  required  a  vigorous  sovereign,  and  Andronicus  was 
raised  to  the  purple  by  a  successful  revolt.  This  emperor  had  signal¬ 
ized  himself  in  the  Turkish  vrar  by  his  bravery  and  remarkable  adven¬ 
tures,  but  the  more  interesting  part  of  his  life  begins  wfith  his  imprison 


256 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


ment  for  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  King  of  Hungary. 
Twelve  years  had  passed,  when  accident  discovered  a  long-forgotten 
recess  into  which  he  crept,  when  the  guards  supposed  he  had  fled.  His 
wife  being  suspected  of  aiding  in  his  flight,  was  imprisoned  in  the  same 
dungeon,  and  with  her  he  shared  his  scanty  provisions.  At  length, 
after  one  unsuccessful  attempt,  he  escaped  from  the  cell,  and  found  an 
asylum  in  Russia.  The  exile  was  soon  after  pardoned  and  restored  to 
his  country,  only  to  be  removed  to  the  more  honourable  banishment  of 
the  defence  of  the  Cilician  frontier ;  but,  having  offended  Manuel,  he 
was  forced  to  flee,  and  finally  settled  among  the  Turks  of  Asia  Minor. 
After  a  space,  however,  he  obtained  leave  to  throw  himself  at  the  feet 
of  his  sovereign,  who  was  satisfied  with  this  submission  of  a  brave  and 

t  3  7 

haughty  spirit.  The  youth  and  inexperience  of  Alexius  II.,  Manuel’s 
successor,  opened  a  fair  field  for  his  ambition ;  and  he  was  loudly  sum¬ 
moned  by  the  public  voice  to  end  the  civil  war  now  violently  raging  ir 
the  streets  of  the  capital,  1183.  No  sooner  was  his  power  confirmed 
than  he  began  to  exhibit  a  singular  contrast  of  vice  and  virtue.  His 
personal  enemies  he  persecuted  without  mercy,  while  in  other  respects 
he  was  the  father  of  his  people.  A  narrative  of  his  horrid  cruelties 
would  be  less  characteristic  of  his  reign,  than  the  term  “  halcyon  days” 
given  to  a  week  of  peace  and  happiness.  Some  have  supposed  that  his 
severities  originated  in  a  deep-laid  plan  for  regenerating  the  empire,  to 
effect  which,  it  was  necessary  to  exterminate  the  factious  and  dissolute 
nobles  of  Byzantium.  However  we  may  now  excuse  his  tyranny  on  the 
plea  of  necessity,  his  subjects  could  make  no  such  calculation and 
wearied  out  by  their  calamities,  they  burst  into  sedition,  placing  Isaac 

II.  at  their  head. 

Andronicus  struggled  in  vain  against  the  infuriated  mob  ;  and  soon 
falling  into  their  hands,  he  was  torn  to  pieces  in  1185.  His  death  was 
a  fatal  blow  to  the  Greek  empire.  Isaac  Angelus  wTon  golden  opinions 
from  his  subjects  by  his  lenity  and  moderation;  but  after  being  success¬ 
ful  in  some  of  his  foreign  expeditions,  he  had  to  defend  his  capital 
against  one  of  his  generals,  Branas,  who  was  defeated  and  killed  by 
Conrad  of  Montferrat.  The  emperor  next  directing  the  whole  strength 
of  his  army  to  oppose  the  march  of  Frederic  Barbarossa,  his  treacherous 
conduct  met  with  the  fate  it  deserved,  and  he  was  obliged  to  make  peace 
on  dishonourable  terms,  1189.  While  amusing  himself  with  his  buf¬ 
foons,  or  engaged  in  the  gross  delights  of  the  table,  his  brother,  Alexius 

III.  was  unanimously  invested  with  the  purple,  1195;  but  a  change  of 
masters  did  not  bring  a  change  of  conduct,  for  the  new  monarch  equalled 
his  predecessor  in  dissoluteness  of  life. 

The  son  of  Isaac  had  escaped  into  Italy,  and  persuaded  the  leaders  of 
the  fourth  Crusade  to  aid  in  raising  him  to  the  throne,  engaging  to  unite 
the  Greek  and  Roman  churches,  and  to  contribute  funds  for  the  war. 
Alexius  resisted  in  vain;  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
crusaders  ;  and  the  blind  Isaac  was  recalled  from  a  prison  to  a  throne, 
1203.  But  dissension  soon  re-appearing,  the  Greeks  and  Latins  fought 
three  days  ;  and  Alexius  V.,  Mourzoufle,  having  deposed  the  empero 
and  his  son,  shortly  after  murdered  them.  In  this  instance  guilt  over¬ 
reached  itself,  for  the  crusaders  avenged  the  cause  of  the  late  monarch, 
and  Constantinople  was  given  up  to  pillage  in  1204.  The  misery  of 
the  Greeks  on  the  ruin  of  their  city  cannot  be  described ;  the  sanctity 


TWELFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


257 


of  the  churches  and  graves  was  violated  ;  the  arts  have  to  lament  the 
destruction  of  the  choicest  sculptures  in  marble  or  in  brass ;  and  the 
scholar  to  regret  the  loss  of  some  of  the  noblest  remains  of  Greek 
learning. 

THE  EAST, 

The  Attabeks. — The  history  of  the  Mohammedans  in  this  century  is 
almost  that  of  the  crusades.  The  Seljukian  dynasty  had  flourished  and 
was  now  doomed  to  perish  like  its  predecessors,  for  Sangiar  was  the 
last  of  his  race,  1117.  Meantime  the  mayors  of  the  palace  again  ap¬ 
peared  in  the  East ;  the  Attabeks  or  father  princes,  who  were  governors 
of  towns,  made  themselves  independent  in  their  respective  provinces. 
Zenghi,  1127,  fought  thirty  campaigns  with  various  success;  drove  the 
Franks  from  beyond  the  Euphrates;  and  the  martial  but  uncivilized 
mountain-tribes  of  Kurdistan  were  overawed  by  the  governor  of  Aleppo 
and  Mosul.  Noureddin,  his  son,  1145,  reigned  from  the  Tigris  to  the 
Nile ;  and  the  Latins  were  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  wisdom,  courage, 
and  frugality  of  this  faithful  servant  of  the  Abbassides.  “  O  Noureddin,” 
exclaimed  an  oppressed  man,  “  where  art  thou  now  J  Arise  from  the 
dead;  arise,  to  pity  and  protect  us!” — The  reconquest  of  Egypt  from 
the  Fatimites  was  the  work  of  time,  as  they  were  assisted  by  the  Frank 
army  of  Jerusalem,  1163.  Three  sanguinary  campaigns  were  shortly 
after  followed  by  the  deposition  of  the  caliphs,  and  Egypt  exchanged  the 
green  colour  of  Ali  for  the  black  banner  of  the  Abbassides.  The  famous 
Saladin  was  elected  governor  of  Egypt  by  the  universal  acclamations 
of  the  army,  1171,  and  he  soon  contrived  to  make  himself  independent. 
Before  his  death  he  had  extended  his  power  beyond  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  from  Tripoli  to  the  Tigris,  and  from  the  Armenian  mountains  to 
the  Indian  Ocean.  In  1187,  he  invaded  Palestine  with  an  army  of 
80,000  men,  gained  the  decisive  victory  of  Tiberias,  and  took  Jerusalem 
after  a  short  siege. 

These  events  gave  rise,  in  less  than  two  years,  to  the  Third  Crusade, 
in  which  he  contended  so  successfully  against  the  valour  of  the  lion- 
hearted  Richard  and  the  craft  of  Philip,  that  he  was  enabled  to  negotiate 
for  peace  on  favourable  terms.  The  reign  of  this  great  leader  was  ter¬ 
minated  by  death,  and  his  vast  dominions  were  divided,  in  the  reign  of 
the  Caliph  Naser,  1193. 

ITALY. 

The  events  of  the  preceding  century  had  gradually  undermined  the 
authority  of  the  emperors  in  this  peninsula,  although  their  title  had 
never  ceased  to  be  acknowledged.  Frederick  Barbarossa,  the  greatest 
military  commander  of  the  age,  was  ambitious  of  regaining  all  the 
power  and  privileges  of  the  Iron  Crown.*  He  appeared  in  Italy  at  the 
head  of  a  well-appointed  army  to  support  his  claims,  and  after  a  brief 
delay  caused  by  the  diet  of  Roncaglia,  1158,  by  the  hostility  of  Pope 
Adrian  IV.,  and  by  the  punishment  of  a  few  small  rebellious  towns,  he 
laid  siege  to  Milan,  which  he  captured  and  rased  to  the  ground,  1162. 

*  The  iron  crown  of  Lombardy  is  described  by  St.  Marc  as  having  the  gold  bordered 
with  a  rim  of  iron.  It  was,  with  two  others,  presented  to  the  church  of  Monza,  where 
the  first  Lombard  prince  had  abjured  Arianism,  a.  d.  591. 

22* 


258 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


The  Lombard  cities  were  now  subjected  to  a  podesta,  always  a  strangef, 
and  who  held  his  extensive  powers  during  the  pleasure  of  the  emperor. 
But  when  fortune  is  at  the  lowest,  it  must  change  for  the  better :  a  secret 
league  formed  by  those  communities,  encouraged  by  Alexander  III.,  by 
Venice,  and  by  the  Greek  court,  overturned  the  fabric  of  absolute  power, 
and  Frederick  fled  in  disguise  from  the  decisive  field  of  Legnano,  1174. 
A  truce  of  six  years  followed,  the  terms  of  which  were  not  unfavour¬ 
able  to  the  allies.  On  its  expiration,  the  treaty  of  Constance,  1183, 
secured  the  peace  and  liberty  of  the  Italian  republics.  Bnt  dissension 
and  hatred  soon  began  to  appear  among  the  confederated  cities  ;  and  the 
factions  of  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines  again  subjected  them  to  the 
German  sway. 

Arnold  of  Brescia. — Arnold,  the  author  of  what  was  aptly  named 
the  heresy  of  politicians,  after  his  return  from  France,  where  he  had 
studied  under  the  celebrated  Abelard,  preached  at  Brescia  against  the 
corruption  and  ambition  of  the  clergy,  1139.  Being  condemned  by  the 
council  of  the  Lateran,  he  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Zurich,  where  he 
taught  without  restraint.  At  the  end  of  five  years,  he  returned  trium¬ 
phant  to  Rome,  within  the  walls  of  which  he  lived  protected  by  the 
senate,  and  applauded  by  the  people.  At  last,  to  gratify  the  pontiff,  he 
was  delivered  up  by  Frederick  in  1155,  and  expiated  at  the  stake  the 
dangerous  errors  he  had  inculcated. 

Venice. — The  crusades,  which  gave  such  an  impulse  to  all  the  rest¬ 
less  spirits  of  the  west  of  Europe,  were  not  unfelt  by  the  Venetians, 
who  sent  a  fleet  of  200  vessels  to  share  in  the  first  of  these  expeditions. 
The  siege  of  Jaffa  was  raised  through  the  dispersion  of  the  Saracens  by 
the  Doge  Micheli,  who,  after  paying  a  visit  to  Jerusalem,  distinguished 
his  homeward  voyage  by  the  sack  of  Rhodes,  and  the  temporary  occu¬ 
pation  of  other  isles  of  the  Archipelago. 

Marriage  of  the  Adriatic. — When  Frederick  Barbarossa  attempt¬ 
ed  to  subject  the  rich  communities  of  Lombardy,  Pope  Alexander  took 
refuge  in  Venice.  The  emperor  violently  demanded  that  he  should  be 
given  up,  but  received  a  severe  defeat  from  Ziani,  who  destroyed  forty- 
eight  sail  of  the  German  fleet  in  1177.  The  pontiff  accompanied  the 
triumphal  procession  which  went  forth  to  congratulate  the  victor.  “  Take 
this  ring,  Ziani,”  said  the  pope,  “and  present  it  to  the  sea  as  a  testi¬ 
mony  of  your  dominion  over  it.  Let  your  successors  annually  perform 
the  same  ceremony,  that  posterity  may  know  your  valour  purchased 
such  a  prerogative,  and  subjected  this  element  to  you, — as  a  bridegroom 
is  husband  and  lord  over  the  bride  whom  he  has  chosen.”  The  donation 
of  a  consecrated  rose  is  also  said  to  have  crowned  these  allegorical 
nuptials. 

GERMANY. 

Henry  V. — As  soon  as  Henry  mounted  the  paternal  throne  in  1106, 
he  declared  that  he  would  never  abandon  the  rights  of  investiture  and 
homage ;  asserting  his  pretensions  in  still  plainer  terms  than  those  which 
had  led  to  his  father’s  melancholy  death.  Paschal  II.  wished  to  decide 
the  question  by  reducing  the  church  to  the  poverty  of  apostolic  ages, 
and  by  causing  the  clergy  of  all  ranks  to  subsist  on  the  alms  of  the 
faithful.  Such  a  proposition  was  treated  as  heretical  by  the  bishops, 


TWELFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


259 


/!■ 

and  the  war  recommenced.  It  was  carried  on  during  several  years  with 
various  changes ;  but  at  last  Henry,  who  was  shaken  by  the  terrors  of 
excommunication,  and  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  German  princes, 
signed  with  the  pope  the  famous  concordat  of  Worms,  1122,  in  which 
the  emperor  renounced  the  invesiiture  by  the  ring  and  crosier,  the  sym¬ 
bols  of  spiritual  authority,  and  retained  his  right  over  the  temporalities 
of  the  several  dioceses.  Henry  expired  three  years  after  this  transaction. 

Guelfs  and  Ghibellines. — The  Franconian  line  became  extinct  with 
Henry  V.,  and  as  the  Germans  were  exhausted  by  their  efforts  to 
establish  an  hereditary  monarchy,  they  raised  to  the  throne  a  friend  of 
the  church,  Lothaire,  duke  of  Saxony,  1125.  The  new  emperor,  sub¬ 
missive  in  all  things  to  the  clergy,  renounced  the  prerogatives  guaran¬ 
teed  by  the  diet  of  Worms.  His  successor  was  Conrad,  the  first  of  the 
Swabian  family,  1138;  and  in  the  disputes  which  raised  him  to  the 
crown  began  the  deadly  feuds  of  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines.  The 
origin  of  these  famous  names  is  singular.  A  battle  was  fought  in  1140 
by  the  generals  of  Conrad  against  Welf,  duke  of  Bavaria,  whose  name 
was  the  w'ar-cry  of  his  army;  that  of  the  imperialists  was  Wibelung, 
a  town  in  Franconia,  whence  the  emperors  of  that  line  are  said  to  have 
sprung.  Hence  the  corruption  Ghibelline  came  in  Germany  to  signify 
a  partisan  of  the  emperor,  and  Guelf,  an  adherent  of  the  great  vassals, 
or  in  Italy,  of  the  pope.  The  reigning  family  of  England  is  descended 
from  this  latter  house,  which  traces  its  ancestry  to  the  reign  of  Charle¬ 
magne,  and  even  as  far  back  as  to  the  invasion  of  Attila. 

O  7 

Barbarossa. — Frederick  Barbarossa,  1152,  who  endeavoured  to  acquire 
a  real  authority  in  Italy,  found  two  great  obstacles — the  pope,  and  the 
towns  of  the  north  which  had  revived  the  spirit  and  political  feelings  of 
the  Greek  republics.  At  the  invitation  of  his  holiness  and  of  many  of 
the  smaller  Lombard  cities,  he  entered  Italy,  and  punished  the  Milanese. 
After  restoring  Adrian  IV.,  and  putting  into  his  hands  Arnold  of  Brescia, 
who  had  recalled  the  shadow  of  Roman  liberty,  Frederick,  twice  master 
of  the  imperial  city,  was  crowned  emperor  in  the  capitol.  His  warfare 
with  the  republics  was  carried  on  with  varied  success,  till  at  length  he 
made  peace  with  the  Lombards  on  terms  most  advantageous  to  them, 
although  in  the  form  of  an  edict,  issued  at  the  diet  held  at  Constance, 
1183.  By  this  he  granted  to  the  towns  the  rights  which  they  had  exer¬ 
cised,  and  recognised  the  validity  of  all  the  usages  prevailing  among 
them.  His  career  was  closed  at  the  head  of  150,000  men  whom  he  was 
leading  to  the  Holy  Land.  Having  conquered  all  the  enemies  he  met, 
the  way  to  Syria  lay  open  before  him,  but  when  he  arrived  on  the  banks 
of  the  Selef  ( Calycadnus ),  impatient  to  cross  the  stream,  the  only  narrow 
bridge  over  it  being  blocked  up  with  soldiers,  he  plunged  into  the  river 
on  horseback.  The  impetuous  torrent  carried  him  away,  and  when  his 
body  was  dragged  to  the  shore,  life  was  found  extinct,  1190.  Henry 
VI.,  who  had  administered  the  government  during  his  father’s  absence 
in  the  crusade,  conceived  the  design  of  declaring  the  empire  hereditary, 
but  was  unable  to  accomplish  his  object  from  the  violent  opposition  of 
the  Saxons.  His  principal  wars  were  against  Sicily  and  Naples,  which 
states  he  at  last  joined  to  the  empire,  1194;  the  pope  and  the  free 
cities  of  Northern  Italy  not  perceiving  that  this  dangerous  union  must 
destroy  the  political  balance  of  the  peninsula.  Thus  perished  the 


260 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Norman  race  in  Italy,  a  few  years  before  the  duchy  of  Normandy  was 
annexed  to  the  French  crown.  Frederick  II.,  although  elected  king  of 
the  Romans,  was  too  young  to  succeed  his  father,  who  died  in  1197. 
Two  candidates  appeared  before  the  electors,  Philip,  the  late  emperor’s 
brother,  and  Otho  of  Brunswick,  third  son  of  Henry  the  Lion.  Each 
was  nominated  by  his  own  party,  and  hence  arose  that  deplorable 
anarchy  which  desolated  Germany  until  the  reign  of  Maximilian. 

FRANCE. 

Louis  the  Fat,  1108,  had  to  contend  at  once  against  the  power  of 
Henry  I.  of  England  and  the  lawlessness  of  the  French  nobles.  With 
this  reign  began  the  protracted  wars  between  the  two  nations,  so  glorious 
yet  so  unprofitable  to  the  English.  This  monarch  reigned  over  a  territory 
which,  comprising  what  is  called  the  isle  of  France  and  part  of  the  Or- 
leannais,  contained  only  five  out  of  the  eighty-six  modern  departments. 
In  his  struggles  against  his  powerful  barons,  he  received  the  support  of 
the  clergy,  so  that  before  his  death,  in  1137,  he  had  extended  his  influ¬ 
ence  to  the  Pyrenees.  Louis  VII.,  surnamed  the  Young,  adopted  the 
policy  of  his  father,  but  rashly  joined  the  crusaders,  contrary  to  the 
prudent  advice  of  his  faithful  minister,  Suger.  On  his  return,  the 
conduct  of  his  wife,  Eleanor,  heiress  of  the  great  duchy  of  Guienne,  led 
to  a  divorce ;  and  she  immediately  married  Henry  II.  of  England,  who, 
already  inheriting  Anjou  from  his  father,  and  Normandy  from  his  mother, 
was  sovereign  of  more  than  one-third  of  France.  The  accession  of 
Philip  Augustus,  in  1180,  entirely  changed  the  scene.  His  ambition 
and  craft  extended  the  authority  of  the  monarchy,  and  concentrated  its 
power  by  the  subjection  of  the  three  great  fiefs  of  Vermandois  and  Artois, 
and  by  the  seizure  of  Normandy,  Anjou,  and  Maine,  under  the  pretext 
that  King  John,  his  vassal,  refused  to  appear  before  him  as  his  lord  para¬ 
mount.  The  battle  of  Bouvines  was  gained  by  Philip  over  the  English, 
principally  by  the  burgher-militia,  which  had  obeyed  the  royal  summons 
to  repel  invasion.  In  this  reign  the  Jews  were  expelled  from  Paris, 
the  king  having  previously  released  all  Christians  in  his  dominions 
from  their  debts  to  them,  with  the  reserve  of  one-fifth  part  for  himself. 

CORPORATIONS  AND  STATES-GENERAL,  1119. 

The  forms  of  civil  liberty,  the  offspring  of  Frank  independence  and  the 
Roman  municipal  law,  though  never  lost  in  England,  were  neglected  at  a  very 
early  period  in  France.  Deliberative  assemblies,  of  parliaments  of  the  Champ 
de  Mars,  were  known  under  the  kings  of  the  first  and  second  race  ;  and  Char¬ 
lemagne  was  aided  in  his  legislation  by  the  presence  of  the  peers  and  bishops. 
The  three  brothers,  Louis,  Charles,  and  Lothaire,  were  reconciled  in  a  national 
assembly  ;  and  by  one,  similarly  convoked,  Eudes  was  elected  king,  888 ;  and 
Hugh  Capet  about  100  years  later.  Yet  so  uncertain  and  irregular  were  these 
meetings,  that  only  thirty-five  have  been  counted  between  613  and  1230.  Louis 
the  Fat  took  one  of  the  most  likely  means  that  could  be  devised  to  elevate  the 
people  ;  and  this  was  contemporary  with  the  English  character  of  Henry  I. 

At  his  accession  the  monarchy  was  feeble  and  languishing ;  the  aristocracy 
powerful  and  enterprising.  It  was  the  good  fortune  of  Louis  to  take  advantage 
of  a  general  movement  of  the  people  to  forward  his  designs  against  the  turbulent 
feudal  barons.  Then  also  the  commons  themselves  first  appear  as  a  body  in 
history,  soon  to  take  their  station  beside  the  nobles  and  the  priesthood.  He 
confirmed  to  each  city  the  right  of  self-government  by  its  mayors  and  other 


TWELFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


261 


magistrates,  from  which  arose  those  little  republics  known  by  the  name  of 
commons  (corporations),  that,  in  case  of  war,  were  to  furnish  a  stated  number 
of  soldiers  for  the  king’s  army.  The  great  barons  soon  followed  the  sovereign’s 
example,  and  enfranchised  their  vassals  also.  Under  Philip  the  Fair,  1285,  the 
communes  became  so  powerful  as  to  send  deputies  to  the  states-geno/al,  who 
were  called  the  third  estate  {tiers  etat).  The  states-^enerai,  a  representative 
body,  composed  of  the  three  orders  of  the  state;  were  first  convened  in  1302,  to 
support  his  majesty  in  his  quarrel  with  Boniface  VIII.  About  the  same  period 
a  great  national  impulse  was  felt  in  most  European  states.  In  Italy  the  com¬ 
munes,  as  we  have  seen,  became  republics  ;  for  a  brief  struggle  enabled  them 
to  vanquish  the  few  powerful  nobles  in  their  vicinity.  In  France,  on  the  con 
trary,  the  power  of  the  commons  was  soon  absorbed  by  royalty. 

Under  Louis  VII.,  the  Young.,  the  great  vassals  assumed  the  title  of  peers, 
and  composed  the  parliament,  or  judicial  tribunal  for  the  arrangement  of  tho 
disputes  of  the  nobles,  and  to  which  appeals  for  denials  of  justice  were  referred. 
Its  seat  was  not  fixed  at  Paris  till  1302,  when  great  changes  were  introduced 
by  Philip  the  Fair;  its  sittings  became  regular,  and  the  place  of  the  nobility 
was  gradually  supplied  by  lawyers.  It  now  became  celebrated  as  the  supreme 
judicial  court,  by  which  all  the  royal  edicts  were  registered,  and  whose  mem¬ 
bers,  after  1468,  were  appointed  for  life,  and  by  election.  These  rights  it  con¬ 
tinued  to  exercise  till  1788. 


SPAIN. 

Alphonso  VI.  of  Castile,  and  Alphonso  I.  of  Aragon,  succeeded  in 
all  their  undertakings  against  the  Moors ;  and  before  the  close  of  the 
century,  the  province  of  Aragon,  with  New  Castile  and  Estremadura, 
was  possessed  by  the  Christians.  Under  Alphonso  VII.,  the  Castilian 
dominions  were  extended  to  the  Sierra  Morena,  1135 ;  but  the  power  of 
his  kingdom  was  greatly  diminished  by  its  imprudent  division  into  those 
of  Castile  and  Leon,  under  his  sons  Ferdinand  and  Sancho.  Frequent 
internal  wars  ensued,  till  the  final  coalition  of  the  two  branches  of  the 
Gothic  monarchy  in  1238,  when  Mohammed  founded  the  kingdom  of 
Granada,  in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  III. 

Portugal,  which  had  hitherto  been  governed  by  Castilian  lieutenants, 
was  resigned  by  Alphonso  VI.,  1095,  to  his  son-in-law  Henry  of  Be- 
sancon,  whose  son  Alphonso,  after  the  glorious  victory  over  the  Moors 
at  Ourique,  was  saluted  king  on  the  field  of  battle,  1139;  but  Castile 
did  not  willingly  allow  the  assumption  of  the  regal  title  until  the  pope 
had  decided  in  favour  of  the  new  monarch.  His  territory  lay  between 
the  Minho  and  the  Douro.  In  1147,  he  became  master  of  Lisbon,  and, 
dying  in  1185,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Sancho  I. 

The  celebrated  Military  Orders  of  Spain  date  from  about  this  period. 
The  most  ancient  is  that  of  Alcantara,  1156,  fixed  at  the  town  of  that  name,  in 
1219 ;  and  the  decoration  was  a  green  lily-shaped  cross.  That  of  Calatrava 
began  in  1158,  and  was  confirmed  in  1164  by  Pope  Alexander  III. ;  it  received 
a  red  cross,  also,  in  the  shape  of  a  lily,  as  a  distinctive  mark.  The  order  of  St. 
James  of  Compostella  (Santiago)  was  founded  in  1161,  and  sanctioned  by  the 
pope  in  1175;  it  was  distinguished  by  a  red  cross  in  the  form  of  a  sword. 
That  of  Montesa,  1317,  replaced  the  Templars  in  Aragon.  To  the  three  first 
orders  may,  in  a  great  measure,  be  ascribed  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Christian 
arms  in  the  subsequent  centuries. 


BRITAIN. 

Henry  I.,  Beauclerc,  took  advantage  of  the  absence  of  his  brother 
Robert  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  seized  the  crown,  1100.  By  his  marriage 


262 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


with  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  III.,  and  niece  of  Edgar  Atheling,  he 
strengthened  himself  in  the  affections  of  his  Saxon  subjects.  He  was 
the  first  king  who  granted  a  general  charter  to  the  English  people ;  he 
remitted  all  fines  due  to  the  exchequer;  restored  the  ancient  privileges 
of  the  church ;  removed  many  of  the  feudal  burdens ;  gave  London  a 
municipal  constitution ;  and  declared  his  intention  of  restoring  the  laws 
of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Louis  VI.  of  France,  fearing  so  powerful  a 
rival,  continually  harassed  him,  and  cordially  supported  William  Clin¬ 
ton  (afterwards  Count  of  Flanders),  the  son  of  Robert.  The  death  of 
Henry’s  son,  in  1120,  struck  him  with  incurable  sorrow.  He  died  in 
1135,  and  was  buried  at  Reading.  The  cruel  treatment  of  his  brother  is 
not  the  only  indelible  stain  on  the  character  of  this  monarch  :  his  cousin, 
the  Earl  of  Moretoil,  he  imprisoned  and  deprived  of  sight ;  and  he  drove 
the  hapless  satirist  Luke  de  Barre  to  the  commission  of  suicide. 

The  crown  was  left  to  his  daughter  Matilda;  but  Stephen  of  Blois, 
son  of  Henry’s  sister,  who  had  already  gained  the  pope  and  the  nobility, 
secured  the  throne.  Having  long  been  popular  in  England,  he  now 
attached  the  people  more  firmly  to  him  by  the  abolition  of  the  Banegelt , 
and  by  the  restoration  of  several  immunities  which  had  been  withheld 
by  his  predecessors.  Nearly  twenty  years  were  spent  in  civil  struggles, 
with  varied  success,  to  the  ruin  of  the  people  and  the  prejudice  of  the 
crown,  when  a  compromise  was  made,  leaving  Stephen  in  possession  of 
his  title,  but  stipulating  that  Henry,  the  son  of  Matilda,  should  succeed 
him.  Stephen’s  reign  presents  a  condensation  of  the  evils  incident  to 
the  feudal  system.  “  The  nobles  burnt  all  the  towns  : — thou  mightest 
go  a  whole  day’s  journey  and  not  find  a  man  sitting  in  a  town,  nor  an 
acre*  of  land  tilled.  Wretched  men  starved  of  hunger:  to  till  the  ground 
was  to  plough  the  sands  of  the  sea.” 

Henry  II.,  Plantagenet,*  mounted  the  throne  in  1154.  By  inherit¬ 
ance  and  marriage  he  possessed  a  great  part  of  France,  viz.  Normandy, 
Anjou,  Touraine,  Maine,  Guienne,  and  Poitou,  with  Saintonge,  Au¬ 
vergne,  Perigord,  Limousin,  and  Angoumais.  The  life  of  this  able  king 
was  spent  in  war  both  against  temporal  and  spiritual  powers.  He  re¬ 
pressed  the  boldness  and  rapacity  of  his  nobles,  who  had  taken  advan¬ 
tage  of  the  disturbances  of  the  preceding  reign;  endeavoured  to  reduce 
the  clergy  to  subordination,  and  to  check  their  encroachments,  or,  as 
they  called  them,  immunities  and  privileges.  By  the  “  Constitutions 
of  Clarendon,”  1164,  it  was  declared  that  priests  should  be  tried  before 
the  civil  tribunals,  without  appeal  to  the  pope ;  and  that  the  consent  of 
the  monarch  was  necessary  to  the  promulgation  of  any  papal  edict 
within  the  kingdom.  The  commons,  who  had  profited  by  the  submis 
sion  of  the  nobles,  obtained  the  re-establishment  of  trial  by  jury,  and 
the  exemption  of  their  property  from  the  debts  of  their  lords.  During 
the  humiliation  of  the  monarch,  who  had  been  excommunicated  for  his 
supposed  share  in  the  murder  of  the  turbulent  Becket,  the  people  again 
profited  by  having  a  scutage,  or  military  tax,  substituted  for  personal 
service.  The  circuits  of  the  judges  were  now  first  appointed.  The 
subjection  of  South  Wales,  and  the  invasion  of  Ireland,  1172,  were  the 
principal  events  of  this  reign.  The  latter  days  of  the  king  were  imbit- 


*  So  called  from  the  family  device,  a  sprig  of  broom  (planta  genista,  plante  a  genet). 


TWELFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


263 


tered  by  the  rebellion  of  his  sons,  supported  by  the  pope  and  the  King 
of  France. 

Richard  I.,  Cceur  de  Lion,  was  not  reconciled  to  his  father  when  he 
was  informed  that  the  latter  had  died  in  Touraine,  1189.  His  first  act 
before  visiting  England  was  to  release  his  mother  Eleanor  from  prison, 
and  to  appoint  her  regent.  His  coronation  at  Westminster  was  signal¬ 
ized  by  a  cruel  massacre  of  the  Jews ;  their  habitations  were  pillaged 
and  set  on  fire,  and  in  the  city  of  York  alone  five  hundred  perished  who 
had  taken  refuge  in  the  castle.  After  raising  large  sums  of  money  by 
the  sale  of  employments,  and  other  means,  he  set  out  for  Syria,  where 
his  daring  exploits,  with  the  long  captivity  he  suffered  in  Germany  as 
he  was  returning,  made  his  generous  subjects  forget  his  errors  and  his 
vices.*  When  he  reached  home  in  1194,  he  found  his  kingdom  a  prey 
to  the  greatest  troubles.  The  Bishop  of  Ely,  whom  he  had  left  regent, 
was  expelled  by  the  barons,  and  Prince  John  had  obtained  supreme 
influence  in  the  new  administration.  All  the  projects  of  the  disaffected 
were  now  disconcerted,  and  the  King  of  France,  who  had  aided  the 
prince,  was  immediately  attacked.  The  most  brilliant  affair  in  the  sub¬ 
sequent  war,  which  financial  difficulties  prevented  being  carried  on  with 
any  vigour,  was  the  battle  of  Gisors,  in  Normandy,  in  which  Philip 
Augustus  narrowly  escaped.  A  peace  was  concluded  in  1198,  and  the 
next  year  Richard  died  of  a  wound  received  before  the  castle  of  Chalus 
near  Limoges. 

Ireland  was  fondly  supposed  by  its  antiquarians  to  have  been  peopled  by 
Phoenicians.  But  the  songs  of  the  minstrel  are  an  imperfect  substitute  for 
genuine  history,  and  sober  truth  must  confess  that  the  green  island  was  little 
more  than  a  battlefield  for  its  uncivilised  inhabitants  even  long  after  its  invasion 
by  the  English.  The  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  said  to  have  been  first  pro¬ 
claimed  in  it  by  Palladius  in  430,  and  by  St.  Patrick  in  450;  but  perpetual 
intestine  war  among  the  various  chieftains,  and  the  incursions  of  the  Danes, 
soon  checked  its  progress  towards  civilisation.  About  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  the  country  was  divided  into  the  five  hostile  kingdoms  of  Leinster, 
Munster,  Ulster,  Meath,  and  Connaught,  besides  several  inferior  principalities. 
One  monarch  was  chosen  to  preside  over  a  kind  of  deliberative  assembly  held 
at  undetermined  periods,  and  which  possessed  little  power.  The  deposition  of 
the  King  of  Leinster  and  his  flight  to  England,  led  to  one  of  the  most  fortunate 
events  in  the  history  of  Ireland.  After  the  successful  expedition  of  Earl  Strong- 
bow,  who  restored  Dermod  with  an  inconsiderable  troop  of  knights  and  archers, 
Henry  himself  landed  in  1172,  and  effectually  established  the  English  pale. — 
Druids  existed  in  Ireland  so  late  as  the  year  1166. 

Scotland  had  long  and  effectually  resisted  the  Roman  arms,  and  spread 
terror  over  the  adjacent  countries  of  England  and  Ireland  ;  but  her  history  is 
obscure  and  greatly  mingled  with  fable  till  the  tenth  century.  The  names  of 
Duncan,  d.  1039,  and  Macbeth,  d.  1056,  will  ever  attract  the  attention  of  the 
student  from  their  connexion  with  one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  dramatic  art. 
Malcolm  III.,  d.  1093,  kindly  received  many  hundreds  of  Saxons  who  had  fled 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  first  William,  and  settled  them  in  the  Lowlands.  These 
brought  with  them  the  civilisation  of  their  homes,  and  improved  the  character 
of  the  native  inhabitants.  David  I.  was  defeated  at  Cutton  Moor,  near  Northal¬ 
lerton,  in  the  Battle  of  the  Standard,  1138,  but,  superior  to  the  monarchs  of  the 


*  A  chronicle  written  in  England,  in  1455,  relates  that  the  place  of  Richard’s  confine¬ 
ment  was  discovered  by  Blondel,  a  French  minstrel,  who,  being  near  a  castle,  played  an 
air  well  known  to  the  king,  and  heard  it  repeated  by  the  royal  captive.  This  is  probably 
nothing  more  than  a  romantic  fiction.  The  emperor  Henry  YI.  purchased  Richard  from 
Duke  Leopold  of  Austria  for  sixty  thousand  pounds,  speculating  on  the  probability  of 
htaining  a  larger  ransom. 


264 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


age,  he  endeavoured  to  soften  the  manners  of  his  people  by  the  establishment 
wof  numerous  churches  and  monasteries,  among  others,  Holyrood  in  1128,  and 
Melrose  in  1136.  William  the  Lion,  who  had  supported  the  sons  of  Henry  II. 
of  England  in  their  rebellion  against  their  father,  was  taken  prisoner,  1174  ; 
and  regained  his  liberty  only  on  the  condition  of  becoming  the  liegeman  of 
Henry  for  hi§  territories,  which  feudal  superiority  was  restored  by  Richard  I. 
on  the  payment  of  10,000  marks. 

THE  CHURCH. 

Romish  Usurpations. — Though  the  papal  power  now  began  to  assert 
its  supremacy  over  all  temporalities,  the  Emperor  Henry  V.  succeeded 
in  the  dispute  with  Paschal  II.  about  investitures,  in  1111.  Next  year, 
however,  Henry  was  excommunicated  ;  but  the  pontiff  was  finally  com¬ 
pelled  to  yield  by  the  persevering  emperor,  whose  claims  were  confirmed 
by  the  diet  of  Worms,  in  1122.  During  several  years  two  popes  con¬ 
tested  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  city  of  Rome  was  agitated  by  a 
restless  party  who  desired  to  restore  to  the  senate  its  former  privileges, 
and  to  reduce  the  power  as  well  as  the  revenues  of  the  pope.  Adrian 
IV.,  1154,  the  only  Englishman  that  ever  sat  in  the  papal  chair,  de¬ 
clared  his  intention  of  preserving  the  majesty  of  the  church,  as  well  as 
the  authority  of  the  clergy.  He  compelled  the  Emperor  Barbarossa  to 
hold  his  stirrup ;  and  by  his  granting  Ireland  to  Henry  II.  of  England^ 
he  seemed  to  claim  all  islands  as  the  property  of  St.  Peter.  Another 
pontiff,  Alexander  III.,  is  said  to  have  trodden  on  the  neck  of  the 
emperor,  as  he  knelt  and  kissed  his  foot,  1177.  It  was  this  haughty 
bishop  who  refused  to  sanction  the  wise  Constitutions  of  Clarendon, 
and  absolved  Becket  from  the  promise  he  had  made  to  observe  them. 
Innocent  III.,  who  ascended  the  papal  throne  in  1198,  soon  acquired 
such  an  independence  and  supremacy  as  his  predecessors  could  never 
have  contemplated.  He  ordained  that  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
should  be  embrac  *  1  by  the  church  ;  established  the  formidable  tribunal 
of  the  inquisition  ;  the  mendicant  order  of  friars  was  taken  under  his 
protection;  and  auricular  confession  was  enjoined.  He  even  exercised 
a  dispensing  power  which  set  at  defiance  the  claims  of  morality  (qui, 
secundum  plenitudinem  potestatis,  jure  possumus  supra  jus  dispensarc). 

Second  Crusade,  a.d.  1147. — The  example  and  success  of  the  First 
Crusade  led  the  Christian  soldiery  of  Western  Europe  again  to  unite 
under  Conrad  III.  and  Louis  VII.  This  second  expedition  had  been 
preached  by  St.  Bernard  for  the  delivery  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jeru¬ 
salem  from  its  Mussulman  invaders.  The  immediate  cause  of  this  cru¬ 
sade  was  the  capture  of  Edessa  by  Zenghi,  in  1145 :  this  city  had  been 
taken  in  a  foolish  expedition  led  by  Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  First  Crusade.  The  armies  of  the  king  and  the 
emperor  amounted  each  to  70.000  knights,  and  their  train  was  increased 
to  the  number  of  300,000.  The  Germans  marched  through  Flungary, 
and  after  various  distresses,  augmented  by  the  treachery  of  the  Emperor 
Manuel,  they  reached  Constantinople,  whence  they  were  rapidly  carried 
across  the  adjoining  straits.  Louis  did  not  arrive  till  some  time  after; 
and  he  perceived  with  regret  that  the  Christians  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
Europe  were  less  trustworthy  than  the  infidels.  Conrad  meanwhile, 
misled  bv  his  Greek  o-uides,  advanced  through  the  heart  of  the  Turkish 
dominions,  suffering  the  extremities  of  hunger  and  thirst.  Everywhere 


TWELFTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


265 


exposed  to  the  incessant  attacks  of  the  enemy,  only  one-tenth  part,  with 
their  commanders,  survived,  and  reached  the  French  army,  encamped  at 
Nice  in  Bithynia.  Louis,  with  his  forces,  was  soon  left  to  pursue  his 
march  alone,  and  narrowly  escaped  destruction  at  the  fords  of  the 
Maeander,  in  the  mountains  between  Phrygia  and  Pisidia,  1148.  He 
proceeded  from  Attalia  to  Antioch  by  sea,  leaving,  under  Thierry,  count 
of  Flanders,  the  pilgrims  and  the  sick,  not  one  of  whom  reached  the 
holy  city.  From  Antioch  he  marched  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  met  Con¬ 
rad  and  his  exhausted  army.  Abandoning  the  original  purpose  of  the 
expedition,  they  proceeded  to  the  relief  of  Damascus,  which  had  been 
under  the  Moslem  yoke  nearly  five  centuries.  The  white  cresses  of  St. 
John,  and  the  red  crosses  of  the  Templars,  were  ever  foremost  in  the 
numerous  skirmishes  that  took  place ;  but  all  their  exertions  terminated 
in  defeat,  and  the  two  Christian  monarchs  returned  to  Europe,  oppressed 
with  the  deepest  sorrow,  in  1149. 

Third  Crusade,  a.  d.  1189. — The  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was 
overthrown  by  Saladin  in  1187,  but  its  internal  condition  had  long  pre¬ 
pared  it  for  ruin.  The  city,  as  Gibbon  remarks,  was  abandoned  to  the 
protection  of  a  leper,  Baldwin  IV., — a  woman,  his  sister  Sybilla, — a 
child,  her  son  Baldwin  V., — a  coward,  Guy  of  Lusignan, — and  a  traitor, 
Raymond  count  of  Tripoli.  The  rapid  conquests  of  the  Saracen  spread 
grief  and  consternation  through  all  Christendom;  and,  by  the  orders 
of  Clement  III.,  a  new  crusade  was  everywhere  preached.  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion,  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  Philip  Augustus,  assumed 
the  cross  in  1188.  The  maritime  states  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  a 
numerous  band  of  pilgrims  from  the  north  of  Europe,  had  already  pre¬ 
ceded  them,  and  for  two  years  the  city  of  Acre  held  out  against  30,000 
Franks.  Nine  battles  were  fought  beneath  its  walls,  the  sultan  being 
eager  to  raise  the  siege;  but  the  arrival  of  the  English  and  French  fleets 
in  the  bay  was  followed  by  the  surrender  of  the  city.  Disunion  was 
soon  apparent  in  the  councils  of  the  invaders,  Philip  and  Richard  inces¬ 
santly  interrupting  the  campaign  by  their  mutual  jealousies.  The 
former  returned  to  France;  after  which,  Richard,  who  continued  the 
war,  was  uniformly  victorious.  But  the  romantic  exploits  of  this  chi¬ 
valrous  monarch  failed  to  produce  any  permanent  effect.  Before  he 
quitted  Palestine  to  meet  an  unjust  captivity  and  early  death,  he  con¬ 
cluded  a  treaty7,  in  1192,  by  which  the  holy  sepulchre  should  be  open  to 
all  pilgrims,  and  the  seacoast  from  Jaffa  to  Tyre  be  held  by  the  Latins. 
Thus  ended  the  Third  Crusade,  and  though  five  others  at  various  inter¬ 
vals  disturbed  the  peace  of  Europe,  Palestine  was  never  again  the  scene 
of  action.  A  parallel  has  been  drawn  between  these  enterprises  and  the 
Trojan  war;  and  there  are  not  wanting  many  points  of  resemblance  in 
the  character  of  the  respective  heroes  and  in  the  results  of  their  labours. 
Poetry  also  has  assisted  to  increase  the  likeness  ;  and  the  religious  wars 
found  a  Homer  in  Tasso.  This  is,  however,  the  weakest  part  of  the 
similitude,  for  the  tinsel  of  the  Italian  can  bear  no  comparison  with  the 
pure  gold  of  the  great  bard  of  antiquity. 

Assassins.* — The  society  which  bore  this  name  proved  one  of  the 

*The  word  assassin  is  of  doubtful  etymology.  Some  think  it  derived  from  the  name 
of  the  founder;  others  from  hascliischim ,  an  intoxicating  preparation  of  henbane  and 
hemp,  which,  when  smoked  or  otherwise  inhaled,  excites  a  violent  delirium  or  a  pleas¬ 
ing  trance. 

23 


266 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


most  dreadful  scourges  of  the  East.  It  was  founded  about  the  year 
1090,  among  the  hills  southward  of  the  Caspian  sea,  by  Hassan  Sebek, 
the  son  of  Ali.  This  prince  of  the  Ismaelites,  by  uniting  the  doctrines 
of  the  Koran  with  the  visions  of  some  pretended  prophets,  established 
a  politico-religious  system,  whose  motto  was,  44  to  the  faithful  nothing 
is  forbidden.”  The  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain,  for  by  that  name  he  and 
his  successors  were  generally  known,  resided  first  at  Damghan,  whence 
he  removed  to  the  fortress  of  Alamout,  in  the  Persian  territory,  not  far 
from  Teheran.  The  daggers  of  his  subjects  were  felt  in  the  East  and 
the  West;  and  by  them  perished  Conrad,  marquis  of  Montferrat,  while 
walking  in  the  streets  of  Tyre,  1192.  In  Syria,  where  they  amounted 
to  60,000,  their  capital  was  Massiat,  a  day’s  journey  westward  of 
Hamah,  and  from  that  place  they  possessed  a  line  of  seven  other  for¬ 
tresses,  extending  to  the  Mediterranean,  near  Tripoli  The  sect,  which 
lasted  172  years,  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Mongols.* 

The  Druses,  who  are  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  Assassins,  chose 
for  their  prophet,  Hakem,  an  Egyptian  caliph,  notorious  at  once  for 
cruelty  and  vice.  When  his  licentiousness  and  murders  had  excited 
disgust  among  a  portion  of  his  subjects,  he  answered  their  remonstran¬ 
ces,  not  by  denying  his  crimes,  but  by  asserting  that  they  formed  a 
sublime  allegory,  full  of  inst  uction  to  true  believers. 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire. — 1204,  Latin  Princes. — 1259,  Second  Greek  Empire — Michael 
Palaeologus. — 1274,  Union  of  the  Churches. 

Germany.  —  1212,  Frederick  II.  —  Papal  Disputes — Crusade.  — 1241,  Hanse 
Towns. — 1273,  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg. 

Italy. — Italian  Republics — The  Visconti. — 1258,  1293,  Venetian  Wars. — 1282, 
Sicilian  Vespers. 

France. — 1214,  Battle  of  Bouvines. — 1226,  Louis  IX. — Parliament  begun. — 
1268,  Pragmatic  Sanction. — 1285,  Philip  le  Bel. — 1302,  Staies-General— 
Aleigenses. — 1302,  Rout  of  Courtray. 

Britain. — 1199,  John. — 1215,  The  Great  Charter. — 1265,  First  Parliament. 

1283,  Conquest  of  Wales. — 1297,  Wallace. 

Spain. — 1212,  Battle  of  Tolosa. — 1252,  Alphonso  X. — Siete  Partidas. 

The  East. —  1205,  Affghan  Dynasty,  India  —  Mamelukes.  — 1206,  Genghis 
Khan. — 1279,  Conquest  of  China,  by  Kublai  Khan. — 1300,  Ottomans  in  Bi- 
thynia. 

Church. — Mendicant  Friars. — 1209,  The  Inquisition — The  Albigenses. 
Inventions. —  1270,  Glass  Mirrors.  — 1253,  Linen  first  made  in  England. — 
1299,  Spectacles  at  Pisa. 

Celebrated  Men. — Aquinas — R.  Bacon — Saadi — Duns  Scotus — Marco  Polo. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

The  Latins. — The  warriors  engaged  in  the  Fourth  Crusade,  1202, 
were  diverted  from  the  more  immediate  object  of  their  expedition  by  the 

♦Some  families  of  the  Assassins  are  reported  still  to  exist  in  Lebanon  ;  but  the  last 
inhabitants  of  Massiat  were  put  to  the  sword  in  the  year  1809,  by  a  hostile  tribe  in  that 
neighbourhood.  • 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


267 


solicitations  of  the  young  Alexius  Angelus,  who  implored  their  inter¬ 
cession  in  behalf  of  his  father  Isaac,  whom  another  Alexius  of  the  same 
family  had  dethroned  and  imprisoned.  The  usurper  was  soon  defeated  ; 
but  the  non-fulfilment  of  the  terms  of  agreement  and  the  daring  usurp¬ 
ation  of  Ducas  Mourzoufie,  armed  the  Christian  warriors  anew  against 
Constantinople.  The  French  knights  and  the  Venetian  fleet,  by  a 
simultaneous  attack,  carried  by  assault  the  Greek  capital,  which  had 
been  hitherto  deemed  impregnable,  and  gave  it  up  to  pillage.  The 
Latin  princes  next  agreed  to  choose  a  sovereign  from  their  own  body, 
and  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  was  saluted  emperor  with  the  applause 
of  the  whole  army  in  1204.  The  territory  was  afterwards  divided 
among  the  French  and  Venetians ;  the  latter  long  preserved  the  title  of 
Lords  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  Greeks  did  not  patiently  submit, 
and  Theodore  Lascaris,  ruler  of  Nice,  twice  threatened  the  eastern 
metropolis.  Trebizond,  also,  whither  the  wife  of  Manuel  had  fled  with 
her  infant  sons  from  the  relentless  enmity  of  Isaac  Angelus,  was  the 
seat  of  another  rival  to  the  Latin  monarch.  By  her  means,  the  Greeks 
of  that  region  gradually  formed,  on  the  banks  of  the  Phasis,  a  sove¬ 
reignty  which  the  distracted  government  of  the  Angeli  was  unable  to 
suppress.  On  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  crusaders,  Alexius 
was  joined  by  many  fugitives  from  that  city.  He  had  always  retained 
the  title  of  Caesar  and  King,  and  now  fixed  the  seat  of  empire  at  Tre¬ 
bizond,  without,  however,  abandoning  his  claim  to  the  Byzantine  throne. 
A  more  formidable  opponent  to  the  divided  Latins  was  the  revolted 
chief  of  the  Bulgarians  in  1205;  for,  being  invited  by  the  Greeks,  his 
approach  was  marked  by  a  general  massacre  of  those  spread  over  the 
face  of  the  country.  The  gallantry  of  Baldwin  led  him  to  take  the 
field  with  an  inferior  army ;  but,  being  defeated  and  made  prisoner,  his 
captivity  was  closed  by  an  agonizing  death.  While  the  throne  was 
filled  in  succession  by  various  celebrated  warriors,  the  restoration  of  the 
Greek  family  was  at  hand.  Theodore  Lascaris,  during  a  reign  of 
eighteen  years,  had  extended  his  principality  of  Nice  to  the  greatness 
of  an  empire.  John  Ducas  Vataces,  1222,  encouraged  agriculture  and 
commerce,  preserved  friendly  relations  with  the  Turks,  and  reigned 
supreme  from  their  frontiers  to  the  Adriatic  sea.  Theodore  Lascaris  II., 
1255,  thrice  invaded  Bulgaria;  but  the  honourable  task  of  recovering 
Constantinople  was  reserved  for  Michael  Palaeologus,  the  most  illus¬ 
trious  of  the  Greek  nobles. 

New  Greek  Empire. — With  the  aid  of  the  Genoese,  Palaeologus 
made  himself  master  of  the  capital,  25th  July,  1260.  Some  time  pre¬ 
viously,  he  had  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  emperor,  and  two  years 
after  put  out  the  eyes  of  his  ward,  John  III.,  in  order  to  reign  alone. 
Fearful  of  being  attacked  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  king  of  Naples,  he  sent 
to  the  council  of  Lyons  two  Greek  bishops,  who  formed  a  treaty  of 
union  between  the  two  churches,  but  which  did  not  continue  longer  than 
the  reign  of  Michael.  The  empire,  indeed,  was  no  sooner  re-establish¬ 
ed  than  the  priests  were  embroiled  in  quarrels,  occasioned  by  discus¬ 
sions  on  obscure  dogmas  of  the  church.  The  controversy  on  the  ques¬ 
tion  whether  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeded  from  the'  Son,  or  by  the  Son, 
together  with  the  disputes  on  the  election  of  the  patriarchs,  was  long 
the  sole  occupation  of  the  sovereigns  and  their  ministers.  Palaeologus 
was  succeeded  in  1283  by  his  son  Andronicus  the  Elder,  who  being 


268 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


constantly  assailed  by  temporal  and  spiritual  enemies,  had  little  time  to 
promote  his  own  views  or  his  people’s  happiness.  He  recovered  many 
isles  in  the  Archipelago  from  the  Franks,  but  on  his  eastern  frontier  was 
unable  to  make  head  against  the  Ottomans.  Though  reputed  the  most 
learned  prince  of  the  age,  he  was  the  slave  of  degrading  superstitions. 

GERMANY. 

Henry  VI.,  who  died  of  poison  in  1197,  left  his  son  Frederick  under 
the  guardianship  of  Innocent  III.  This  rival  of  Gregory  VII.  raised 
up  antagonists  to  Philip  of  Swabia,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Henry, 
procured  the  election  of  Otho  IV.  of  Brunswick  in  his  stead,  and  after¬ 
wards  excommunicated  him  for  refusing  to  restore  the  fiefs  of  the  Coun¬ 
tess  Matilda.  The  pope  now  brought  forward  Frederick  II.,  at  the  age 
of  eighteen  years,  who  was  acknowledged  by  the  greater  part  of  the 
German  princes,  1212.  After  various  contests,  and  the  defeat  or  death 
of  all  his  competitors,  he  received  the  imperial  crown  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  1215.  The  greater  part  of  his  reign  was  spent  in  Italy  and  Sicily. 
His  unwillingness  to  enter  upon  the  crusades  led  to  his  excommunica¬ 
tion  by  Gregory  IX.,  which  he  retaliated  by  boldly  ordering  the  eccle¬ 
siastics  to  continue  the  performance  of  their  sacred  functions,  and  by 
proceeding  to  Jerusalem,  which  surrendered  at  the  terror  of  his  name. 
The  interval  from  1230  to  1238  was  occupied  in  the  re-establishment  of 
order  in  Germany,  disturbed  by  the  unruly  vassals,  by  the  ecclesiastics, 
and  by  a  rebellious  son.  In  the  subsequent  disputes  with  the  papal  see, 
originating  in  charges  of  irreligion,  Frederick  appears  to  have  caught 
some  glimpses  of  pure  Christianity.  From  a  war  of  manifestoes  the 
contending  powers  had  recourse  to  arms ;  and  those  of  the  emperor  were 
successful  in  every  quarter.  But  his  excommunication  in  1239,  the 
crusade  published  against  him  in  the  following  year,  and  his  solemn 
deposition  by  the  council  of  Lyons,  1245,  changed  his  fortunes.  City 
after  city  revolted ;  and  this  great  antagonist  of  the  papacy  expired  in 
the  castle  of  Fiorentino,  near  Lucera,  in  1250. 

Interregnum. — With  the  death  of  Frederick  began  the  great  inter¬ 
regnum,  from  1250  to  1272,  during  which  Germany  was  in  effect 
without  any  ruler  ;  for,  although  there  were  several,  none  exercised  any 
real  authority.  In  1250,  two  princes  bore  the  title  of  King  of  the 
Romans, — Count  William  of  Holland,  the  priests’  king,  as  he  was 
denominated,  and  Conrad  IV.,  son  of  Frederick  II.  On  the  news  of  his 
father’s  death,  Conrad,  abandoning  Germany,  where  the  scantiness  of 
his  resources  reduced  him  to  an  inglorious  station,  passed  into  Italy  to 
receive  the  fairest  portion  of  the  paternal  inheritance — the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies;  but  his  death,  in  1254,  which  has  been  attributed  to 
Manfred,  prevented  his  return  into  Germany  at  the  head  of  a  numerous 
and  well-appointed  army.  The  demise  of  William  of  Holland  happened 
shortly  after.  The  title  of  emperor  was  next  conferred  on  Richard,  earl 
of  Cornwall,  brother  to  Henry  III.  of  England,  and,  on  his  mother’s  side, 
nephew  of  Henry  the  Lion.  Richard,  whose  wealth  was  his  chief  re¬ 
commendation,  had  promised  to  the  Archbishop  of  Mentz  8000  silver 
marks,  12,000  to  the  archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  18,000  to  the  Count 
Palatine ;  but  the  choice  of  the  other  electors  fell  on  Alphonso  X.,  king 
of  Castile,  who  offered  20,000  marks  for  each  vote.  This  double  electior 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


269 


was  the  first  in  which  the  grand  dignitaries  of  the  crown  alone  took  a 
part,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  other  great  vassals ;  or,  in  other  words, 
it  is  the  first  time  that  we  see  appear  the  seven  princely  electors. 

Alphonso  never  visited  Germany ;  but  his  competitor  undertook  several 
journeys,  in  each  of  which  he  distributed  enormous  sums  of  money 
among  the  electors.  Although  greatly  occupied  with  the  internal  affairs 
of  his  native  country,  Richard,  in  1269,  passed  an  important  decree,  by 
which  the  estates,  assembled  in  diet  at  Worms,  bound  themselves  mu¬ 
tually  by  oath  to  punish  all  who  should  exact  illegal  toll,  trouble  the 
security  of  commerce  on  the  high-road,  or  who  should  in  any  way  dis¬ 
turb  the  public  tranquillity.  In  another  of  his  visits  he  gave  the 
investiture  of  Austria  and  Styria  to  Ottocar,  king  of  Bohemia.  In  his 
last  journey,  he  espoused  the  daughter  of  a  baron  named  Falkenstein, 
and,  returning  to  England,  died  in  1272. 

In  the  midst  of  these  petty  wars  between  weak  princes,  the  power 
and  influence  of  the  great  commercial  cities  were  slowly  increasing ;  and 
from  their  alliances  for  mutual  defence  arose  three  sorts  of  confedera¬ 
tion : — 1st,  The  Teutonic  or  Hanseatic  league,  1241 ;  2d,  The  confede¬ 
ration  of  the  cities  of  the  Rhine  (Burgfrieden),  about  1255;  and,  3d, 
The  Ganerbinates,  (Gan-Erbschaften),  or  treaties  of  succession  and 
mutual  defence. 

The  long-continued  anarchy  at  length  wearied  all  parties,  and  it  was 
determined  to  elect  an  emperor.  The  choice  fell  upon  Rodolph  of 
Hapsburg  in  Switzerland,  a  prince  whose  scanty  resources  and  limited 
influence  seemed  to  give  no  cause  for  fear. 

House  of  Hapsburg,  1273. — Rodolph,  the  founder  of  the  house  of 
Austria,  was  a  brave  and  just  monarch,  wisely  devoting  his  attention  to 
the  internal  affairs  of  Germany.  The  rebellion  and  defeat  of  Ottocar, 
king  of  Bohemia,  enabled  him  to  confer  the  dukedom  of  the  Austrian 
provinces  upon  his  son  Albert,  1283.  But  he  was  not  less  a  peacemaker 
than  a  conqueror.  He  visited  all  parts  of  his  dominions  with  incredible 
activity,  re-established  the  security  of  the  highways,  and  destroyed  a 
number  of  castles  which  were  little  else  than  retreats  for  brigands.  His 
death  in  1291  was  followed  by  an  interregnum  of  ten  months, — for,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  hereditary  right  to  the  imperial  crown, 
the  electors  refused  to  appoint  Albert,  and  their  choice  fell  upon  Adol¬ 
phus  of  Nassau,  1292.  In  a  contest  which  ensued,  Albert  destroyed 
his  rival  in  1298,  maintaining  till  1308  his  imperial  dignity,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  irregularity  of  his  election,  and  the  determined  hostility  of 
Boniface  VIII. 

Hanse  Towns. — These  were  a  commercial  league  ( [hansa )  formed  o 
the  most  flourishing  cities  in  the  north  and  west  of  Europe.  In  L241, 
Lubeck  associated  with  some  neighbouring  places  for  mutual  protection 
against  the  pirates  of  the  Baltic ;  and  by  degrees  it  was  joined  by  all 
the  trading  towns  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Vistula.  Depots  were 
established  at  London,  1250,  Bruges,  1252,  Novgorod,  1272,  and  Ber¬ 
gen,  1278.  The  administration  of  the  league  was  intrusted  to  the  four 
cities  of  Lubeck,  Cologne,  Brunswick,  and  Dantzic.  During  three 
centuries  they  maintained  a  degree  of  prosperity  then  unexampled,  and 
by  their  navies  commanded  the  narrow  seas ;  but  the  discovery  of  the 
Indies  was  a  fatal  blow  to  their  commerce.  The  town  of  Ghent  dared 
23* 


270 


MIDDLE  AGES 


to  beard  Charles  V.  in  the  very  height  of  his  glory,  by  putting  one  of 
his  officers  to  the  torture  for  having  concealed  the  record  which  contained 
the  ratification  of  the  concessions  they  had  extorted  from  former  sove¬ 
reigns.  By  the  power  of  the  league  the  King  of  Sweden  was  dethroned, 
and  his  crown  bestowed  on  Albrecht  of  Mecklenburg.  Such  was  the 
wealth  of  these  merchants  that  at  a  great  ball  at  Bruges,  the  Queen  of 
France  retired  in  chagrin,  because  six  hundred  of  the  wives  of  the  citizens 
were  more  splendidly  dressed  than  herself. 


HOUSE  OF  HOHENSTAUFEN  OR  SWABIA. 


This  family,  issuing  from  the  castle  of  Wibelung,  was  ennobled  in  Frederick  Hohen- 
staufen,  who,  for  his  eminent  services,  was  rewarded  with  the  hand  of  one  of  the  daugh¬ 
ters  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV. 

Frederick ,  Count  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  created  Duke  of  Swabia,  by  Henry  IV.,  in  1080, 

t  1105,  m.  Agnes,  daughter  of  Henry  IV. 


18.  Conrad  III. 
emp.  1138,  f  1152. 


Frederick ,  d.  of  Swabia,  Albert ,  Henry ,  Leopold, 

m.  Judith,  d.  of  Henry  the  Black,  successively  d.  of  Austria, 
t  1126. 

_ A _ _ _ _ 


19.  Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa,  emp.  1152,  f  1190  —  Beatrice,  heiress  of  Burgundy. 

- - A - - - - . 


20.  Henry  VI.  emp.  1190, 
m.  Constance,  heiress  of  Sicily. 

- - A - - 


21.  Philip,  emp.  1197, 
m.  Irene  Angela. 


Three  other  sons. 


23.  Frederick  II.  k.  of  Sicily,  1197;  emp.  1212,  j  1250. 

- - * - 


24.  Conrad  IV.  emp.  1250,  f  1254 

- A _ 


f - - -  A 

Conradin,  d.  of  Swabia,  behead.  1268. 
****** 

25.  William  of  Holland,  emp.  1247,  f  1256. 


Manfred,  nat.  son  k.  of  Sicily,  t  1266- 

- - A - > 

Constance  =  Peter  ITI.  k.  of  Aragon. 
****** 

26.  Richard  of  Corn  wall,  emp.  1257, 
t  1271. 


HOUSE  OF  GUELF  OR  D’ESTE. 


This  ancient  and  noble  family  descended,  according  to  Muratori,  from  Adalbert  I.  mar¬ 
quis  of  Tuscany  (847-875).  It  received  new  lustre  from  the  marriage  of  Albert  Azon  II. 
with  Cunegonda  of  Altorf.  Albert  died  in  1097,  leaving  behind  him 


tV elf  I.  created  d.  of  Bavaria,  1071,  Foulques , 

f  1101.  Founder  of  the  House  of  Modena. 

/ - A - \ 

Henry  the  Black,  d.  of  Bavaria,  f  1126,  Welf  II.  of  Este  —  Matilda,  countess 

m.  Wilfrida,  daughter  of  d.  of  Saxony  of  Este,  heiress  of  Tuscany,  |  1129. 

and  heiress  of  Luneburg. 

, - A -  ‘  - - - \ 

Henry  the  Proud ,  d.  of  Bavaria,  f  1139  =  Gertrude,  d.  of  Emp.  Lothaire  II. 

heiress  of  Saxony  and  Brunswick. 

> - - - — - — > 

Henry  the  Lion,  d.  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  Welf  III.  d.  of  Tuscany, 

dep.  1180,  f  1195. 


r  -  ■  "  1  ■  ' “ 

22.  Otho  IV.  emp.  1208. 

*  •  *  *  *  *  * 

26.  Alphonso  X.  emp.  1257. 


William  of  Luneburg,  1st  d.  of  Brunswick, 
t  1213:  from  him  descends  the  reigning 
monarch  of  England. 


ITALY. 

Italian  Republics.  —  The  republics  of  Northern  Italy  refused  to 
acknowledge  Frederick  II.  as  their  sovereign,  and  their  rebellious 
spirit  was  fomented  by  the  popes.  But  the  struggle  that  followed  was 
not  one  of  principle,  but  of  faction,  —  Guelf  against  Ghibelline,  the 
church  against  the  empire.  These  states  may  be  divided  into  four 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


271 


great  clusters: — 1.  Central  Lombardy,  containing  Milan,  Cremona, 
Parma,  Mantua,  Lodi,  and  other  towns.  2.  The  March  of  Verona, 
between  the  Adme  and  the  German  frontiers.  3.  Romagna,  containing 
Bologna,  Modena,  and  Ferrara.  4.  Tuscany.  The  first  and  third  were 
principally  Guelfs;  the  second,  Ghibellines;  while  the  fourth  was  ba¬ 
lanced  between  the  two  parties. 

The  misfortunes  which  oppressed  Frederick  pursued  all  his  family. 
A  kind  of  fatality  seemed  to  impend  over  his  race ;  and  it  appeared  as 
if  the  heroic  house  of  Hohenstaufen  was  destined  to  astonish  the  world 
as  much  by  its  miseries  as  by  its  glory.  His  son  Enzio  died  a 
prisoner  at  Bologna,  after  twenty  years  of  captivity  ;  his  natural  son 
Manfred  was  deprived  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  by  Charles  of  Anjou, 
and  perished  in  battle ;  lastly,  his  grandson  Conradin,  wdio  endeavoured 
to  recover  his  heritage  by  arms,  wTas  defeated,  taken  prisoner  and  judi¬ 
cially  murdered. 

Lombard  Leagues. — The  first  Lombard  league,  1167,  against  the 
Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa,  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  objects  for 
w’hich  it  was  formed.  The  alarming  demonstrations  of  Frederick  II. 
against  the  pope  and  the  independence  of  the  Italian  cities  aroused  the 
fears  of  the  Guelf  party  in  that  peninsula.  The  Milanese  began  the 
resistance  by  an  appeal  to  the  Lombard  communities,  fourteen  of  which 
adhered  to  the  confederation.  The  departure  of  the  emperor  for  the  holy 
war  was  improved  to  the  advantage  of  the  revolted  states  ;  and  although, 
on  his  return,  he  published  a  law  on  the  public  peace,  which  was  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  eloquence  of  the  preacher  John  of  Vicenza,  the  suspension 
of  hostilities  was  not  of  long  duration.  Frederick  suddenly  reappeared 
in  Italy,  in  obedience  to  the  call  of  Ezzelino,  podesta  of  Verona  and 
chief  of  the  Ghibellines  in  Lombardy.  After  the  victory  of  Corte 
Nuova,  on  the  Oglio,  in  1237,  nearly  all  the  towns  made  submission; 
but  they  were  again  driven  to  arms  by  the  intrigues  of  the  pope,  who 
had  conciliated  the  alliance  of  Venice  and  Genoa. 

After  the  death  of  Frederick  II.  the  contentions  still  survived,  although 
their  objects  wrere  changed,  the  struggle  being  now7  between  the  nobles 
and  the  people.  Ezzelino  III.,  with  his  brother  Alberic,  podesta  of 
Treviso,  wTas  at  first  victorious  over  the  Guelf  party ;  but  Pope  Alex¬ 
ander  IV.  having  preached  a  crusade  against  them  in  1255,  most  of  the 
cities  united  under  the  command  of  the  Marquis  of  Este.  To  punish 
the  citizens  of  Padua,  who  had  received  the  crusaders,  Ezzelino  put  to 
death  eleven  thousand  of  those  enrolled  among  his  troops.  This  atro¬ 
cious  cruelty  having  withdrawn  from  him  his  most  powerful  allies,  he 
w^as  defeated  and  mortally  wounded  at  Cassano,  1259.  In  the  follow¬ 
ing  year,  Alberic  and  all  his  children  wTere  massacred ;  and  the  spoils 
of  the  family  divided  among  several  of  his  principal  antagonists. 

Florence. — In  this  city,  whose  history  previous  to  this  period  is 
obscure  and  unimportant,  the  chief  offices  wTere  held  by  the  Guelf 
families  of  Buondelmonti  and  Donati,  and  the  Ghibellines  of  Amidei 
and  Uberti.  In  1250,  about  two  months  before  the  death  of  Frederick 
II.,  the  former,  supported  by  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  deposed  the  imperial 
governor,  and  framed  a  democratic  government  under  a  captain  of  the 
people  and  a  Milanese  podesta.  Lucca,  Pistoia,  Sienna,  and  other 
towms,  followed  the  example  of  Florence,  and  the  Ghibellines  were 
enabled  to  preserve  the  superiority  in  Pisa  alone.  After  several  years 


272 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


of  exile,  the  proscribed  faction,  with  the  aid  of  Manfred  of  Sicily, 
being  victorious  in  the  battle  of  Monte  Aperto,  returned  to  Florence, 
whence  they  were  again  expelled  in  1267,  and  the  Guelfs  re-established 
by  Charles  of  Anjou,  then  signor  of  the  republic. 

Venice. — The  crusades  were  the  commencement  of  the  power  and 
greatness  of  this  commercial  state.  Mercantile  advantages  alone  in¬ 
duced  the  people  to  embark  in  the  holy  wars,  which  opened  to  them  all 
the  Syrian  harbours,  and  gave  them  greater  security  than  they  could 
expect  from  the  infidels.  They  had  already  factories,  officers,  and  a 
particular  jurisdiction  in  the  principal  marts  of  Asia,  when  the  Emperor 
Alexius  Comnenus  granted  them  the  freedom  of  unlimited  commerce 
in  all  his  ports,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  Cyprus  and  Candia.  In 
the  Fourth  Crusade  they  acquired  a  universal  monopoly  in  the  Greek 
empire,  and  even  a  partial  sovereignty  in  1204.  Corfu,  Candia,  ant 
most  of  the  Aegean  islands,  fell  under  their  power,  and  half  of  Con 
stantinople  was  thrown  open  to  them.  Henceforward  Venice  long  pos 
sessed  the  exclusive  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  established  hei 
principal  factories  on  its  shores. 

The  Venetians  disputed  the  possession  of  Illyria  with  the  Hungari 
ans,  but  their  most  formidable  antagonists  were  the  Genoese,  with  whom 
commercial  rivalry  had  brought  them  into  contact  in  1264.  They  then 
lost  their  influence  at  Constantinople;  and  two  naval  defeats,  in  1293 
and  1298,  forced  the  Doge  Gradenigo,  to  sign  a  treaty,  forbidding  the 
vessels  of  the  republic  to  navigate  the  Black  Sea.  This  epoch,  so  dis¬ 
astrous  to  their  commercial  prosperity,  was  equally  ruinous  to  their 
ancient  constitution.  The  sovereign  power  was  placed,  at  this  period, 
in  the  great  council,  which,  in  1172,  had  deprived  the  general  assembly 
of  their  voices  in  the  election  of  the  chief  officer  of  the  state,  as  well 
as  the  nomination  of  the  tribunes,  who  each  year  were  charged  with  the 
renewal  of  the  council  by  the  choice  of  fresh  members.  Gradenigo 
made  a  greater  progress  towards  aristocracy  by  confining  the  qualifica¬ 
tion  to  the  families  of  the  senators  then  in  office  ( il  serrar  del  const  glio, 
1298) ;  and,  finally,  under  the  Doge  John  Soranzo,  the  great  council 
being  made  hereditary,  in  1319,  the  Golden  Book  received  the  names  of 
the  houses  retaining  this  new  nobility.  In  the  interval  between  these 
changes  the  spirit  of  the  democracy  was  manifested  by  the  conspiracy 
of  Marino  Bocconio,  1299,  and  that  of  Bohemond  Tiepolio,  1310. 
These  popular  movements  served  only  to  strengthen  the  nobles,  who 
placed  themselves  under  the  mysterious  guardianship  of  the  council 
of  ten. 

Genoa. — This  commercial  city  entered  the  Lombard  confederation  in 
1238,  previous  to  which  period  it  had  been  considered  part  of  the  king¬ 
dom  of  Italy.  Its  earliest  government  was  by  consuls;  but  in  1190  it 
exchanged  them  for  podestas,  and  these  made  way  for  the  captains  of 
the  people,  1257,  who  again  were  succeeded  by  doges  in  1339.  These 
changes  do  not  seem  to  have  injuriously  affected  its  mercantile  interests 
In  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Genoese  contributed 
their  efforts  to  restore  Constantinople  to  its  legitimate  monarchs,  and 
the  privileges  which  were  granted  in  return  for  their  services  enabled 
them  to  dictate  to  Pisa  and  Venice.  They  disputed  the  possession  of 
Candia  with  the  Venetians,  and  took  Corsica  from  the  Pisans,  whom 
they  compelled  to  renounce  all  maritime  operations,  1290. 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


273 


Pisa. — This  city  took  no  part  in  the  internal  agitations  of  Italy,  but 
always  remained  faithful  to  the  German  emperors ;  while  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  one  of  her  most  valuable  acquisitions,  formed  also  the  most 
extensive  portion  of  her  territory.  It  did  not  definitely  acknowledge  the 
republic  until  1117,  when  it  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  Cagliari, 
Logodore,  Ga'llura,  and  Arborea.  Corsica,  for  which  Pisa  and  Genoa 
had  long  contended,  gave  rise  to  implacable  hatred  between  the  dis¬ 
putants.  The  battle  of  Meloria,  gained  by  Uberto  Doria  over  the 
Podesta  Morosini,  secured  the  island  to  the  Genoese ;  and  by  the  ruin 
w  hicn  it  inflicted  on  their  enemies’  marine,  left  them  without  rivals  in 
the  adjoining  waters,  1284.  The  republic,  exhausted  by  so  great  a 
reve.se,  and  deprived  of  the  protection  of  the  Swabian  family,  fell  under 
the  influence  of  the  Guelfs ;  but  their  chief,  Ugolino,  being  accused  of 
planning  the  surrender  of  the  city  to  the  Florentines,  expiated  his  trai¬ 
torous  intention  by  the  most  cruel  tortures,  1287.  Intestine  divisions 
served  only  to  aggravate  the  misfortunes  of  Pisa,  which  was  compelled 
to  sun  a  treaty  with  Genoa,  the  articles  of  wThich  stipulated  that  its  port 
should  be  filled  up,  1290.  This  act  hastened  the  decay  of  the  republic. 

The  internal  prosperity  of  the  chief  Italian  cities  may  be  inferred  from 
the  solid  magnificence  of  their  architecture.  No  part  of  Europe  could 
show  such  commodious  private  houses,  flagged  streets,  noble  public 
buildings,  and  majestic  bridges.  These  cities  were  fortified  with  mas¬ 
sive  walls,  and  defended  by  an  intrepid  body  of  buighers.  Their 
administration  wTas  under  the  management  of  annual  consuls,  aided  by 
a  popularly  elected  assembly  :  but  a  nominal  sovereignty  wTas  still 
reserved  to  the  people.  Dissension,  however,  soon  intruded  upon  this 
fair  scene ;  and  civil  strife  proved  more  dreadful  than  any  foreign  war. 
Before  the  end  of  the  century,  the  Lombard  cities  had  fallen  under  the 
yoke  of  tyrants;  Ferrara  acknowledged  the  Lords  of  Este;  the  savage 
Ezzelino  ruled  over  the  cities  beyond  the  Adige ;  the  Torriani  and  Vis¬ 
conti  at  Milan;  the  Scaligers  at  Verona  ;  the  Gonzagas  at  Mantua  ;  and 
at  Padua  the  Carraras. 

Naples  and  Sicily. — The  authority  of  the  emperors  in  Italy  was 
almost  entirely  lost  at  the  death  of  Frederick  II.,  in  1250.  Pope  Inno¬ 
cent  IV.  planned  the  reunion  of  Naples  to  the  States  of  the  Church  ; 
and,  with  this  view7,  wrote  to  the  clergy  and  nobles,  exhorting  them  to 
take  up  arms,  and  declaring  their  kingdom  henceforward  irrevocably 
united  to  the  holy  see.  But  the  intentions  of  the  pontiff  were  frustrated 
for  the  present  by  the  decision  of  Conrad  and  Manfred,  the  two  sons  of 
Frederick.  The  decease  of  the  former  in  1254  left  the  Neapolitan 
inheritance  to  Conradin,  then  a  child  two  years  old.  Innocent  took 
advantage  of  these  circumstances,  and  was  pursuing  a  victorious  career, 
not,  however,  wdthout  a  severe  check  from  Manfred,  w7hen  death  termi¬ 
nated  his  ambitious  designs  in  December  of  the  same  year.  Alexander 
IV.  wras  unable  to  maintain  his  predecessor’s  conquests  :  in  two  years 
Manfred  recovered  the  kingdom,  and  on  a  vague  report  of  Conradin’s 
death,  wTas  proclaimed  king.  Urban  IV.,wTho  filled  St.  Peter’s  chair  in 
1261,  resumed  the  designs  of  Innocent,  and  offered  the  crowm  to  Charles 
of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX.  All  Upper  Italy  declared  for  this  prince, 
and  Philip  della  Torre,  signor  of  Milan,  went  so  far  as  to  receive  a  Pro¬ 
vencal  podesta  in  his  city.  Manfred  was,  meantime,  preparing  a 
vigorous  resistance.  The  Sicilian  galleys,  united  with  the  Pisan  fleet, 


274 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


were  to  close  the  seas  against  the  Angevins,  while  two  armies  sent  mto 
Tuscany  and  the  March  of  Ancona,  defended  the  approaches  to  the  king¬ 
dom.  Neither  of  these  precautionary  measures  succeeded.  The  two 
rivals  met  on  the  banks  of  the  Calore,  in  the  plain  of  Benevento,  1266. 
Treachery  deprived  Manfred  of  the  victory,  and,  unwilling  to  survive 
defeat,  he  rushed  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  and  fell,  mortally 
wounded. 

The  decisive  victory  of  Benevento  threw  all  the  country  into  Charles’ 
hands ;  Messina  declared  in  his  favour,  and  thus  was  Sicily  laid  at  his 
feet.  The  capture  of  Manfredonia  completed  the  subjugation  of  the 
kingdom,  and  placed  at  the  mercy  of  the  victor  all  the  family  of 
Manfred,  with  the  exception  of  one  daughter,  married  to  the  King  of 
Aragon. 

The  exactions  and  violent  proceedings  of  Charles  were  ill  calculated 
to  ensure  the  tranquillity  of  his  government.  The  Ghibelline  party  sent 
to  Conradin,  then  sixteen  years  old,  the  most  flattering  representations 
of  the  state  of  Italy  ;  the  deputies  of  Sienna  and  Pisa  brought  with  them 
100,000  florins,  and  the  chief  barons  of  Germany  joined  his  army. 
Moved  by  their  arguments,  he  advanced  into  Italy  with  the  young  Duke 
of  Austria,  Frederick,  who  was  himself  deprived  of  his  hereditary  estates. 
He  entered  Pisa,  Sienna,  and  even  Rome  ;  Charles  had  lost  many  cava¬ 
liers  in  Tuscany  ;  his  fleet  had  been  destroyed  before  Messina,  by  that 
of  Pisa;  all  Sicily,  except  Palermo,  Syracuse,  and  Messina,  raised  the 
Swabian  flag ;  and  his  affairs  seemed  on  the  verge  of  ruin.  The  rival 
armies  met  at  Tagliacozzo,  near  the  Lake  of  Celeano,  when  a  stratagem 
gave  the  victory  to  the  usurper.  Conradin  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
shortly  after  beheaded,  with  Frederick  of  Austria  and  the  chief  Ghibel¬ 
line  captives,  1268.  Thus  ended  the  two  houses  of  Hohenstaufen  and 
Bamberg. 

After  putting  to  death  the  illustrious  individuals  just  named,  Charles 
did  not  hesitate  to  sacrifice  to  his  vengeance  a  crowd  of  the  obscure 
partisans  of  Conradin.  All  the  provinces  were  filled  with  executions. 
In  Rome  he  cut  off  the  legs  of  those  who  had  declared  against  him ; 
and  then,  fearing  the  pity  that  would  be  excited  by  the  view  of  their 
sufferings,  he  enclosed  them  in  a  wooden  house  to  which  he  set  fire. 
In  Sicily  the  inhabitants  of  a  whole  city  perished  on  the  scaffold,  not 
excluding  the  traitors  who  had  opened  the  gates  to  the  French.  Being 
now  master  of  the  Two  Sicilies  and  head  of  the  Guelf  party,  he  became 
the  arbiter  of  Italy.  In  1269,  in  the  diet  of  Cremona,  he  was  declared 
signor  of  most  of  the  Guelf  cities  of  Lombardy,  including  even  Milan. 
He  would  not  have  limited  his  success  to  this  important  station,  had  he 
not  been  drawn  by  his  brother  into  the  second  crusade  of  St.  Louis,  in 
which,  after  making  Tunis  tributary  to  his  crown,  he  turned  his  views 
towards  Constantinople.  Pope  Gregory  X.,  and  his  successor  Nicholas 
III.,  impeded  his  designs ;  but  a  more  formidable  obstacle  appeared  in 
the  person  who,  having  been  the  companion  in  arms  of  Frederick  II. 
and  Manfred,  burned  with  the  desire  of  avenging  their  cause,  and 
liberating  his  country.  John  of  Procida,  a  banished  Neapolitan,  trave1 
led  through  Sicily  in  disguise,  exciting  the  people  to  revolt,  and  animat¬ 
ing  them  with  a  hope  of  deliverance.  The  insurrection,  which  took 
vlace  in  1282,  has  been  named  the  Sicilian  Vespers  from  the  occasion 
on  which  it  occurred.  The  inhabitants  were  excited  by  an  outrage 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


275 


which  was  perpetrated  on  a  young  woman,  under  the  pretence  of  search¬ 
ing  lor  arms,  as  she  was  going  with  other  citizens  of  Palermo  on  Easter 
Monday  to  the  customary  service  at  a  church  without  the  city.  The 
Sicilians  rose  upon  their  oppressors :  4000  persons  were  massacred  in 
one  night, — victims  to  the  popular  indignation  ;  and  before  the  end  of 
April,  the  island  was  entirely  evacuated  by  the  French  troops.* 

The  Sicilians,  terrified  at  their  own  boldness,  sent  deputies  to  implore 
the  pardon  of  Martin  IV.  and  his  intercession  with  their  king ;  bat  the 
only  reply  that  w  as  given  bade  them  think  of  self-defence,  if  such  wTere 
possible.  To  prepare  themselves  against  the  vengeance  of  Charles, 
tlmy  called  the  Kino-  of  Aragon  to  their  aid.  All  the  efforts  of  their 
enraged  enemy  were  unsuccessful  before  the  w7alls  of  Messina,  and  his 
fleet  w  as  burnt  by  Loria,  w7ho  also  had  the  good  fortune  to  make  his  son 
prisoner,  1284.  In  the  following  year  the  invader  died,  the  victim  of 
disappointed  ambition.  Charles  II.  was  restored  to  liberty  by  a  treaty 
which  he  did  not  observe;  and  the  King  of  Aragon,  attacked  by  France, 
Castile,  and  Rome,  was  constrained  to  abandon  Sicily.  In  1303,  his 
brother  Frederick,  wrho  wras  soon  elected  to  fill  his  place,  by  his  talents 
confirmed  the  independence  of  the  people,  and  the  pope  w?as  compelled 
to  acknowledge  him  as  sovereign. 

FRANCE. 

Battle  of  Bouvines,  1214. — When  John  succeeded  to  the  English 
throne  in  1199,  Philip  supported  a  pretender  in  the  person  of  Arthur  of 
Brittany,  grandson  of  Henry  II.  This  prince  fell  into  the  hands  of  his 
uncle,  and  w7as  murdered  ;  upon  which  Philip  Augustus  summoned  John 
to  appear  and  answer  the  charges  made  against  him,  as  vassal  of  the 
crown  of  France.  On  his  refusal,  Philip  confiscated  his  fiefs,  seized 
on  Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  and  Poitou,  leaving  him  Guienne  alone. 
John  w  as  compelled  to  submit  in  silence,  but,  soon  finding  a  favourable 
opportunity,  he  united  with  the  French  barons,  the  Earl  of  Flanders, 
Otho  IV.,  and  the  Earl  of  Boulo  ne,  in  a  formidable  league  acrainst 
the  French  king.  All  had  just  cause  of  complaint,  and  all  were  ready 
to  assert  their  rights  by  force  of  arms.  Not  fewer  than  200,000  men 
combined  against  Philip,  while  70,000  w7ere  the  w7hole  he  could  bring 
into  the  field  under  the  Bishops  of  Senlis  and  Beauvais.  But,  never¬ 
theless,  he  wTas  victorious ;  and  thus  the  safety  of  John’s  continental 
possessions  w7as  endangered,  and  the  French  monarchy  more  respected. 
The  last  years  of  Philip’s  reign  wrere  spent  in  tranquillity,  though  dis¬ 
turbances  prevailed  all  around  him. 

Louis  VIII.,  1223,  wras  diverted  from  the  wars  ao-ainst  the  English  in 
France  to  prosecute  his  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  For  a  lolig 
period  the  southern  provinces  had  been  insulated  from  the  northern,  and 
the  Count  of  Toulouse,  the  most  powerful  baron  in  those  parts,  was  also 
one  of  the  richest  princes  in  Europe;  but  his  wealth  and  the  premature 
civilisation  wThich  was  the  consequence,  had  drawn  the  people  away 

*The  French  were  long  taught  to  remember  this  bloody  lesson.  “  If  I  am  provoked,” 
said  Henry  IV.,  “  I  will  breakfast  at  Milan,  and  dine  at  Naples.” — “Your  majesty,” 
replied  the  Spanish  ambassador,  “  may  perhaps  arrive  in  Sicily  for  vespers.”  To  the 
credit  of  the  Sicilian  character,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  single  Frenchman 
(William  Porcelet)  who  had  not  disregarded  the  laws  of  justice  and  humanity,  was, 
together  with  his  family,  safely  conveyed  to  Italy. 


276 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


from  the  church  of  Rome.  The  reformers  spread  over  Languedoc  had 
already  refused  to  recognise  the  spiritual  authority  of  the  pope,  who, 
denouncing  them  as  schismatics,  lighted  up  a  terrible  war,  which  deso¬ 
lated  one  of  the  fairest  portions  of  Europe.  “  Innocent  III.,”  says  the 
President  Henault,  “  was  the  soul  of  this  war,  Dominic  was  its  apostle, 
the  Count  of  Toulouse  the  victim,  and  Simon,  earl  of  Montfort,  the 
chief.”  Louis  VIII.  marched  against  these  opponents  of  the  Romish 
church,  with  200,000  men.  After  some  resistance  he  took  Avignon, 
which,*  strengthened  with  300  houses  fortified  with  towers,  had  been 
considered  almost  impregnable.  Many  cities  in  Languedoc  opened  their 
gates  to  him ;  but  a  contagious  disease  spread  among  his  troops,  and  he 
himself  being  seized  with  the  disorder,  withdrew  to  Montpensier  in 
Auvergne,  where  he  died,  1226.  Louis  IX.,  surnamed  the  Saint,  being 
only  eleven  years  old  at  the  death  of  his  father,  his  minority  was  spent 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  the  excellent  Blanche  of  Castile. 
Though  the  first  fifteen  years  of  his  reign  was  one  continued  struggle 
against  his  refractor)7  barons,  his  moderation  and  virtue,  nevertheless, 
increased  the  influence  of  the  monarchy.  A  series  of  destructive  cam¬ 
paigns  was  avoided  by  his  surrender  of  Guienne  to  Henry  III.  of  Eng¬ 
land ;  and  the  security  of  his  people  was  maintained  by  his  “Establish¬ 
ments,”  a  code  of  feudal  customs,  the  first  monument  of  legislation  raised 
by  the  Capetian  family.  But  Louis  was  superstitious,  and  this  led  to 
his  two  unfortunate  crusades,  in  the  last  of  which,  1270,  he  met  his 
death  at  the  siege  of  Tunis. 

St.  Louis  united  several  provinces  to  his  crown  without  the  cost  of  one  drop 
of  blood.  The  alliances  of  his  brothers,  Alphonso  and  Charles,  prepared  for 
the  union  of  Languedoc  and  Provence  ;  Blois  and  Chartres  were  purchased 
from  the  Count  of  Champagne,  1247 ;  Nismes  and  Carcassone  were  gained  by 
renouncing  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  Barcelona,  1258  ;  and  the  treaty  of  Abbe¬ 
ville  with  the  English  in  1259  consolidated  the  conquests  made  during  the  reign 
of  Philip  Augustus.  From  his  impartiality,  St.  Louis  was  frequently  chosen  as 
mediator  in  the  quarrels  of  his  time  :  he  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  Duke  of 
Brittany  with  the  King  of  Navarre  —  the  latter  with  the  King  of  England  — 
Henry  III.  with  his  barons — and  Gregory  IX.  with  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
In  all  his  transactions  with  the  court  of  Rome,  he  firmly  but  respectfully 
defended  the  rights  of  his  crown,  and  by  his  Pragmatic  Sanction,*  1268,  estab¬ 
lished  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  church. 

Louis  IX.  prudently  continued  the  work  begun  under  the  auspices  of  Philip 
Augustus,  of  increasing  the  royal  power  by  controlling  his  vassals,  not,  how¬ 
ever,  without  due  respect  to  such  rights  as  were  consecrated  by  age,  although 
originally  usurped  by  violence.  For  the  first  time  deputies  of  the  citizens  were 
admitted  into  certain  public  assemblies.  The  administration  of  justice  was 
reformed  by  wise  institutions  and  by  the  influence  of  the  “Establishments;” 
the  limits  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  were  clearly  determined  by  the 
orders  of  1235  ;  and  the  traders’  companies  regulated  by  useful  decrees.  M fil¬ 
ler,  speaking  of  St.  Louis,  observes,  that  the  empire  of  the  Franks  was  founded 
by  arms  ;  but  royalty  in  France  wTas  consolidated  by  the  virtues  of  this  monarch. 

Philip  III.  the  Bold,  considerably  increased  the  royal  domain  by  the 
addition  of  Poitou  and  Auvergne,  1271 ;  while  circumstances,  arising 


*Tnis  regulation  in  matters  of  religion  is  commonly,  but  perhaps  without  foundation, 
attributed  to  Louis  IX  A  similar  usage  in  episcopal  elections  was  established  by  the 
famous  pragmatic  sanction  of  Charles  YU.,  drawn  up  in  an  assembly  of  the  French 
church  held  at  Bourges,  14:18,  which  contains  certain  regulations  for  ecclesiastical  dis 
cipline  in  conformity  with  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Basle.  This  rule;  which  was 
intended  by  the  Gallician  church  as  a  barrier  against  the  encroachments  of  the  papa1 
court,  was  revoked  by  the  concordat  of  Bologna  in  1516,  between  Francis  L  and  Leo  X. 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


277 


out  of  the  death  of  Theobald  II.  on  his  return  from  Tunis,  eventually 
gave  Champagne  and  Navarre  to  the  French  crown.  By  these  acquisi¬ 
tions,  and  that  of  the  earldom  of  Toulouse,  the  king  became  on  a  sudden 
very  powerful  in  the  south.  But  he  was  not  successful  in  the  war  in 
Sicily,  undertaken  to  defend  his  uncle  Charles  of  Anjou  against  Aragon. 
Having  marched  an  army  into  Spain,  he  died  on  his  return  to  France,  at 
Perpignan,  1285. 


CAPETIAN  DYNASTY:  Portion  II. 


Louis  VI.  the  Fat ,  k.  1108. 


6.  Louis  VII.  the  Young,  1137, 
m.  1.  Eleanor  of  Guienne. 

2.  Constance  of  Castile. 

3.  Alice  of  Champagne. 

I 


Robert  the  Great , 
stock  of  the  families  of 
Dreux  and  Brittany. 


Peter  (7th  son), 
m.  Isabella ,  d.  and 
heiress  of  Reginald 
of  Courtenay,  ct.  of 
Auxerre. 


7.  Philip  II.  Augustus,  1180, 
m.  1.  Isabella ,  heiress  of 
Artois.  2.  Agnes  de 
Meranie. 


Margaret , 
m.  Henry,  son  of 
Henry  II.  of  England. 


Peter , 

emp.  of  Constantinople, 
1216. 

I 

-  A _ _ 


8.  Louis  VIII.  1223, 
m.  Blanche  of  Castile. 


Philip , 

ct.  of  Boulogne. 


emp. 


Robert, 

of  Constantinople,  1221. 


9.  Louis  IX.  1226, 
m.  Margaret  of 
Provence. 


Robert  I. 
stock  of  House 
of  Artois,  extinct 
in  1472. 


Alphonso, 
ct.  of  Poitiers, 
m.  Joan,  heiress 
of  Toulouse, 
f  1271. 


Charles ,  ct.  of  Anjou, 
m.  Beatrice  of  Provence  ; 
stock  of  Sicilian  kings. 


10.  Philip  III.  the  Bold,  1270, 
m.  1.  Isabella  of  Aragon. 

2.  Mary  of  Brabant. 


Robert , 

ct,  of  Clermont ; 
stock  of  branches 
of  Bourbon,  Ven- 
dome,  and  Mont- 
pensier. 


Peter , 

ct.  of  Alencon. 


Blanche , 
m.  Ferdinand  of 
Lacerda. 


11.  Philip  IV.  the  Fair,  1285, 
m.  Joanna,  heiress  of  Navarre 
and  Champagne. 


Charles , 

stock  of  Houses 
of  Valois  and 
Alencon. 


Louis , 

stock  of  House 
of  Evreux-Na- 
varre. 


Margaret , 
m.  Edward  I. 
of  England. 


12.  Louis  X.  Hutin,  1314, 
m.  2.  Clemence  of  Hungary. 


13.  Philip  V. 
the  Long,  1316, 
m. Joan  of 
Burgundy. 


14.  Charles  IV. 
the  Fair,  k.  1322, 
t  1328,  last  of  the 
first  branch. 


Isabella , 
m.  Edward  II. 
of  England. 


John  I.  1315, 
lived  hut  eight 
days,  and  is 
not  reckoned 
among  kings 
of  France. 


Joanna , 
heiress  of 
Navarre ; 
m.  Philip 
of  Evreux. 


Joanna, 
heiress  of  Bur¬ 
gundy,  and  Ar¬ 
tois  ;  m.  Eudes  IV. 
d.  of  Burgundy. 


Edward  III.  of 
England,  pretender 
to  the  French 
throne. 


Philip  IV.  the  Fair,  was  bent  upon  the  aggrandizement  of  the  mon¬ 
archy  by  the  reduction  of  the  five  great  fiefs,  Champagne,  Guienne, 
Flanders,  Burgundy,  and  Brittany.  The  first  he  obtained  by  marriage ; 
the  second  he  got  possession  of  by  stratagem,  but  was  compelled  to 
restore  in  1303 ;  his  attempt  on  the  third  was  defeated  by  the  terrible 
rout  of  Courtray,  1302,  in  which  the  Flemings  took  4000  pair  of  gilt 
spurs,  worn  only  by  knights.  The  various  difficulties  in  which  this 
king  was  involved,  by  the  depreciation  of  the  coinage  and  his  disputes 
wfith  the  clergy,  led  to  the  convention  of  the  states-general,  1302.  Pro¬ 
fiting  by  a  quarrel  between  some  Norman  and  English  sailors,  he  com- 
24 


278 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


menced  a  war  with  England,  and  took,  with  little  resistance,  all  the 
strong  places  of  Guienne  and  Gascony.  Edward  I.  was  then  too  much 
engaged  with  the  Scottish  war  to  defend  his  continental  possessions  *, 
but  he  menaced  France  with  a  formidable  league  in  the  north.  The 
defeat  of  the  Flemings  suspended  the  contest ;  and,  by  the  treaty  of 
Montreuil  sur  Mer,  Edward  espoused,  in  1299,  Philip’s  sister,  Margaret. 

BRITAIN. 

Magna  Charta.  —  John,  1199,  the  murderer  of  his  nephew  Arthur, 
fell  under  the  ban  of  the  pope,  and  provoked  his  subjects  to  revolt.  All 
the  exactions  usual  to  Norman  kings  were  not  only  redoubled,  but  min¬ 
gled  with  outrages  still  more  intolerable  by  this  prince,  who  was  not 
less  contemptible  for  his  folly  than  his  cowardice.  It  was  a  fortunate 
circumstance  that  England  was  not  at  this  period  parcelled  out  like 
France  into  numerous  petty  states,  separated  from  each  other  by  laws, 
manners,  and  privileges.  When  the  country  rose  as  one  man  against 
his  tyranny,  John  was  isolated;  there  was  no  province  on  which  he 
could  depend  for  support  by  concessions  and  privileges  detrimental  to 
the  rest.  He  was  therefore  compelled  to  relax  the  severity  of  the  forest 
laws,  and  to  sign  the  Great  Charter,  1215,  the  keystone  of  English 
liberty.  “All  that  has  since  been  obtained,”  says  Hallam,  “is  little 
more  than  as  confirmation  or  commentary ;  and  if  every  subsequent  law 
were  to  be  swept  away,  there  would  still  remain  the  bold  features  that 
distinguish  a  free  from  a  despotic  monarchy.”  Sir  J.  Mackintosh 
observes,  that  “  to  have  produced  the  Great  Charter,  to  have  preserved 
it,  to  have  matured  it,  constitute  the  immortal  claim  of  England  on  the  * 
esteem  of  mankind.”  This  is  what  some  rash  men  were  about  to 
exchange  for  the  dominion  of  France  in  1213.  The  attempt  of  John  to 
annul  the  charter  was  happily  frustrated  by  his  death  ;  but  he  had  already 
suffered  the  continental  possessions  of  England  to  be  diminished  by  sur¬ 
rendering  to  the  French  monarch,  without  a  struggle,  Normandy,  Anjou, 
Touraine,  and  Maine,  1205.  A  quarrel  with  Innocent  III.  caused  the 
kingdom  to  be  laid  under  an  interdict.  The  churches  were  closed,  the 
sacraments  withheld  from  all  but  children  and  dying  persons ;  and  the 
dead  were  buried  without  prayers  in  unhallowed  ground.  John  was  at 
length  compelled  to  yield,  promising  to  do  homage  for  his  dominions, 
and  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  of  1000  marks.  His  character  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  words  of  Juvenal, — “  Monstrum  nulla  virtute  redemp- 
tum  a  vitiis.” 

Remarks  on  the  Great  Charter. 

On  the  English  nation  the  charter  has  contributed  to  combine  stability  with 
improvement.  It  set  the  first  example  of  the  progress  of  a  great  people  in  blend¬ 
ing  popular  pretensions  and  the  power  of  the  nobles  with  a  vaguely  limited 
monarchy,  so  as  at  length  to  form,  from  these  discordant  materials,  the  only 
kind  of  free  government  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  reconcileable  with 
widely  extended  dominion. 

Prepare:  A  sketch  of  Magna  Charta,  with  the  names  of  its  chief  promoters. 

Henry  III.,  1216,  succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of  ten  years.  His 
minority  was  passed  in  peace  and  without  any  important  event,  under 
the  successive  guardianship  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  and  Hubert  de 
Burgh.  As  soon  as  he  attained  his  majority,  he  showed  himself  as 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


279 


unworthy  the  confidence  of  his  subjects  as  did  his  father.  Always 
guided  by  favourites,  he  was  easily  managed  by  De  Burgh,  on  whom 
he  lavished  numerous  offices.  He  oppressed  his  people  with  all  kinds 
of  exactions,  and  fell  into  a  serious  disagreement  with  his  brother  Rich¬ 
ard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  afterwards  King  of  the  Romans.  He  twice  inter¬ 
fered  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  regency  in  France,  and  was  on  both  occa¬ 
sions  unsuccessful.  In  1245,  he  opposed  the  preaching  of  the  crusade 
within  his  dominions,  partly  from  mistrust  of  Louis  IX.,  and  partly  from 
his  being  engaged  in  disputes  with  Llewellyn,  the  last  native  prince  of 
Wales. 

England  during  nearly  the  whole  of  this  reign  was  a  prey  to  internal 
dissensions,  excited  by  Henry’s  prodigality,  favouritism,  exactions,  and 
continual  violation  of  his  people’s  rights.  These  grievances  led  to  a 
revolt  of  the  barons,  who  placed  at  their  head  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl 
of  Leicester,  who  had  married  Henry’s  sister.  They  compelled  the  king 
to  agree  to  the  provisions  of  the  parliament  of  Oxford,  reforming  most 
of  the  abuses;  but,  in  1261,  he  recalled  his  assent,  and  procured  Pope 
Alexander  IV. ’s  dispensation  from  his  oaths.  St.  Louis  was  umpire  in 
the  subsequent  disputes  ;  but  the  barons  being  dissatisfied  with  his  deci¬ 
sion,  recourse  was  had  to  arms,  when  the  battle  of  Lewes,  1264,  threw 
the  king  and  his  brother  Richard  into  their  hands.  The  commons  were 
now,  according  to  some  historians,  summoned  for  the  first  time  to  the 
national  assembly  or  parliament.*  Affairs,  however,  soon  changed 
appearances.  Edward,  the  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown,  defeated  the 
insurgents  at  Evesham,  in  1265,  when  Leicester  perished,  and  the  king 
was  delivered  from  his  captivity.  Peace  being  established,  the  prince 
joined  in  the  crusade  of  St.  Louis,  and  two  years  after  was  recalled  to 
England  on  the  death  of  his  father. 

Edward  I.,  1272,  the  conqueror  of  Wales  and  the  Justinian  of  Eng¬ 
land,  proved  equally  wise  and  patriotic.  Warlike  and  sagacious,  he 
corrected  the  many  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  administration  of 
the  laws,  and  reduced  the  Welsh  to  subjection,  1283.  A  disputed  suc¬ 
cession  to  the  sovereignty  of  Scotland  led  to  his  interference  in  the  affairs 
of  that  country.  By  his  arbitration  as  lord  paramount,  Baliol  was  seated 
on  the  throne,  1292;  but  four  years  afterwards,  on  a  frivolous  pretext, 
Edward  invaded  and  overran  the  whole  country,  carrying  the  king  pri¬ 
soner  to  London.  The  Scots,  however,  soon  re-asserted  their  independ¬ 
ence,  and  next  year,  under  the  brave  Wallace,  cleared  the  country  of 
the  invaders.  The  name  of  this  heroic  soldier  is  worthily  ranked  among 
the  foremost  of  patriots  —  with  Gustavus  Vasa,  the  two  Williams  of 
Orange,  with  Kosciusko,  and  wfith  Washington.  The  battle  of  Falkirk, 
in  1298,  proved  fatal  to  Scotland ;  and  it  was  while  marching  against 
the  noble  Bruce,  who  had  assumed  the  royal  title,  that  this  enterprising 
monarch  breathed  his  last,  1307. 

SPANISH  PENINSULA. 

Castile  and  Leon.  —  In  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  an 
army  of  80,000  Moorish  cavalry,  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  body 

♦This  parliament,  held  in  London,  22d  January  1265,  was  composed  of  the  clergy  and 
barons,  with  two  knights  from  each  county,  and  two  burgesses  from  every  borough.  The 
division  into  separate  houses  was  effected  between  1339  and  1343. 


280 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


of  infantry,  invaded  Spain,  spreading  terror  throughout  Christendom. 
At  the  summons  of  Innocent  111.,  60,000  crusaders  from  France  and 
Germany  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  took  Malagon  and  Calatrava.  Dis¬ 
appointed  in  their  expectations  of  the  pillage  of  these  two  cities,  they 
returned  to  France,  leaving  only  a  small  part  of  their  forces  under  the 
Archbishop  of  Narbonne  and  Theobald  of  Blacon.  With  these  the 
Sierra  Morena  was  passed,  and  the  battle  of  Tolosa  fought,  1*21*2,  in 
which,  if  we  may  credit  the  historians,  not  fewer  than  200,000  Mussul¬ 
mans  perished.  Alphonso  IX.  of  Castile  died  shortly  after,  leaving  the 
crown  to  his  infant  son  Henry,  under  the  regency  of  Don  Alvaro,  chief  of 
the  house  of  Lara.  The  unimportant  reign  of  this  monarch  was  followed 
by  that  of  Ferdinand  III.,  son  of  Alphonso  IX.  of  Leon.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1230,  who  expired  on  a  pilgrimage  to  St.  James  of 
Compostella,  he  united  Castile  to  the  kingdom  of  Leon. 

The  situation  of  Christian  Spain  was  extremely  flourishing  at  this 
period;  two  formidable  invasions  had  been  repelled,  and  the  Moors  pos¬ 
sessed  little  beyond  Murcia,  Valencia,  with  part  of  Andalusia  and  Gra¬ 
nada.  The  order  of  St.  James,  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  having  acquired  eighty  commanderies  and  two  hundred  priories, 
was  capable  of  bringing  a  thousand  knights  into  the  field.  Next  fol¬ 
lowed  the  orders  of  Calatrava  and  Alcantara,  which  filled  the  ranks  of 
the  Christian  army  with  their  bravest  warriors.  Thus  success  followed 
upon  success;  and  Alphonso,  the  brother  of  Ferdinand,  crossing  the 
Guadiana,  defeated  the  Moors.  The  king  in  person  took  Ubeda,  and 
Cordova  fell  before  an  army  of  adventurers,  1236.  The  sovereigns  of 
Murcia  and  Granada  submitted  to  pay  tribute;  Seville  was  attacked  and 
taken  after  a  two  years’  siege;  and  Ferdinand  was  projecting  the  cap¬ 
ture  of  Ceuta  when  he  died  in  1252. 

Alphonso  X.  of  Castile  and  Leon,  1252,  received  on  his  accession  to 
the  throne  the  oaths  of  fidelity  from  the  sovereigns  of  Granada  and  Nie- 
bla.  The  latter  city  he  conquered  in  1259,  and  four  years  after  defeated 
the  rulers  of  Murcia  and  Granada,  notwithstanding  the  aid  they  had  re¬ 
ceived  from  Morocco  :  he  further  united  great  part  of  Murcia  to  Castile, 
forcing  the  King  of  Granada  to  acknowledge  his  dependence  by  payment 
of  a  tribute.  But  the  glories  of  the  earlier  years  of  this  reign  were  tar¬ 
nished  by  the  disturbances  which  clouded  its  close.  The  depreciation 
of  the  coinage  and  the  establishment  of  a  maximum  led  to  extreme  misery 
and  discontent  among  all  classes.  The  invasion  by  the  King  of  Fez  in 
1275,  reconciled  for  a  time  the  monarch  and  his  subjects;  yet  Sancho 
the  Brave,  his  second  son,  who  had  the  greatest  share  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Moors,  renewed  the  troubles  by  aspiring  to  the  crown,  which  by  right 
should  have  fallen  to  his  elder  brother,  Ferdinand  of  Lacerda.  Alphonso 
was  forced  to  submit  to  his  rebellious  son,  who  was  acknowledged  heir. 

The  first  act  of  Sancho  IV.,  1284,  was  to  deprive  his  brother,  Don 
Juan,  of  Seville  and  Badajoz,  which  had  been  left  to  him  by  his  father. 
Resuming  the  war  against  the  Moors,  his  fleet,  united  with  the  Genoese, 
several  times  defeated  the  infi  lels,  and  the  King  of  Morocco  fled  in 
dismay  from  the  siege  of  Xeres,  1285.  The  course  of  his  victories  was 
suspended  by  the  quarrels  of  the  rival  houses  of  Haro  and  Lara ;  but  on 
the  settlement  of  their  disputes  he  was  enabled  to  return  against  the 
Moors,  from  whom  he  took  the  fortress  of  Tarifa.  He  died  in  1295, 
leaving  his  son  Ferdinand  IV.  under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  Mary, 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


281 


who  was  fortunate  enough  to  satisfy  the  ambition  of  Don  Juan,  her  late 
husband’s  brother,  and  to  reconcile  the  two  hostile  families.  Henry, 
third  son  of  Ferdinand  III.,  having  reappeared  in  Spain  after  an  absence 
of  twenty-five  years,  seized  on  the  regency  ;  but  was  soon  environed 
with  enemies,  whose  w^ant  of  unity  w7as  fatal  to  their  success.  The 
death  of  the  usurping  regent,  which  happened  shortly  after,  threw  the 
Hiief  power  into  the  hands  of  Don  Juan  and  the  house  of  Lara,  who 
persuaded  the  king  to  deprive  his  mother  of  her  authority.  On  obtaining 
his  majority,  Ferdinand  re-established  concord  for  a  time,  by  giving  a 
suitable  appanage  to  the  eldest  son  of  Alphonso  of  Lacerda,  and  by 
ceding  the  north  of  Murcia  to  Aragon.  In  Ferdinand’s  reign  the  im¬ 
portant  fortress  of  Gibraltar  wTas  taken  from  the  Moors. 

Aragon. — Peter  II.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1196,  after  contri¬ 
buting  to  the  victory  of  Tolosa,  perished  at  Muret,  fighting  on  the  side 
of  the  Count  of  Toulouse  against  Simon  of  Montfort.  His  successor, 
James  I.,  surnamed  the  Conqueror,  1213,  undertook  an  expedition  to  the 
Balearic  Isles,  attacked  Majorca,  defeated  the  Moors,  marched  towards 
their  capital,  and  himself  mounting  first  to  the  assault,  took  possession 
of  the  place,  which,  wdth  the  whole  island,  he  united  to  Aragon,  an  im¬ 
portant  conquest  for  the  maritime  commerce  of  the  Catalonians.  When 
two  Moorish  princes  were  prosecuting  their  claims  to  the  throne  of 
Valencia,  James,  proceeding  to  the  succour  of  one  of- them,  penetrated 
to  the  capital,  which  he  captured.  The  submission  of  Valencia  gave 
fresh  importance  to  Aragon ;  but  his  successors,  washing  to  unite  the 
crown  of  Sicily  to  those  which  they  already  wTore,  the  occupation  of  that 
island  diverted  them  from  the  Moorish  wars  to  mingle  in  the  quarrels 
then  agitating  Italy. 

Peter  III.,  1276,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Manfred,  king  of 
Sicily  added  that  island  to  the  possessions  of  the  house  of  Barcelona. 
It  was  in  vain  that  Pope  Martin  IV.  declared  his  deposition,  and  con¬ 
ferred  the  crown  on  Charles  of  Valois,  second  son  of  Philip  the  Bold, 
for  the  Admiral  Roger  de  Loria  maintained  everywhere  the  superiority 
of  the  Aragonese  flag,  and  thereby  entirely  neutralized  the  invasion  of 
Catalonia  by  the  French  monarch.  At  Peter’s  death,  in  1285,  the  crown 
of  Sicily  wras  left  to  his  second  son  James,  and  that  of  Aragon  to  Al- 
phonso  III.,  the  Beneficent,  who  took  Minorca  from  the  infidels.  At  the 
news  of  Alphonso’s  death,  in  1291,  James,  abandoning  Sicily  to  his 
brother  Frederick,  returned  to  assume  the  crown  of  his  native  land.  To 
terminate  the  war  with  France,  he  espoused  Blanche,  daughter  of 
Charles  of  Naples,  and  promised  to  restore  Sicily  to  that  prince ;  but 
Frederick  found  means  to  prevent  the  execution  of  this  promise. 

THE  EAST. 

Mamelukes. — On  the  death  of  Saladin,  in  1193,  his  empire  was  di¬ 
vided  among  the  princes  of  his  family;  Egypt  still  maintaining  its 
pre-eminence.  But  the  sons  of  that  great  leader  were  dethroned  by  his 
brother  Malek-el-Adel,  who  began,  in  1200,  the  dynasty  of  the  Ayoubite 
sultans ;  and  in  the  reign  of  his  last  descendant,  St.  Louis  undertook 
the  crusade  in  wririch  he  and  his  army  were  made  prisoners,  1250.  In 
the  same  year  the  Mamelukes  broke  out  into  open  rebellion,  and  having 
murdered  their  new  sovereign,  they  established  a  dynasty  of  their  own. 

24  * 


282 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


This  class  of  men  were  principally  Circassian  or  Georgian  slaves  whom 
the  Egyptian  saltans  had  purchased  to  fill  the  ranks  of  their  army ;  and 
being  trained  as  a  body-guard,  they  proved  very  brave  though  sometimes 
turbulent  soldiers.  After  this  period,  few  of  their  sovereigns  died  a 
natural  death ;  the  only  variety  in  their  fate  was  the  means  employed — 
the  sword,  poison,  or  the  bowstring.  The  Mamelukes  oppressed  the 
unfortunate  Egyptians,  and  filled  the  country  with  scenes  of  violence, 
until  their  dynasty  was  ended  in  the  Sultan  Selim,  1517. 

Genghis  Khan. — Another  terrible  scourge  now  appeared  in  Asia. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Selinga  was  born,  in  1164,  Temugin,  better  known 
as  Genghis  Khan.*  This  leader  of  the  Mongols  issued  from  the  distant 
regions  of  Chinese  Tartary  at  the  head  of  a  fierce  and  uncivilised  race, 
whose  course  was  everywhere  marked  by  desolation,  1296.  His  career 
was  one  splendid  victory.  Invading  China,  he  seized  on  seven  of  the 
northern  provinces  ;  conquered  Corea  and  Thibet;  defeated  400,000  men 
under  Mohammed,  the  sultan  of  Kharism  ;  and  routed  the  Czar  of  Rus¬ 
sia.  All  Asia,  from  the  sea  of  China  to  the  Euxine,  yielded  to  his 
power  ;  and  though  he  died  in  1226,  his  conquests  were  continued  by  his 
successors.  One  of  them,  Baatu,  made  a  rapid  incursion  into  Europe, 
1236,  the  broadest  rivers  proving  no  obstacle  to  his  savage  followers. 
Having  conquered  Russia,  they  invaded  Poland,  and  destroyed  the  cities 
of  Lublin  and  Cracow.  The  monarchs  of  Europe  trembled  on  their 
thrones,  when  this  second  Attila  was  recalled  by  the  death  of  the  Great 
Khan  Octai  in  1245. 

The  caliphate  of  Bagdad  was  terminated  by  the  Mongols,  under 
Hulaku,  in  1258,  a.  h.  656.  During  forty  days  the  city  was  given  up 
to  plunder,  and  200,000  persons  were  slain.  The  conquest  of  China 
was  completed  in  1279,  by  Kublai  Khan,  who  had  raised  the  power  of 
his  nation  to  the  summit  of  grandeur.  He  died  in  1294,  when  the 
empire  was  divided  into  Iran  (Persia),  Zagatai  (S.  E.  Asia) ;  Kaptschak 
(Russia) ;  and  China. 

Read:  Gibbon’s  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  lxiv. 

THE  CHURCH. 

The  Mendicant  Orders. — The  reform  called  for  by  the  corrupt  lives 
of  the  clergy  demanded  a  stronger  spirit  of  enthusiasm  in  their  defence. 
Francisco,  the  son  of  a  rich  merchant  of  Assisi,  was  actuated  in  his 
youth  by  a  delirious  piety ;  in  his  riper  years  he  became  either  a  mad¬ 
man  or  an  impostor.  With  the  pope’s  consent  he  instituted  in  1210  a 
class  of  Friars  Minorite,  better  known  as  Franciscans,  from  the  name 
of  their  founder,  in  honour  of  whom  they  modestly  call  themselves  the 
Seraphic  order ;  having  installed  him  above  the  seraphim  upon  the  throne 
from  which  Satan  fell.  They  were  bound  to  observe  the  severest  rule 
of  life  :  they  went  barefooted,  and  trusted  to  alms  for  their  daily  bread. 
They  increased  with  great  rapidity ;  so  that  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  the  Reformation  must  have  diminished  their  number  by  one-third, 


*  Genghis  Khan,  or  the  greatest  khan,  had  been  raised  to  the  command  of  his  nation 
by  the  help  of  another  whose  name  has  been  mixed  up  with  numerous  fables.  Temugin 
had  married  the  daughter  of  Ouang,  the  great  khan  of  the  Keraites,  who,  from  the  story 
of  having  been  converted  by  some  Christian  monks  and  baptized,  is  known  in  Europe 
as  Prester  John. 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  t>.  283 

there  were  found  28,000  Franciscan  nuns  in  900  nunneries,  and  115,000 
friars  in  7000  convents. 

The  rival  order  of  Dominicans,  which  was  instituted  on  the  same 
principles,  and  about  the  same  period,  became  noted  for  performing  the 
sanguinary  tasks  of  the  Inquisition,  extirpating  heretics  with  fire  and 
sword.  By  the  council  of  Lyons,  1274,  the  number  of  the  mendicant 
orders  was  confined  to  four: — Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Carmelites, 
and  Austin  friars, — all  of  whom  proving  the  ever-acting  agents  of  the 
holy  see,  received  in  consequence  great  privileges  from  the  popes.  The 
monks  could  confess,  absolve,  and  preach  in  all  churches  ;  and  thither 
ran  the  people  to  listen  to  these  men,  coarsely  clad  and  attenuated  by 
austerity,  rather  than  to  the  delicate  and  sumptuous  prelates,  who  glit¬ 
tered  in  purple  garments  and  gold.  These  orders,  by  undermining  the 
influence  of  the  superior  clergy,  restored  to  Christianity  the  democratic 
character  which  it  bore  in  the  primitive  church,  and  which  was  mani¬ 
fested  with  such  terrible  energy  during  the  religious  wars. 

Read:  Southey’s  Book  of  the  Church. 

The  Inquisition. — The  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  by  Dominic, 
in  1204,  enabled  the  papal  court  to  direct  all  its  efforts  to  the  extirpation 
of  heresy.  The  leading  features  of  this  odious  tribunal  were  the  impen¬ 
etrable  secrecy  of  its  proceedings,  the  insidious  mode  of  accusation,  the 
use  of  torture,  and  heavy  penalties.  This  weapon  of  the  church  was 
first  successfully  employed  against  the  Albigenses,  but  was  afterwards 
suppressed  in  France.  Introduced  into  Germany  in  1231,  it  was 
abolished  after  the  lapse  of  three  years  on  account  of  the  violence  of  the 
inquisitor,  and  never  again  restored.  In  Italy  it  succeeded  in  crushing 
the  Reformation ;  but  it  was  successfully  resisted  by  the  Neapolitans, 
who  were  alarmed  at  the  cruelty  with  which  it  was  administered  in 
Spain.  In  that  country  it  possessed  a  formidable  power,  and  there  an 
auto-da-fe  was  solemnized  so  lately  as  1783. 

Read  :  M’Crie’s  Reformation  in  Italy. — Llorente’s  Inquisition. 

Albigenses. — This  sect,  which  derived  its  name  from  the  town  of 
Albi,  was  probably  a  union  of  all  who  differed  from  the  Romish  church, 
collected  round  the  simple  Waldenses — so  called  from  Yaldo  of  Lyons 
— whom  Providence  had  kept  untainted  by  the  papal  corruptions.  The 
suspicious  death  of  Pietro  de  Castelnau,  while  crossing  the  Rhone  in 
1208,  called  forth  a  bull  from  Innocent  III.  against  all  schismatics,  and 
particularly  against  Raymond  VI.  count  of  Toulouse,  absolving  his 
subjects  from  their  allegiance,  and  informing  them  that  faith  was  not  to 
be  kept  with  heretics.  Simon,  count  of  Montfort,  uras  appointed  leader 
of  this  Western  Crusade.  It  began  with  the  storming  of  Beziers,  where 
15,000  Albigenses  were  slain.  It  is  said  that  when  some  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  would  have  escaped,  a  Cistertian  monk  led  on  the  crusaders 
with  the  cry  of  “  kill  them  all !  God  will  know  his  own.”  At  last 
Raymond  VII.,  in  1229,  was  forced  to  capitulate,  and  the  Inquisition 
was  established  in  Toulouse.  The  Albigenses  were  dispersed,  but  not 
destroyed,  by  a  determined  system  of  persecution.  During  twro  cen¬ 
turies  they  supplied  victims  for  the  Spanish  inquisition;  in  Bohemia 
they  had  a  dreadful  season  of  vengeance  under  Zisca  and  Procopius ; 
in  Germany  they  prepared  the  way  for  Luther;  and  in  Britain  they 
sowed  that  seed  of  which,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  we  now  enjoy  the 
abundant  harvest. 


284 


MIDDLE  AGES* 


CRUSADES. 

Fourth  Crusade,  a.  d.  1202. — A  new  holy  war  was  preached  by 
Fulques  of  Neuilly,  and  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  was  made  leader. 
The  crusaders  were  diverted  from  the  object  of  their  expedition  by  the 
prayers  of  the  young  Alexius,  who  implored  their  protection  in  behalf 
of  his  father.  Aided  by  Dandolo  of  Venice,  they  took  the  Byzantine 
capital,  and  elected  Baldwin  emperor.  Other  chiefs  shared  in  the 
spoils;  Boniface  of  Montferrat  had  the  title  of  King  of  Thessaly; 
Ville  Hardouin  was  made  Duke  of  Thrace;  Athens  was  converted  into 
a  duchy ;  Achaia  into  a  principality ;  and  Corinth  into  a  lordship 
Thus  began  the  Latin  empire  in  1204,  which  lasted  till  1261. 

Crusade  of  Children. — As  the  crusading  spirit  of  the  times  haa 
seduced  Louis  IX.,  so  even  children  were  possessed  by  it.  In  1212, 
nearly  90,000  youths  of  different  countries  left  their  parents  and  school¬ 
masters  in  order  to  betake  themselves  to  the  Holy  Land.  They  pro¬ 
ceeded  in  great  troops  to  Marseilles  and  Genoa,  although  their  numbers 
were  diminished  by  cold,  hunger,  and  disease.  As  two  merchants  of 
the  former  city  offered  to  transport  them  across  the  sea,  seven  vessels 
quitted  the  port,  by  which  they  were  carried  to  Alexandria,  and  there 
sold  as  slaves.  Most  of  those  who  reached  Genoa,  in  the  hope  of  find¬ 
ing  the  bed  of  the  sea  dried  up,  were  reduced  to  bondage  by  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  the  country. 

Consult :  Michaud’s  History  of  the  Crusades,  vol.  iii. 

Fifth  Crusade,  1217. — This  expedition  was  undertaken  by  the 
king  of  Hungary,  Andrew  II.,  who  was  aided  by  John  of  Brienne, 
king  of  Jerusalem;  Hugh,  king  of  Cyprus;  and  Leopold  III.,  duke  of 
Austria.  The  crusaders  first  landed  at  Acre,  but  their  ill  success  in 
Palestine,  and  the  departure  of  the  Hungarians,  induced  them  to  turn 
their  arms  to  another  quarter.  As  Egypt  was  the  great  resource  of  the 
Mussulmans  in  the  Holy  Land,  it  was  resolved  to  conquer  Jerusalem 
by  depriving  it  of  its  usual  supplies.  Accordingly  Damietta  was 
stormed,  and  the  sultan  offered  to  give  up  the  Holy  City  with  the  true 
cross,  when  the  pope’s  legate  thought  fit  to  reject  his  proposals  and  con¬ 
tinue  the  war.  This  resolution  was  fatal ;  for,  surrounded  by  the  waters 
of  the  Nile,  attacked  on  all  sides  by  the  Saracens,  and  wasted  by  a  con¬ 
tagious  malady,  the  Christians  were  forced  to  submit  to  humiliating 
conditions  of  peace,  in  1221. 

Sixth  Crusade,  1228. — The  failure  of  the  fifth  crusade  incited  the 
pope  to  press  the  fulfilment  of  the  vow  which  the  Emperor  Frederick 
II.  had  made  to  assume  the  cross ;  but  it  was  not  until  he  had  incurred 
the  penalty  of  excommunication  through  his  various  delays,  that  the 
emperor  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land.  Here,  by  a  convention  signed  the 
following  year,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  ceded  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem, 
Nazareth,  Rama,  and  all  the  country  between  Acre,  Tyre,  Sidon,  and 
Jerusalem.  But  the  Christians  did  not  long  preserve  their  acquisitions. 
Weakened  by  civil  wars,  some  forming  alliances  with  the  Sultan  of 
Damascus,  others  with  the  ruler  of  Egypt,  they  lost  Jerusalem  in  1244 ; 
and  although  they  recovered  it  again,  and  held  possession  of  it  for  a 
brief  period,  they  were  finally  driven  out  by  the  Kharismians,  who 
massacred  or  reduced  to  slavery  all  the  population  of  Palestine,  and 
destroyed  the  sacred  sepulchre. 


THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


285 


Seventh  Crusade,  1248. — Cardinal  Eudes  of  Chateauroux  was  the 

eans  of  giving  birth  to  this  war,  in  which  Louis  IX.  sailed  for  Egypt 
with  an  army  of  nearly  60,000  men.  That  country  was  looked  upon  as 
the  key  of  Palestine,  and  Louis  made  the  city  of  Damietta  the  centre 
of  his  movements.  Natural  obstacles,  the  resolute  opposition  of  the 
Turks,  and  the  loss  of  many  brave  knights,  including  his  brother  the 
Count  of  Artois,  compelled  him  to  retreat  wrhen  almost  within  sight  of 
Cairo.  Pestilence  and  famine  aggravated  the  distresses  of  his  soldiers; 
and  the  king  himself  became  a  captive,  when  his  army  was  almost 
annihilated.  His  ransom  was  obtained  by  the  payment  of  400,000 
livres.  At  Acre,  he  lingered  four  years,  ashamed  to  return  inglorious  to 
France  and  unable  to  visit  the  holy  sepulchre. 

Eighth  Crusade,  1270. — A  chimerical  hope  of  converting  the  King 
of  Tunis  led  Louis  to  the  African  coast.  His  army,  30,000  foot,  and 
6000  horse,  was  composed  of  men  of  all  nations;  for  English,  Scots, 
Catalonians,  Portuguese,  and  Castilians,  fought  under  the  same  ban¬ 
ners  with  the  French  chivalry.  The  plague,  however,  soon  appeared 
in  the  camp,  which  cut  him  off  at  the  age  of  fifty -five,  1270. 

RESULTS  OF  THE  CRUSADES. 

Des  Michaels,  examining  the  influences  of  the  Crusades,  classifies  them 
under  the  following  heads 

I.  Immediate  Effect. — Europe  was  saved  from  Turkish  invasion  at  a  period 
when  she  would  have  been  ill  able  to  resist  it,  although  she  purchased  this 
benefit  and  short  repose  at  a  great  price  of  blood  and  treasure. 

II.  Effect  on  the  Church. — The  popes  augmented  their  spiritual  and  temporal 
power.  They  brought  under  their  supremacy  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch  and 
Jerusalem,  and  strengthened  the  links  of  the  hierarchy. 

III.  Folitical  Effect. — This  was  shown,  ls£,  Among  the  princes,  who  all, 
with  the  exception  of  the  emperors,  found  means  of  enlarging  their  domains, 
and  increasing  their  authority  ;  2d,  Among  the  nobility,  who  suffered  in  power 
and  riches,  but  were  gainers  in  honorary  distinctions.  The  orders  of  knight¬ 
hood  established  in  the  East  reflected  their  splendour  over  Europe  and  were 
imitated  in  all  Christian  states.  Tournaments,  a  recent  introduction,  charmed 
the  West  by  representing  the  exploits  of  the  Holy  War  ;  the  combatants  from 
beyond  the  seas  came  to  display,  in  the  various  courts,  the  magnificence  of  the 
East ;  while  coats  of  arms  became  necessary  as  distinctive  marks,  and  family 
names  were  adopted  and  transmitted  from  sire  to  son. 

IV.  Effect  on  Commerce  and  Industry. — The  art  of  navigation  made  important 
progress,  owing  to  the  frequent  voyages,  to  the  great  profits  derived  from  them, 
and  to  the  practices  borrowed  from  the  pilots  of  the  Levant.  By  opening  a 
wider  field  to  speculation,  and  by  facilitating  exchange,  commerce  derived  the 
same  advantages  as  nautical  science.  Productions  of  nature  and  art,  hitherto 
unknown  in  the  West,  brought  new  enjoyments,  and  called  forth  fresh  industry. 
The  maritime  cities  that  engrossed  the  commerce  of  the  East,  attracted  to  them 
most  of  the  wealth  of  Europe,  and  several  of  them  became  powerful  republics. 
Hence  the  prosperity  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  Pisa,  of  Barcelona  and  Marseilles. 
Hence,  too,  the  wealth  and  activity  of  the  Flemish  towns,  which  served  as 
the  medium  of  exchange  between  the  North  and  South,  between  the  ports  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  towns  of  the  Hanseatic  league.  Agriculture  was 
also  greatly  benefited  by  the  introduction  of  the  mulberry,  Turkey- wheat,  the 
sugar-cane,  and  other  plants. 

V.  Effect  on  Knowledge. — General  civilisation  was  advanced  by  new  inter¬ 
national  relations,  and  the  progress  of  science  and  literature.  Ideas  of  honour 
and  courtesy  spread  from  chivalry  into  society  generally,  softening  the  public 


286 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


manners,  and  ennobling,  in  some  respect,  the  enfranchised  serfs,  who  were 
indebted  for  most  of  their  wealth  and  liberty  to  the  crusades. 

New  and  sublime  subjects  were  laid  open  to  poetic  genius,  which,  however, 
rarely  employed  them  with  advantage.  Still  talent  was  honoured,  and  the 
Warriors,  not  satisfied  with  encouraging  the  versifiers  who  celebrated  their 
exploits,  became  their  own  bards.  A  peculiar  character  was  impressed  on 
poetry,  and  thus  arose  the  romance  of  chivalry  and  the  songs  of  the  troubadours. 
Hence  was  breathed  the  first  harmony  into  the  various  dialects  of  modern 
Europe. 

The  advances  made  by  the  sciences  of  geography,  history,  and  medicine,  were 
important  in  giving  a  new  impulse  to  geographical  research  and  adventure. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire.  — 1341,  Cantacuzene.  — 1355,  Great  Earthquake.  —  1391, 
Manuel  II. 

The  East. — 1310,  Knights  of  St.  John  at  Rhodes. — 1326,  Rise  of  the  Ottoman 
Power — Janizaries.  — 1370,  Tamerlane.  — 1389,  Bajazet.  — 1402,  Battle  of 
Angora. 

Germany. — 1315,  Battle  of  Morgarten. — 1338,  Union  of  Rense. — 1347,  Charles 
IV.  — 1356,  Golden  Bull.  — 1378,  Wenceslaus,  Emperor.  — 1386,  Battle  of 
Sempach. 

Italian  Peninsula. — The  Visconti.  — 1320,  Castruccio  Castracani.  — 1342, 
Joan  I. — 1347,  Rienzi. — 1355,  Faliero  expelled. — 1378,  War  of  Chioggia. 
France. — 1302,  Defeat  at  Courtray — Papal  Quarrels. — 1307,  Templars  abol¬ 
ished —  Salic  Law.  — 1346,  Battle  of  Cressy  ;  1356,  of  Poitiers.  — 1358,  The 
Jacquerie. — 1364,  Charles  V. 

Britain.  — 1314,  Battle  of  Bannockburn.  —  1346,  The  Black  Prince.  — 1371, 
The  Stuarts. — 1381,  Wat  Tyler. — 1399,  House  of  Lancaster — Henry  V. 
Spanish  Peninsula.  — 1340,  Battle  of  Tarifa:  Cannons  first  used.  — 1350, 
Peter  the  Cruel. — 1368,  Henry  of  Trastamare. — 1385,  John  of  Portugal. 
Church. — 1360,  John  Wickliffe. — 1378,  Great  Schism  of  the  West — Lollards 
— Bianchi. 

Inventions. — 1306,  The  Mariner’s  Compass — Linen  Paper — Cannons. — 1330, 
Notes  of  Music. — 1360,  Metal-drawing;  Pins. — 1380,  Playing  Cards — Gun¬ 
powder  used. 

Literature,  &c.  — 1300,  Cimabue;  1336,  Ghiotto,  Painter.  — 1321,  Dante, 
Poet ;  1343,  Occam,  Theologian  ;  1374,  Petrarch,  Poet ;  1375,  Boccacio, 
Novelist;  Hafiz,  Persian  Poet;  1400,  Chaucer,  Poet;  1402,  Gower,  Poet*, 
Froissart,  Historian. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

A  nation  so  degraded  as  the  Greeks  was  unable  to  defend  itself 
against  the  Turks,  to  repel  whose  attacks  Andronicus  II.  hired  7000 
Catalonians,  whom  the  reconciliation  of  the  houses  of  Anjou  and  Aragon 
had  left  without  employment ;  but  these  mercenaries,  uniting  with  the 
Turks,  pillaged  Thrace  and  Thessaly,  and  seized  on  the  duchy  of  Athens, 
1312.  Further,  the  knights  of  St.  John  wrested  Cos,  Rhodes,  and 
several  adjacent  islands,  from  the  Byzantine  emperor.  Internal  dissen 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


287 


sions  led  to  the  dethronement  of  the  sovereign  by  his  grandson,  Andronicus 
the  Younger,  1328,  under  whom  the  abuses  of  the  government  increased. 
Bithynia  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  ;  and  his  reign  of  thirteen  years 
was  imbittered  by  a  declining  popularity  and  a  premature  old  age,  the 
consequence  of  youthful  excess.  John  Palaeologus,  1341,  was  left  in 
his  ninth  year  under  the  guardianship  of  the  regent  Cantacuzene,  who 
had  the  merit  of  restoring  Lesbos  and  iEtolia  to  the  empire.  The 
intrigues  of  jealous  courtiers  led  him  to  assume  the  imperial  title. 
During  six  years  the  flames  of  civil  discord  burned  with  various  success ; 
and  while  internal  factions  weakened  the  state,  the  barbarians  were 
breaking  through  the  whole  line  of  the  frontiers.  The  regent  finally 
triumphed,  but  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  faction;  and  he  descended 
from  the  throne  to  a  cloister,  1355,  when  John  resumed  the  purple.  In 
this  year  a  terrible  earthquake  shook  most  of  the  cities  in  South  Rou- 
melia, — an  event  of  which  the  Turks  took  advantage  to  seize  on  them, 
and  to  fortify  Gallipoli  and  Zympe.  Opposed  on  all  sides  by  Chris¬ 
tians  and  infidels  alike,  the  emperor  besought  the  protection  of  the  pope, 
and  endeavoured  to  effect  a  union  between  the  two  churches.  But  this 
was  unavailing  against  the  victories  of  Amurath,  to  whom  he  became 
almost  a  tributary  vassal,  and  the  Greek  empire  wTas  confined  to  a  corner 
of  Thrace  between  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Euxine,  scarcely  1500 
miles  square — Philadelphia,  the  last  city  held  by  the  Greeks  in  Asia 
Minor,  having  been  wrested  from  them  in  1390. — Manuel  II.,  1391, 
who  had  served  under  Bajazet,  preserved  his  military  reputation  by  a 
lengthened  struggle  with  his  rival  John  of  Selymbria.  The  threatening 
power  and  haughty  summons  of  Bajazet  led  to  an  ignominious  truce  of 
ten  years,  in  virtue  of  which  the  religion  of  Mohammed  wTas  tolerated  in 
the  Christian  capital. 

THE  EAST. 

Ottoman  Empire. — Profiting  by  the  weakness  of  the  Seljukians  of 
Iconium,  many  Turkish  families  had  retired  into  the  mountains  of  Asia 
Minor,  where  they  formed  several  petty  states,  and  preserved  their  war¬ 
like  habits  by  continual  inroads  into  the  Greek  territories.  Among  these 
was  Othman,  who,  fixing  his  residence  at  Karahissar,  extended  his  power 
into  Bithynia;  and  his  son  Orcan,  who  succeeded  him,  1326,  having 
assumed  the  title  of  sultan,  rapidly  enlarged  his  dominions.  Invited  into 
Europe  by  one  of  the  factions  of  the  capital,  the  barbarians  established 
themselves  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Constantinople,  whence  they  sub¬ 
dued  the  whole  province  from  the  Hellespont  to  Mount  Heemus,  1360. 
Amurath  I.  at  length  reduced  the  Greek  emperor  to  the  ignominy  of 
sending  his  four  sons  as  hostages  to  the  Ottoman  camp.  To  him,  or  to 
his  predecessor  Orcan,  the  celebrated  Janizaries  owe  their  origin. 
Aware  of  the  real  superiority  of  the  Europeans  in  warlike  matters,  he 
selected  the  stoutest  of  the  Christian  prisoners,  and  educated  them  in 
habits  of  martial  discipline.  This  new  militia  vras  consecrated  by  a 
renowned  dervise,  who  said,  “  Let  them  be  called  Janizaries — new  sol¬ 
diers;  may  their  hands  be  ever  victorious,  and  their  swords  keen.” 

Bajazet  I.,  surnamed  Ilderim,  1389,  reigned  fourteen  years;  and  his 
rapid  movements  soon  reduced  to  obedience  all  the  country  between  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Danube.  At  the  battle  of  Nicopolis,  1396,  he  defeated 
Sigismond  the  king  of  Hungary,  and  the  bravest  knights  of  France  and 


288 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Germany,  who  had  marched  to  the  support  of  Europe  and  the  church. 
It  was  the  insolent  boast  of  this  proud  army  of  100,000  Christians,  that 
if  the  sky  should  fall  they  could  uphold  it  on  their  lances.  The  impe- 
tuousity  of  the  French  caused  the  loss  of  the  day,  and  the  lives  of  many 
of  the  most  gallant  soldiers.  With  savage  cruelty  Bajazet  led  out  the 
prisoners,  amounting  to  no  fewTer  than  10,000,  to  be  slaughtered  in  cold 
blood.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  compelled  to  be  a  spectator  of  this 
inhuman  massacre,  which  lasted  from  early  morn  till  four  o’clock,  p.  m.  ; 
and  then  was  only  stopped  by  the  intercession  of  some  of  the  Moham¬ 
medan  leaders.  The  siege  of  Constantinople  was  next  meditated,  but 
the  sultan  was  compelled  to  defend  himself  against  the  formidable 
Tamerlane.  The  twrn  armies  met  at  Angora,  1402 :  Bajazet  was 
defeated  and-  made  captive,  and  carried  about  in  triumph,  as  some  say, 
in  an  iron  cage. 

Tamerlane. — Under  the  successors  of  Genghis  Khan  in  the  four¬ 
teenth  century,  the  vices  common  to  all  Asiatic  monarchies  appeared. 
The  provincial  governors  asserted  their  independence  in  1355,  and  the 
dynasty  of  the  Ilkhanians  at  Bagdad  extended  their  authority  to  the 
Caspian  Sea.  At  the  same  time,  the  khan’s  officers  deprived  him  of  his 
power,  and  governed  the  empire  in  his  name.  Lastly,  the  inroads  of  the 
Turkomans,  and  of  the  Mongol  Khan  of  the  Kaptschak,  wffio  several 
times  entered  Persia,  hut  particularly  those  of  Tamerlane,  put  an  end 
to  their  dominion.  This  famous  warrior  was  not  distinguished  in  arms 
until  the  age  of  twenty-seven ;  his  youth  having  been  passed  in  tending 
the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  family.  At  nineteen  he  became  religious, 
and  made  a  vow  never  to  injure  any  living  thing.  His  first  adventures 
were  the  struggles  upon  which  he  entered  to  restore  to  independence  his 
country,  that  had  been  invaded  by  the  Calmucks.  He  ascended  the 
throne  of  Zagatai,  1370  ;  but  before  his  death  the  crown  of  that  kingdom 
wTas  only  one  of  fourteen  that  encircled  his  brows.  Turkestan  was  sub¬ 
dued  in  1383 ;  Persia  in  1393 ;  and  Eastern  Tartary  was  invaded  with  a 
mighty  army,  wffiose  front  covered  thirteen  miles.  Hindostan  was 
assailed  by  92,000  horsemen;  and  10,000  prisoners,  whom  they  took  on 
their  march,  were  all  massacred.  Delhi  was  captured  and  delivered  up 
to  an  undisciplined  soldiery  ;  and  after  a  campaign  of  one  year,  Tamer¬ 
lane  returned  home.  His  designs  of  conquest  wTere  probably  changed 
by  the  news  he  received  of  the  ambitious  projects  of  Bajazet.  Quitting 
the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  he  marched  against  his  rival ;  Sebaste,  on  the 
borders  of  Anatolia  was  taken,  and  the  garrison,  consisting  of  4000 
Armenians,  buried  alive.  His  incursions  into  Syria  and  Persia  during 
the  next  two  years  enabled  Bajazet  to  collect  forces;  and  after  various 
delays,  the  two  armies  met  in  the  heart  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  The 
result  of  the  battle  of  Angora,  1402,  did  not  disgrace  the  thirty  years’ 
experience  of  Tamerlane.  Almost  the  whole  of  Asia  was  now  in  his 
hands,  but  while  meditating  a  new  design  of  vast  extent,  the  reduction 
of  Egypt  and  Africa,  and  the  entrance  into  Europe  by  Gibraltar,  death 
put  a  term  to  his  conquests  in  1405.  With  his  life  the  glory  of  his 
empire  faded,  and,  before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Transoxiana 
and  Persia  were  trampled  upon  by  their  Turkoman  neighbours. 

GERMANY. 

After  the  death  of  his  rival  Adolphus  in  1298,  Albert  of  Austria 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


289 


leoeived  the  imperial  crown  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  notwithstanding  tne 
determined  opposition  of  Boniface  VIII.,  who,  nevertheless,  becoming 
reconciled,  assisted  him  in  placing  on  the  throne  of  Hungary  their  com¬ 
mon  friend,  Carobert  of  Naples,  1308.  The  emperor  next  disposed  of 
the  Bohemian  territory  in  favour  of  two  of  his  sons,  Rodolph  and 
Frederick.  But  the  states  had  already  conferred  the  sovereignty  on 
Henry  of  Carinthia,  brother-in-law  of  the  preceding  king,  Wenceslaus 
V.  Albert,  after  making  several  vain  efforts  to  support  the  rights  of  his 
own  family,  turned  all  the  fury  of  his  anger  against  the  Swiss. 

Helvetic  Confederacy. — The  Swiss  towns  did  not  rise  into  import¬ 
ance  before  the  twelfth  century,  nor  did  their  country  bear  its  present 
name.  Part  belonged  to  the  duchy  of  Swabia  ;  part  to  the  kingdom  of 
Arles ;  part  to  Burgundy  ;  and  though  all  as  a  body  were  dependent  on 
the  empire,  certain  fiefs  appertained  to  the  house  of  Austria.  At  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  politic  and  enterprising  Rodolph,  with 
his  son  Albert,  had  obtained  a  great  ascendency  among  them.  The 
latter,  however,  was  viewed  with  distrust,  and  bis  conduct  in  sending 
some  imperial  bailiffs  as  administrators  of  criminal  justice,  excited  a 
brave  and  simple-minded  people  to  insurrection.  Stauffacher,  Furst, 
and  Melchthal  united  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  the  cantons  of  Schweitz, 
Uri,  and  Unterwalden,  which  they  represented,  unanimously  rose  and 
expelled  their  oppressors  in  1308.  Tell,  the  son-in-law  of  Furst,  having 
offended  the  bailiff  Gessler  by  refusing  to  bow  to  a  hat  planted  on  a 
pole,  was  seized,  and  in  violation  of  the  privileges  of  his  canton,  placed 
in  a  boat  to  be  carried  across  the  lake.  A  storm  having  arisen,  he  was 
loosed  from  his  fetters  to  navigate  the  vessel,  when  he  found  an  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  effecting  his  escape.  He  shortly  after  met  his  enemy  and  shot 
him  in  a  hollow  way  in  1307.* 

Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  led  a  considerable  force  to  reduce  the  pea¬ 
sants  who  had  rebelled  against  his  father;  but  the  battle  of  Morgarten, 
the  Marathon  of  Switzerland,  confirmed  the  independence  of  the  three 
cantons,  1315.  In  this  conflict  a  display  of  patriotic  firmness  occurred, 
not  unworthy  the  best  days  of  ancient  Rome.  Fifty  men,  who  had  been 
banished  from  Schweitz,  solicited  permission  to  fight  in  defence  of  their 
native  homes;  the  magistrates  declined  the  offer,  being  unwilling  to 
allow  the  approach  of  danger  to  relax  the  ordinances  of  the  state.  But 
the  exiles,  though  thus  rejected,  posted  themselves  on  an  eminence 
beyond  the  frontier  of  the  canton,  where  they  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  those  by  whom  their  services  had  been  refused.  They  obtained  from 
the  gratitude  of  their  country,  what  they  had  vainly  sought  from  its  fears, 
and  were  all  restored. 

The  battle  of  Sempach,  in  1386,  was  the  last  in  which  Austria  endea¬ 
voured  to  subdue  those  independent  mountaineers.  It  was  rendered 
illustrious  by  an  heroic  act,  deserving  to  be  ever  remembered  among  the 
instances  of  generous  self-devotion.  When  the  confederates  had  been 
defeated  in  every  attempt  to  break  the  line  of  the  enemy,  another  Codrus, 
Arnold  Struthan,  knight  of  Unterwalden,  cried  to  his  countrymen  that 
he  would  open  a  passage,  desiring  them  to  provide  for  his  wife  and 


♦The  authenticity  of  the  romantic  story  of  Tell  and  his  son  is  very  doubtful.  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  the  Swedish  historian,  relates  a  precisely  similar  event,  which  happened 
to  the  Danish  Toko,  under  Harold  the  Blue,  king  of  Denmark,  in  the  10th  century. 

25 


290 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


children,  and  to  honour  his  race.  Then  throwing  himself  on  the  oppos¬ 
ing  pikes,  he  grasped  as  many  of  them  as  he  could,  buried  them  in  his 
oosom,  and  bore  them  to  the  ground,  leaving  a  space  open  for  the  ad¬ 
vance  of  his  companions. 

Before  the  middle  of  the  century,  the  confederacy  had  been  strength¬ 
ened  by  the  addition  of  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Berne,  Zug,  and  Glaris,  com¬ 
posing  the  eight  ancient  cantons.  Friburg,  Appenzel,  Soleure,  Basle, 
and  Schaff hausen,  afterwards  became  part  of  the  body ;  and  its  inde¬ 
pendence  was  declared  by  the  treaty  of  Basle  in  1500. 

Seven  months  elapsed  between  the  murder  of  Albert  and  the  election 
of  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg,  1308.  In  order  to  divert  the  attention  of 
the  princes  of  the  empire,  he  endeavoured  to  re-establish  the  imperial 
power  in  Italy,  which  during  sixty-four  years  had  recognised  no  foreign 
authority.  The  factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  still  distracted 
the  country,  though  their  objects  were  no  longer  the  same,  —  the  one 
contending  for  the  emperor,  the  other  for  the  pope.  When  Henry  ap¬ 
peared  in  Italy,  escorted  by  2000  cavalry,  all  the  signors  presented  them¬ 
selves  before  him,  but  they  were  compelled  to  resign  into  his  hands  the 
sovereignty  which  they  had  abdicated.  After  having  assumed  at  Monza 
the  crown  of  Lombardy,  he  received  deputies  and  oaths  of  fidelity  from 
all  the  cities.  He  died  of  poison  administered  in  the  consecrated  wafer, 
1313.  During  this  period  Germany  was  at  peace,  but  in  the  year  pre¬ 
ceding  Henry’s  death  it  was  ravaged  by  a  pestilence  that  carried  off 
13,000  persons  at  Strasburg,  14,000  at  Basle,  and  as  many  at  Colmar. 
In  some  towns  and  cities  not  one  man  escaped. 

After  an  interregnum  of  fourteen  months,  two  emperors  wTere  chosen: 
Frederick  of  Austria,  the  son  of  Albert,  was  crowned  at  Cologne,  and 
Louis  of  Bavaria  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  civil  war  which  broke  out 
between  the  two  competitors,  was  terminated  in  1322  by  the  victory  at 
Muhldorf,  which  left  Louis  sole  emperor.  In  1328,  he  caused  himself 
to  be  crowned  king  at  Rome,  not  by  the  pope,  who  was  always  opposed 
to  him,  but  by  the  prefect  Sciarra  Colonna  and  two  excommunicated 
bishops;  after  which  he  solemnly  proclaimed  the  deposition  of  John 
XXII.  and  proceeded  to  the  election  of  another  pope.  The  degraded 
pontiff  with  his  successors  Benedict  XII.  and  Clement  VI.,  from  their 
place  of  exile  at  Avignon,  did  not  cease  to  pursue  his  majesty  wfith  their 
anathemas.  Wearied  by  such  continued  persecutions,  Louis  offered  to 
resign  his  crown,  but  the  electors  opposed  this  resolution,  and  united  at 
Rense  for  the  preservation  of  the  German  independence  against  his  holi¬ 
ness,  and  replied  to  the  anathemas  of  Benedict  XII.  by  the  pragmatic 
sanction  of  Frankfort,  1338.  By  this  act  of  firmness  the  papal  court  wras 
only  the  more  offended ;  and  Clement  VI.  persuaded  the  ecclesiastical 
electors  and  the  Duke  of  Saxony  to  choose  a  new  emperor.  Their  choice 
fell  on  Charles  of  Luxemburg,  margrave  of  Moravia,  and  eldest  son  of 
King  John  the  Blind  of  Bohemia.  The  sudden  death  of  Louis  IV.,  in 
1347,  gave  the  imperial  crown  to  Charles  IV.  without  a  struggle. 

Golden  Bull.  —  The  emperor  just  named,  like  Louis  XI.  of  France, 
showed  how  a  monarch  may  rule  without  possessing  any  respectable 
qualities.  His  residence  at  Prague  led  to  the  embellishment  of  the  city 
with  public  buildings,  and  his  bull  of  1355  terminated  the  disputes  be¬ 
tween  the  electors.  It  was  surnamed  the  golden,  from  the  seal  attached 
to  it.  Bartholus,  the  celebrated  lawyer,  drew  up  this  charter,  ^y  which 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


291 


the  prerogatives  of  the  electoral  college  were  finally  ascertained.  Their 
number  was  confined  to  seven ;  the  imperial  elections  were  to  be  held  at 
Frankfort,  and  the  coronation  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne  performing  the  ceremony.  The  electors  were  declared  equal  to 
kings,  and  conspiracy  against  them  was  made  high  treason. 

Charles  twice  visited  Italy,  where  he  sacrificed  most  of  his  imperial 
prerogatives,  as  he  had  already  done  in  Germany.  He  was  always 
King  of  Bohemia,  and  showed  great  wisdom  in  the  government  of  his 
hereditary  states.  His  reign  is  further  remarkable  for  the  foundation  of 
the  universities  of  Prague  and  Vienna,  and  for  a  persecution  of  the  Jews, 
so  atrocious  as  to  require  the  interference  of  the  pope  to  stop  it.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Wenceslaus  in  1378. 

The  reign  of  Charles,  it  has  been  said,  was  an  age  of  gold  compared 
with  that  of  his  son.  In  Swabia  and  Franconia  private  hostilities  were 
frequent;  and  the  cities,  from  the  necessity  of  preserving  the  public 
peace,  formed  various  associations  to  protect  themselves  against  the 
leagues  of  the  nobles.  An  open  war  ensued  between  the  two  parties, 
and  the  corporations  were  defeated  at  the  battles  of  Weil  and  Worms, 
1388.  The  emperor  paid  dearly  for  the  secret  influence  which  he  had 
used  in  favour  of  the  free  cities :  and  in  order  to  destroy  him,  his  vicious 
pursuits,  exaggerated  beyond  all  probability,  were  everywhere  made 
known.  He  had  not  a  less  difficult  task  in  governing  his  Bohemian 
subjects;  for  he  had  undertaken  to  Germanize  these  ancient  Sclavonians, 
and  impose  on  them  new  laws  and  a  new  language.  At  length  his  peo¬ 
ple  imprisoned  him,  1393,  and  he  was  deposed  in  1400. 

ITALIAN  PENINSULA. 

The  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  were  a  brilliant  period,  in  which 
poetry,  the  letters,  the  arts,  and  internal  improvement  raised  the  Cisal¬ 
pine  nations  to  an  intellectual  superiority,  which  has  rarely  been  equalled ; 
while  the  political  history  of  the  same  space  presents  little  more  than  a 
labyrinth  of  petty  facts,  not  less  obscure  than  unimportant.  Milan,  Flo¬ 
rence,  Genoa,  and  Naples,  rose  to  eminence;  the  pope  consolidated  his 
territorial  sovereignty ;  but  the  kingdom  of  Naples  was  a  prey  to  the 
factions  of  Anjou  and  Aragon.  By  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Ghibelline  faction  was  everywhere  proscribed ;  and  Charles  of  Anjou 
was  constituted  vicar-general  of  Tuscany.  Robert,  the  third  of  the  An¬ 
gevin  kings  of  Naples,  aspired  to  the  sovereignty  of  all  Italy,  and  before 
1318  his  ambitious  measures  were  generally  successful.  His  death 
restored  the  republics  to  their  former  condition,  but  only  to  accept  new 
masters ;  for  the  Visconti  of  Milan  gradually  absorbed  the  rule  of  all  the 
northern  provinces.  The  marriage  of  Valentina  with  the  Duke  of  Or¬ 
leans,  1389,  led  to  protracted  calamities  in  Italy  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  During  this  period,  their  relations  with  the  empire, 
though  interrupted,  were  never  entirely  suspended. 

The  decree  of  Rodolph,  1278,  by  which  he  resigned  the  imperial 
supremacy  over  all  the  dominions  already  granted  to  the  Roman  see 
was  a  leading  epoch  in  the  civil  history  of  the  papacy.  The  power  of 
the  bishops  was  not  generally  acquiesced  in  by  the  citizens,  whose 
bosoms  were  animated  with  the  recollection  of  ancient  glories.  Arnold 
of  Brescia,  a  political  heretic,  had  preached  against  the  temporal  juris 


292 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


diction  of  the  hierarchy,  in  1140.  By  his  exhortations  the  republic  was 
restored ;  but  his  life  was  sacrificed  to  cement  the  union  between  the 
Emperor  Barbarossa  and  Pope  Adrian,  1155.  The  government  of  the 
senate  lasted  nearly  fifty  years ;  when  Brancaleone,  a  senator  of  Bologna, 
was  elected  to  the  supreme  magistracy,  1*253.  His  rigour  and  inflexible 
justice  were  repaid  by  the  ingratitude  of  an  unworthy  people.  The 
translation  of  the  holy  see  to  Avignon,  1305,  left  Rome  a  prey  to  the 
factions  of  her  nobles.  In  every  street  was  erected  some  stronghold ; 
each  mansion  became  a  castle  ;  an  the  feuds  of  the  Orsini  and  Colonna 
families  were  more  fatal  to  the  capital  than  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians. 

Rienzi.  —  Nicholas  Rienzi,  born  of  humble  parents,  was  carefully 
educated,  and  from  the  study  of  the  ancient  classics  had  imbibed  a  deep 
veneration  for  the  past  glories  of  Rome.  In  1342,  he  was  named  col¬ 
league  of  Petrarch  in  a  deputation  sent  to  solicit  the  return  of  Clement 
VI.  Shortly  after,  he  was  appointed  apostolic  notary;  and,  in  1347,  he 
began  the  revolution  he  had  long  meditated.*  He  suspended  in  the 
public  places  various  pictures  emblematical  of  the  misery  and  degrada¬ 
tion  of  the  city,  which  he  explained  in  the  most  animated  manner. 
Favoured  by  the  absence  of  Stephen  Colonna, j-  he  at  length  proclaimed 
that  all  should  assemble  on  the  eve  of  Whitsunday,  in  the  church  of 
St.  Angelo,  to  provide  for  The  Good  State,  the  watchword  of  his  party. 
There  he  assisted  during  the  night  at  the  masses  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
that  he  might  appear  to  act  by  inspiration  of  Heaven;  and  then  sallied 
forth  bareheaded,  attended  by  a  hundred  armed  men.  He  was  invested 
by  acclamation  with  the  necessary  power  for  carrying  his  proposed  regu¬ 
lations  into  execution,  but  contented  himself  with  the  title  of  tribune. 
The  intemperance  of  prosperity  soon  betrayed  the  vices  of  his  character, 
and  precipitated  his  ruin,  even  in  despite  of  the  salutary  influence  of  his 
government.  Resolving  to  assume  the  order  of  knighthood,  the  unusual 
ceremonies  he  employed,  such  as  bathing  in  the  porphyry  vase  used  at 
the  baptism  of  Constantine,  offended  the  superstition  of  the  people. 
His  victory  over  the  nobles,  who  had  united  in  defence  of  their  lives 
and  property,  was  the  crisis  of  his  fate,  by  the  distress  it  caused  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Rome.  A  small  force  advanced  to  the  capitol,  in  which 
he  held  his  sumptuous  residence,  and  forced  him  to  leave  the  city  after 
a  government  of  seven  months.  He  returned  in  a  short  time,  invested 
with  legitimate  authority  by  the  pope;  but  his  administration  of  scarcely 
four  months  was  terminated  by  assassination,  in  1354. 

Genoa  dates  her  commercial  prosperity  from  the  recovery  of  Con¬ 
stantinople,  1261.  Owing  to  her  convenient  station  at  Galata,  she  long 
monopolized  the  commerce  of  the  Euxine,  and  contested  the  dominion 
of  the  Mediterranean  with  Venice.  In  a  dispute  with  the  Tartars  it 
became  necessary  to  blockade  the  Sea  of  Azoph,  a  proceeding  which 
gave  umbrage  to  the  Venetians,  and  led  to  a  war,  in  which  Genoa  was 
eventually  successful,  under  the  Admiral  Paganino  Doria.  In  1378, 

♦The  author  of  Corinne  has  drawn  with  a  single  stroke  the  character  of  Rienzi,  Cres- 
centius,  and  Arnold  of  Brescia,  gui  ont  pris  les  souvenirs  pour  les  esperances.  The  sub¬ 
sequent  affairs  of  Rome  are  obscure  ;  the  people  appear  to  have  continued  the  republican 
institutions  till  1362,  when  the  legate  of  Innocent  VI.  was  allowed  to  assume  the  govern* 
ment. 

tLike  Brutus,  Rienzi  acted  the  buffoon,  and  the  Colonnas  used  to  invite  him  to  their 
palace  to  furnish  them  with  amusement,  considering  him  as  a  mere  fool,  and  of  no  im¬ 
portance. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


293 


the  occupation  of  Tenedos  by  the  Venetians,  and  the  conquest  of  Cypru9 
by  the  Genoese,  led  to  the  war  of  Chioggia.  The  latter,  defeated  near 
the  ruins  of  Anfcium,  and  victors  before  Pola,  seized  upon  Chioggia; 
where  Peter  Doria  rejected  with  contempt  the  submission  of  the  Doge 
Contarini.  But  the  tide  of  fortune  turned,  and  the  peace  of  Turin,  in 
1381,  which  reconciled  the  two  powers,  was  advantageous  to  neither. 
From  this  period  Genoa  was  in  continual  revolution;  between  1390  and 
1394,  the  doge  was  changed  ten  times ;  and  the  city  was  finally  placed 
under  the  protection  of  a  French  garrison,  1401. 

Venice. — While  this  republic  was  extending  her  sway  abroad  by 
arms  and  commerce,  she  was  limiting  the  power  of  the  doge  at  home, 
and  establishing  an  hereditary  aristocracy  that  enabled  the  state  to  rise 
to  the  highest  greatness.  In  1339,  she  increased  her  territory  on  the 
Continent,  by  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Treviso,  and  in  1355  executed 
Faliero  for  his  attempts  on  the  constitution.  This  doge  had  been  raised 
to  the  ducal  throne,  1354,  at  the  age  of  76.  Jealous  of  the  attractions 
of  his  young  and  beautiful  wife,  he  was  filled  with  unappeasable  indig¬ 
nation  at  a  scurrilous  couplet  written  on  his  throne  by  a  young  noble¬ 
man,  Michael  Steno,  and  which  reflected  on  the  purity  of  his  lady.  He 
wished  to  make  it  a  state  crime,  but  the  council  sentenced  the  offender 
to  a  short  imprisonment  only.  This  drove  the  doge  to  extremities,  and 
uniting  with  several  discontented  plebeians,  he  engaged  in  a  conspiracy 
to  massacre  the  whole  of  the  oligarchy.  The  plot  was  discovered ; 
Faliero  avowed  his  guilt,  and  was  condemned  to  die.  He  was  privately 
beheaded  on  the  great  staircase  of  the  ducal  palace,  and  the  bloody 
sword  was  shown  to  the  populace,  with  the  proclamation,  that  justice 
had  been  executed  on  a  great  criminal. 

The  honour  of  Venice  was  connected  with  the  reign  of  the  Latins  at 
Constantinople,  and  the  supremacy  there  of  the  Roman  church;  while 
Genoa,  emulous  of  her  fame,  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Greeks, 
and  assisted  them  materially  in  the  recovery  of  their  metropolis.  Re¬ 
ligious  disputes,  as  well  as  commercial  and  national  prejudices,  imbit- 
tered  the  contest  between  the  two  republics.  The  war  of  1378  threaten¬ 
ed  Venice  with  great  misfortunes.  The  capital  was  blockaded  by  the 
possession  of  Chioggia,  and  the  Genoese  swore  that  a  curb  should  be 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  her  wild  horses.  Necessity  compelled  the 
release  of  the  Admiral  Pisani  from  his  prison.  The  canals  were  defend¬ 
ed  by  floating  batteries ;  private  coffers  were  emptied  ;  gold  and  silver 
plate  was  melted  down ;  and  a  promise  was  made  that  thirty  families 
should  be  ennobled  for  their  exertions  in  this  momentous  crisis.  Al¬ 
though  the  besiegers  were  in  their  turn  besieged,  the  senate  seriously 
thought  of  transporting  themselves  to  Candia.  Things  were  in  this 
state  when  Carlo  Zeno  arrived  laden  with  treasure  from  the  Ligurian 
shores.  But  after  some  further  struggles,  the  fortunes  of  Genoa  sunk 
for  ever,  and  the  rivalry  of  130  years  was  terminated  by  the  superiority 
of  Venice.  The  latter  seized  on  Durazzo  and  Corfu  in  1386,  and  the 
Polesina  of  Rovio-o  in  1395;  and  from  that  moment  she  did  not  cease 
to  direct  her  ambition  and  arms  towards  the  continent  of  Italy. 

Tuscany. — This  rich  country  was  still  divided  into  nearly  as  many 
republics  as  cities,  and  the  disputes  of  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines  raged 
with  their  wonted  animosity.  The  latter  would  not  have  been  able  to 
maintain  themselves  much  longer,  but  for  the  genius  of  Castruccio  Cas- 
25* 


294 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


tracani,  who  was  elected  signor  of  Lucca  in  1320.  Uniting  with  Gale- 
azzo  Visconti  of  Milan,  he  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Florentines,  and 
defeated  their  troops  at  the  battle  of  Alto  Pascio  in  1325.  But  for  the 
premature  death  of  this  warrior,  the  liberty  of  the  Tuscan  republics 
would  have  been  endangered. 

Of  all  the  Italian  cities  Florence  was  perhaps  most  distracted  by  rival 
factions,  which,  in  turn  victorious,  unfeelingly  proscribed  their  antago¬ 
nists.  Thus  was  the  great  poet  Dante  expelled  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  by  the  Guelfs,  and  condemned  to  wander,  until  his 
death,  through  the  towns  of  Tuscany  and  Romagna.  The  Blacks  and 
the  Whites — for  by  this  name  did  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines  distinguish 
themselves  —  promoted  in  no  small  degree  the  cause  of  the  democracy. 
The  former,  guided  by  the  Donati  and  controlled  by  the  kings  of  Naples, 
were  nearly  always  predominant,  and  the  administration  was  conse¬ 
quently  of  a  popular  form.  Sometimes  the  power  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  nobles;  but  the  tyranny  of  Walter  of  Brienne  in  1342  induced  the 
state  to  adopt  the  democratic  form  of  government.  Its  situation  became 
then  more  critical  than  ever.  Depopulated  by  pestilence  in  1348,  and 
afterwards  besieged  by  the  troops  of  John  Visconti,  it  found  safety  in 
the  devotion  of  the  Guelf  corporations  of  Sienna,  Avizzo,  Volterra,  and 
Perugia.  By  such  means  the  Florentines  employed  their  power  to 
maintain  the  union  between  these  republics,  and  to  withdraw  them  from 
the  control  of  the  French,  and  particularly  of  the  pontifical  legates. 
But  they  were  themselves  divided  by  the  rivalry  of  the  Greater  and  the 
Less  Arts,*  as  well  as  by  the  aristocratic  and  popular  factions,  who 
renewed  within  the  walls  the  bloody  tragedies  of  the  Bracks  and  the 
Whites,  at  the  same  time  that  Tuscany  was  ravaged  by  “  the  free  com¬ 
pany,”  which  the  legate,  Robert  of  Geneva,  had  brought  to  protect  him, 
1376.  About  two  years  later,  democracy  prevailed  at  Florence,  through 
the  influence  of  the  gonfalier  Sylvester  de  Medici. 

Lombardy. — The  grandson  of  Mastino  della  Scala,  who  had  raised  a 
durable  power  on  the  ruins  of  the  house  of  Romano  at  Verona,  obtained 
from  the  Emperor  Henry  VII.,  in  1312,  the  title  of  imperial  vicar  in  the 
march  of  Treviso,  as  well  as  the  signory  of  Vicenza.  The  republicans 
of  Padua  contested  the  government  of  that  city ;  but  they  themselves 
fell  under  the  hereditary  yoke  of  James  Carrara  in  1318.  Mastino  II., 
pursuing  the  ambitious  designs  of  his  father,  extended  his  influence  into 
Tuscany  by  the  acquisition  of  Lucca,  and  menaced  the  independence  of 
Florence,  which  was  indebted  for  its  safety  to  the  Venetians.  He 
aspired  to  the  sovereignty  of  Italy ;  in  this,  however,  he  was  opposed 
by  the  hostility  of  the  Visconti  and  the  policy  of  Venice.  His  family, 
after  his  death  in  1351,  gradually  declined,  and  Antony,  the  last  heir, 
was  deprived  of  all  his  possessions  by  Galeazzo  Visconti,  who  also 
took  Padua  from  Francisco  Carrara  in  1388.  This  city,  as  well  as 
Verona,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians  in  1404. 

The  Torriani  succeeded  in  driving  the  Visconti  from  Milan  in  1302; 
but  they  soon  returned,  and  their  leader,  Matthew,  engaged  the  former 


*The  citizens  exercising  commerce  were  divided  into  twelve  companies  or  arts.  The 
seven,  called  the  greater,  were  those  of  lawyers  and  notaries,  wholesale  dealers  in  foreign 
cloth,  bankers  or  money-changers,  woollen-drapers,  physicians  and  druggists,  dealers  in 
silk,  and  furriers:  the  inferior  arts,  which  were  gradually  increased  to  fourteen,  were 
the  retailers  of  cloth,  butchers,  smiths,  shoemakers,  and  builders. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


295 


n  a  sedition  in  which  the  greater  part  of  them  perished,  1311.  It  was 
about  the  same  period  that  Henry  VII.  conferred  the  title  of  Imperial 
Vicar  of  Lombardy  on  this  chief,  who  contrived  to  make  the  office  of 
signor  hereditary  in  his  family.  His  successors  extended  their  power 
in  Upper  Italy  by  policy  as  much  as  by  vigour  of  arms.  John  Galeazzo 
Visconti  ruined  the  fortunes  of  the  Scaligers,  and  united  to  his  paternal 
estates  all  Lombard  Italy  from  the  Brenta  to  the  Ticino:  Verona,  Vi¬ 
cenza,  Padua,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Lodi,  Cremona,  Alexandria,  Parma, 
Piacenza,  Bologna,  and  Pisa,  all  flourishing  cities,  received  under  diffe¬ 
rent  titles  the  laws  of  the  signor  of  Milan.  The  kings  of  France  courted 
his  alliance,  and  in  1395,  the  Emperor  Wenceslaus,  for  100,000  florins, 
conferred  on  him  the  dignity  of  duke. 

Sicily  and  Naples. — Frederick  of  Aragon  merited  by  his  prudent 
administration  the  gratitude  of  his  Sicilian  subjects.  Useful  institutions, 
the  encouragement  of  manufactures,  an  alliance  with  Henry  VII.,  and 
afterwards  with  Louis  IV.,  both  enemies  of  the  house  of  Anjou,  dis¬ 
tinguished  his  reign  of  forty-one  years,  which  terminated  peaceably  in 
1337,  in  spite  of  several  excommunications  by  the  holy  see.  His  son, 
Peter  II.,  filled  the  throne  only  five  years.  Under  his  successor  Louis, 
peace  was  at  length  signed  with  Naples,  and  Joan  I.  renounced  Sicily, 
Louis  paying  a  tribute  to  the  pope,  1347.  But  the  domestic  troubles 
which  followed  drove  10,000  inhabitants  from  the  island,  and  forced  the 
King  of  Naples  to  renew  hostilities.  Frederick  III.  succeeded  in 
expelling  the  Neapolitans  a  second  time,  and  the  peace  of  1372  left  to 
their  monarchs  little  more  than  the  titular  sovereignty  of  Sicily. 

During  this  time,  Naples  had  been  the  theatre  of  bloody  revolutions. 
Charles  of  Anjou  was  succeeded  by  Charles  the  Lame  in  1285,  who  was 
followed  by  Robert  the  Good,  1309,  by  whom  Sicily  was  unsuccessfully 
attacked.  He  was  more  fortunate  on  the  mainland,  being  nominated 
senator  of  Rome  by  the  pope,  and  received  hy  the  Genoese  as  their 
signor.  It  was  he  who  crowned  Petrarch  in  the  capitol  in  1341.  His 
daughter  Joan,  wife  of  Andrew  the  Hungarian,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1343,  commencing  her  disgraceful  reign  by  the  assassination  of  her 
husband,  and  then  marrying  Prince  Louis  of  Tarentum.  But  the  King 
of  Hungary,  Louis  the  Great,  led  an  army  to  avenge  his  brother,  and 
the  country  was  devastated  by  war  during  several  years,  until  the  inva¬ 
der  was  recalled,  to  his  own  states.  Henceforward  the  court  of  Naples 
gave  way  to  the  grossest  immoralities,  though  Joan  finally  expiated  her 
crimes  by  a  cruel  death,  being  strangled  by  Charles  of  Durazzo.  She 
left  behind  her  the  seeds  of  war  by  adopting  Louis  I.  of  Anjou  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  lineal  heir.  From  this  period  began  those  struggles  between 
the  second  Angevin  family  and  the  royal  branch  of  Durazzo,  which 
brought  the  French  into  Italy,  and  were  the  cause  of  a  lasting  enmity 
between  the  houses  of  France  and  Austria.  Louis  I.  in  1383,  and  his 
son  in  1390,  invaded  the  kingdom,  but  were  compelled  to  retire. 

FRANCE. 

Flemish  War. — The  peace  of  Montreuil  allowed  Philip  IV.  to 
resume  his  aggressions  against  Flanders.  The  count  of  that  province 
was  already  his  prisoner,  and  two  of  Philip’s  officers  so  oppressed  the 
Flemings  with  unjust  exactions,  that  they  revolted,  and  having  mur 


296 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


dered  the  French  residents,  advanced  to  meet  the  royal  army.  At 
Courtray  a  most  sanguinary  engagement  took  place,  in  which  the  flower 
of  the  French  chivalry  perished,  1302.  Two  years  after,  Philip  repaired 
this  disaster  by  the  victory  of  Mons-en-Puelle,  while  the  Genoese  in  his 
service,  under  the  command  of  Grimaldi  and  Philip  of  Rieti,  destroyed 
the  Flemish  fleet  at  Zierikzee.  These  successes,  however,  were  fol¬ 
lowed  by  no  advantage,  as  his  majesty  was  compelled  to  recognise  the 
independence  of  the  Flemings,  1305. 

Papal  Quarrels. — Boniface  VIII.  was  scarcely  seated  in  the  ponti¬ 
fical  chair,  before  he  resolved  to  extend  the  authority  of  the  tiara ;  though 
he  found  in  the  King  of  France  an  adversary  by  no  means  inclined  to 
give  up  any  of  his  prerogatives.  At  first  the  intentions  of  the  pope 
appeared  favourable  towards  him ;  but  his  holiness,  wishing  to  interfere 
as  mediator  between  France  and  England,  employed  language  which 
highly  incensed  the  French  monarch,  who,  some  time  after,  imposed  a 
new  tax  on  all  his  subjects,  from  which  not  even  the  priests  were 
exempted.  This  measure  did  not  create  a  breach ;  yet  w’hen  the  king 
had  imprisoned  Bernard  Saisset,  a  turbulent  bishop  who  pretended  to 
have  no  superior  except  the  pope,  Boniface  published  that  celebrated 
bull  Jlusculta  jili,  ordered  by  the  other  to  be  publicly  burnt,  and  w’hich 
was  the  cause  of  the  first  meeting  of  the  three  estates  of  the  kingdom, 
1302.  This  assembly  protested  energetically  against  the  superiority 
assumed  by  the  holy  see  over  the  crown  of  France.  In  another  assem¬ 
bly  of  barons  and  church  dignitaries,  Philip  appealed  to  a  future  council 
against  the  anathemas  of  the  pope;  and  William  of  Nogaret,  his  chan¬ 
cellor,  accusing  Boniface  of  heresy  and  simony,  procured  a  sentence 
of  imprisonment,  to  avoid  which  the  pontiff  fled  to  Rome,  where  he 
died  in  1303.  His  successor  Benedict  XL,  enjoying  his  exaltation  only 
a  few  months,  was  followed  by  Clement  V.  who  transferred  the  seat  of 
the  pontificate  to  Avignon,  1305. 

Templars  abolished.  —  This  distinguished  order,  which  was  esta¬ 
blished  in  1118  by  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  consisted  originally  of 
eight  or  nine  poor  knights  who  dwelt  in  community  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  temple.  They  voluntarily  took  on  themselves  the  obligation  of 
guarding  the  roads  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city,  and  of  protecting 
the  pilgrims  from  the  infidels.  Gradually  their  numbers  and  wealth 
augmented  ;  their  military  services  excited  the  gratitude  of  Christendom ; 
and  in  every  nation  legacies  and  lands  successively  increased  the  pos¬ 
sessions  of  the  brotherhood.  After  being  expelled  from  the  Holy  Land, 
they  indulged  in  indolence  and  luxury,  and  were  charged  with  the 
grossest  crimes.  Philip,  having  repeatedly  denounced  them  to  Clement 
V.,  at  last  ordered  every  member  within  his  dominions  to  be  arrested. 
Fifty-nine  of  the  noblest  were  burnt  at  Paris  in  1309  ;  and  numbers  in 
other  parts  of  France  also  became  victims.* 

The  result  of  the  trials,  which  lasted  three  years,  acquits  the  order, 
however  it  may  condemn  a  few  individuals.  A  bull  was  published  by 
the  council  of  Vienne,  1312,  transferring  their  property  to  the  knights 
hospitallers  of  St.  John,  wTho  had  just  achieved  the  conquest  of  Rhodes. 


♦In  Castile  the  templars  were  imprisoned  only;  in  Aragon  they  existed  some  time 
longer;  in  Portugal  they  were  incorporated  with  the  order  of  Christ;  in  Germany  they 
were  acquitted  of  all  charges ;  while  in  England  and  Ireland  they  were  kept  in  honour¬ 
able  but  safe  custody. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


297 


Salic  Law.  —  Philip  IV.,  dying  in  1314,  left  three  sons — Louis 
Hutin,  Philip  the  Long,  and  Charles  the  Fair  —  who  successively 
reigned.  Louis  survived  his  father  less  than  two  years,  leaving  one 
daughter,  and  his  queen  on  the  point  of  giving  birth  to  another  child. 
In  his  reign  there  was  a  violent  reaction  against  the  royal  despotism. 
Louis  was  obliged  to  accord  to  the  barons  of  the  north  and  centre  of 
France  the  rights  of  local  sovereignty  to  which  they  had  laid  claim ; 
and  further  confirmed  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  many  municipal  cities. 
He  also  permitted  the  return  of  the  Jews,  who  had  been  expelled  by  his 
predecessor,  and,  declaring  that  all  Frenchmen  should  be  free,  allowed 
the  serfs  of  the  royal  domains  to  purchase  their  liberty. 

Philip  now  assumed  the  regency,  and  availing  himself  of  the  peculiar 
state  of  affairs,  procured  the  ratification  of  the  Salic  law  by  the  assembly 
of  Paris,  1317,  and  seized  the  royal  sceptre.  French  writers  assert  that 
he  ascended  the  throne  “of  right” — the  exclusion  of  females  being  a 
fundamental  maxim  of  their  government ;  but  the  text  of  the  Salic  law 
sanctions  no  such  opinion,  and  it  is  only  from  this  period  that  the  usurpa¬ 
tion  carries  with  it  the  air  of  legal  authority.  Philip  left  four  daughters, 
and  Charles  IV.  ascended  the  throne  in  1322 ;  his  daughters  also  being 
excluded  by  Philip  of  Valois,  1328.  Edward  III.  of  England  now 
advanced  a  claim  to  the  French  crown,  which  gave  rise  to  a  struggle  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  years — the  evils  of  which  were  increased  in 
both  countries  by  domestic  disturbances  in  the  intervals  of  the  war. 
Edward  maintained  that,  although  females  were  excluded  from  the  suc¬ 
cession,  their  male  issue  might  succeed,  and  hence  that  his  mother 
Isabella  might  transfer  her  title  to  him.  France  at  this  oeriod  was  an 
extensive  and  compact  monarchy,  and  deemed  so  powerful  that  Pope 
Benedict  XII.  wrote  an  urgent  letter,  dissuading  the  English  monarch 
from  taking  the  style  and  arms  of  that  kingdom,  and  showing  the  im¬ 
possibility  of  his  ever  succeeding  in  establishing  his  claim.  But  in  the 
course  of  twenty  years,  courage  and  military  skill  compelled  that  nation 
to  submit  to  an  ignominious  peace,  and  to  cede  several  provinces.  The 
battles  of  Cressy,  1346,  Poitiers,  1356,  and  Agincourt,  1415,  in  spite 
of  the  great  disparity  of  forces,  manifested  the  high  martial  qualities  that 
distinguish  the  English  soldiery. 

The  cruelties  of  the  Count  of  Flanders  having  created  fresh  discontent 
among  his  subjects,  a  sedition  broke  out  at  Ghent  which  rapidly  spread 
over  the  whole  province.  James  Von  Artaveldt,  a  brewer,  was  the 
leader  of  the  revolt,  and  proposed  to  Edward  III.  to  assume  the  title  of 
king  of  France,  in  order  that  the  Flemings  might  join  his  ranks  with¬ 
out  violating  the  feudal  laws.  War  between  the  two  monarchs  now 
became  inevitable ;  the  earlier  operations  wTere  not  very  favourable  to 
Edward,  who,  notwithstanding  the  defeat  of  the  French  fleet,  was  unable 
to  take  Tournay.  The  hostilities,  which  were  suspended  by  a  year’s 
truce,  were  once  more  resumed  in  1341. 

John  III.,  duke  of  Brittany,  left  the  duchy  to  his  niece,  who  had  mar¬ 
ried  Charles,  count  of  Blois,  and  nephew  of  Philip  of  Valois;  though 
the  Earl  of  Montfort,  brother  of  the  last  duke,  was  the  popular  candidate. 
Philip  sent  an  army  to  instal  the  new  prince,  and  Montfort,  who  had 
been  made  prisoner  at  Nantes,  was  unable  to  profit  by  the  succour 
which  Robert  of  Artois  brought  to  him  from  England.  vShortly  after¬ 
wards  his  competitor  also  was  captured,  and  the  struggle  continued 


298 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


twenty  years  longer,  until  the  treaty  of  Guerande  assigned  the  dukedom 
to  the  house  of  Montfort. 

Cressy. — The  French  and  English  did  not  long  confine  themselves 
to  opposing  each  other  in  the  duchy  ;  the  execution  of  OJiver  de  Clisson, 
and  several  other  Breton  nobles  devoted  to  the  court  of  Edward,  led  to  a 
rupture  of  the  truce.  This  prince  suddenly  landed  in  Normandy,  ad¬ 
vanced  to  Paris,  and  burnt  St.  Cloud,  spreading  everywhere  terror  and 
desolation.  The  approach,  however,  of  an  army  of  100,000  men  forced 
him  to  retreat  towards  Flanders,  when  he  was  opposed  at  Cressy,  26th 
August,  1346,  and  compelled  to  fight  a  battle,  in  which  30,000  Fr-  nch, 
besides  one  king,  eleven  princes,  and  1200  knights,  were  left  dead  on 
the  field.  Next  year  Calais  surrendered  to  the  English  monarch. 

Pope  Clement  VI.,  grieved  at  the  misery  of  the  inhabitants,  wh«m 
the  war,  with  its  frequent  attendants  famine  and  pestilence,  was  afflict¬ 
ing,  interposed  between  the  belligerents,  and  procured  a  truce  which 
lasted  until  1355.  Philip,  who  died  in  1350,  had  enlarged  his  domin¬ 
ions  by  the  addition  of  Montpellier,  purchased  from  the  King  of  Majorca 
at  the  price  of  200,000  crowns,  and  of  Dauphiny,  ceded  by  Humbert 
II.  Henceforward  the  eldest  son  of  the  French  monarch  bore  the  title 
of  dauphin,  from  this  province. 

The  prerogatives  of  the  throne  had  so  greatly  increased  that  the 
sovereign  no  longer  thought  it  necessary  to  rid  himself  of  his  enemies 
by  judiciary  processes.  Thus  John  II.,  who  succeeded  in  1350,  put  to 
death  the  Constable  d’Eu,  whom  he  suspected  of  corresponding  with 
Edward  III.,  and  somewhat  later  he  beheaded  Count  Harcourt,  and  im¬ 
prisoned  the  King  of  Navarre.  In  former  reigns  the  whole  of  the 
nobility  would  have  risen  in  arms;  but  the  great  barons,  now  almost 
extinct,  were  replaced  by  poor  nobles,  most  of  whom  received  the  royal 
pay.  The  necessity  of  keeping  up  a  large  army,  and  of  maintaining 
the  knights  who  followed  the  king’s  banner,  had  so  deranged  the  finan¬ 
ces,  principally  through  the  ill-judged  means  devised  for  raising  money, 
that  it  was  found  necessary  to  summon  the  states-general  of  the  langue 
d'oil  to  meet  in  Paris  for  the  purpose  of  levying  a  subsidy.  The  depu¬ 
ties  of  the  three  orders  voted  a  sum  of  5,000,000  of  livres,  and  30,000 
men  at  arms.  The  necessary  funds  were  raised  by  the  gabel/e  and  a 
tax  upon  the  sale  of  merchandise.  In  return  for  these  sacrifices,  the 
representatives  required  a  fixed  standard  of  coinage  and  the  reform  of 
many  abuses,  1355. 

While  the  estates  were  endeavouring  to  secure  their  political  rights, 
Edward  III.  ravaged  Picardy,  and  his  son,  the  Black  Prince,  devastated 
the  provinces  beyond  the  Loire.  Against  the  latter,  King  John  march¬ 
ed  with  an  army  of  60,000  men,  and  came  up  with  him  at  Maupertuis, 
near  Poitiers,  19th  September,  1356.  Regarding  the  small  band  of 
8000  islanders  as  already  his  prisoners,  he  charged  them  with  thought¬ 
less  impetuosity,  and  the  result  was  a  frightful  carnage  of  his  own 
troops.  The  dauphin  was  one  of  the  first  to  flee,  leaving  in  the  midst 
of  the  enemy  his  father,  who  was  valiantly  defended  by  his  fourth  son 
Philip,  a  youth  scarcely  fifteen  years  of  age.  He  was,  however,  taken 
and  carried  to  England,  where  he  shared  the  captivity  of  the  Scottish 
monarch,  David  II. 

The  Jacquerie.  —  During  John’s  detention,  France  was  a  prey  to 


299 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

every  calamity.  The  ruler  of  Navarre  had  taken  the  field  against  his 
sovereign,  the  capital  was  in  sedition,  pestilence  was  consummating  the 
work  of  hunger  and  the  sword,  and  to  crown  all,  the  Jacquerie  broke 
out  in  1358.  The  peasantry  ( Jacques  bon  homme ,  the  cant  phrase  appli¬ 
ed  to  them)  furious  at  the  ill  treatment  received  from  their  superiors, 
flew  to  arms,  and  laid  waste  the  whole  country,  murdering  every  person 
who  refused  to  join  them.  Two  hundred  castles  were  burnt  and  their 
inhabitants  massacred ;  but  the  nobles  soon  retaliating,  the  cruelties  of 
the  free  companies  deluged  France  with  blood.  Subdued  by  these 
heavy  misfortunes,  the  regent,  afterwards  Charles  V.,  concluded  a  peace 
in  1360  by  which  Guienne,  Gascony,  Poitou,  Saintonge,  the  Limou¬ 
sin,  and  Angoumois,  with  Ponthieu  and  Calais  were  ceded  in  full  sove¬ 
reignty  to  the  English,  who  were  also  to  receive  for  the  king’s  ransom 
three  millions  of  gold  crowns.  In  1364,  Charles  V.  succeeded  his 
father,  whose  death  occurred  in  London,  whither  he  had  returned  to  sup¬ 
ply  the  place  of  one  of  the  royal  hostages  who  had  escaped  to  Paris. 
The  war  was  resumed  in  1368  by  Charles,  on  the  ground  that  treaties 
found  unfavourable  to  the  public  service  ought  not  to  be  kept!  French 
historians  give  a  specious  account,  which  tends  to  throw  the  blame  of 
the  rupture  on  the  English  king ;  but  however  ambitious  Edward  may 
have  been,  his  reputation  is  unblemished  by  bad  faith.  He  and  his  son 
being  in  declining  health,  were  unable  to  contend  against  the  valour  of 
Du  Guesclin.  Hence  in  a  few  campaigns  they  lost  the  whole  of  their 
conquests  ;  yet  the  war  was  always  popular  in  England,  although  that 
country,  scarcely  to  a  less  degree  than  France,  was  weakened  by  internal 
discord. 

Charles  continued  his  victorious  career ;  and  while  the  French  fleet 
was  ravaging  the  English  coasts,  all  that  remained  of  Edward’s  acqui¬ 
sitions  were  Bordeaux,  Bayonne,  Rochelle,  Brest,  and  Calais.  The 
monarch  dying  in  1380,  the  fruits  of  this  temporary  success  were  lost 
by  France  in  the  succeeding  reign ;  and  during  the  forty -two  years  that 
Charles  VI.  was  on  the  throne,  his  kingdom  was  reduced  to  a  state 
nore  deplorable  than  in  the  time  of  John’s  captivity.  The  Maillotins 
—  the  rabble  using  clubs  armed  with  lead — treated  Paris  as  a  place 
taken  by  storm  :  dreadful  executions  succeeded,  and  many  persons  were 
put  in  sacks  and  thrown  by  night  into  the  Seine.  The  insanity  of  the 
king,  in  1393,  placed  the  government  in  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of  Bur¬ 
gundy,  not  without  opposition  from  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  at  last 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  entire  management  of  affairs.  But  his  dis¬ 
solute  conduct,  and  the  excessive  taxes  he  imposed,  rendered  him  quite 
odious. 

BRITAIN. 

Edward  II.,  1307,  at  once  effeminate  and  timid,  and  entirely  governed 
by  favourites,  was  unable  to  carry  out  the  warlike  projects  of  his  father. 
The  companion  of  his  youth  was  Piers  de  Gaveston,  a  brave  and  hand¬ 
some  cavalier,  who  was  celebrated  for  his  feats  in  the  tournament.  He 
was  created  Earl  of  Cornwall,  appointed  a  lord  of  the  bedchamber,  and 
married  to  one  of  the  king’s  nieces.  Indignant  at  the  favours  lavished 


*  Edward  was  induced  to  consent  to  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  by  the  impression  which 
a  tremendous  storm,  deemed  by  him  a  special  admonition  from  heaven,  had  made  upon 
his  mind. 


300 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


upon  this  minion,  the  English  nobles  insisted  on  his  banishment. 
Having  retired  to  Ireland,  he  soon  after  returned,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  parliament  in  1310  made  his  exile  the  condition  of  certain  subsidies, 
that  he  again  left  the  island.  But  shortly  after  he  revisited  England, 
upon  which  the  barons  flew  to  arms,  attacked  his  place  of  refuge,  and, 
making  him  prisoner,  beheaded  him  at  Warwick  castle.  The  mediation 
of  France  now  became  necessary  to  restore  harmony,  which  was  effected, 
at  least  in  appearance,  between  Edward  and  his  people.  The  unfortu¬ 
nate  Gaveston  was  succeeded  by  Hugh  Despenser,  whose  earliest  ob¬ 
ject  was  to  bring  Pembroke  to  the  scaffold,  as  being  the  cause  of  his 
predecessor’s  ruin. 

While  these  events  were  occurring  in  the  south,  King  Robert  Bruce 
was  steadily  gaining  ground  in  Scotland.  The  principal  cities  had 
fallen  into  his  hands  ;  and  the  strong  fortress  of  Stirling  was  closely 
invested,  when  Edward  II.  marched  to  its  relief  with  100.000  men.  To 
oppose  him,  Bruce  collected  a  force  of  30,000,  and  the  complete  rout 
which  the  English  sustained  in  the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  2-lth  June 
1314,  secured  the  independence  of  his  country.  Edward  Bruce,  brother 
of  the  renowned  w*arrior,  crossed  to  Ireland,  with  the  view  of  delivering 
that  island  from  the  English  yoke;  but  after  various  successes,  and 
receiving  the  title  of  king,  he  was  defeated  and  slain,  1318. 

Meantime,  famine  was  desolating  England,  and  the  popularity  of  the 
king  diminished  as  that  of  his  nephew,  the  Earl  of  Lancaster,  increased. 
Indeed,  so  disgusted  w*ere  the  people  with  the  vices  of  their  ruler,  that 
they  universally  revolted;  and  Edward  could  only  appease  them  by 
granting  all  their  demands.  In  a  subsequent  rising,  the  royal  lieuten¬ 
ants  were  able  to  withstand  the  rebels ;  and  their  leader,  Lancaster,  was 
taken  and  beheaded,  along  with  a  number  of  his  partisans,  in  13*2*2. 
This  year  was  further  remarkable  for  the  inroads  of  King  Robert  Bruce 
into  Yorkshire,  and  a  successful  battle  he  fought  at  Boroughbridge.  A 
more  imminent  danger,  however,  menaced  Edward  from  the  Pembroke 
party,  which  grew  so  formidable  as  to  make  open  war  upon  him;  when 
the  two  Despensers,  father  and  son,  were  captured  and  put  to  an  igno¬ 
minious  death.  The  chief  instrument  in  this  revolution  was  the  queen, 
Isabella,  a  princess  remarkable  for  her  beauty,  but  inheriting  her  father’s 
cruel  disposition.  When  she  found  the  two  favourites  monopolizing  all 
influence  with  the  king,  she  crossed  the  sea  to  Flanders,  and  raised  an 
army,  with  which  she  returned,  and  deposed  Edward,  who  was  impri¬ 
soned  in  Berkeley  Castle,  where  he  was  put  to  death  in  the  most  bar¬ 
barous  manner  in  13*27. 

Edward  III.  inherited  the  active  and  warlike  spirit  of  his  grandfather. 
In  1331,  he  caused  the  queen-mother  and  her  paramour,  Mortimer,  earl 
of  March,  to  be  arrested;  the  latter  was  executed,  and  Isabella  ended 
her  days  in  prison.  The  chief  complaints  against  Mortimer,  were  the 
conclusion  of  peace  with  Scotland,  and  giving  the  king’s  sister  in  mar¬ 
riage  to  its  monarch,  David  Bruce.  The  claims  of  Edward  Baliol  to  the 
Scottish  crown  led  to  a  war,  in  which  the  English  army  gained  a  vic¬ 
tory  at  Halidon  Hill  in  1333. 

Battle  of  Sluys,  1340.  —  Edward,  in  returning  from  England  to 
Flanders,  was  intercepted  by  a  numerous  fleet  which  Philip  had  moored 
in  four  lines  across  the  mouth  of  the  harbour  at  Sluys.  These  ships 
were  provided  with  turrets  filled  with  stones  on  their  mast-heads,  and 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


301 


were  fastened  to  each  other  with  strong  chains.  Having  the  wind  and 
tide  in  his  favour,  Edward  gallantly  bore  down  on  the  first  line ;  and 
after  an  obstinate  contest,  prolonged  to  midnight,  only  a  few  stragglers 
escaped.  With  these  exceptions,  the  wrhole  flotilla,  of  more  than  200 
sail,  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  who  lost  but  two  vessels, 
while  the  slain  and  drowned  of  the  enemy  exceeded  20,000.  History 
does  not  present  an  instance  of  a  naval  victory  more  complete  or  more 
sanguinary.  The  French  ministers  dared  not  inform  their  royal  mas¬ 
ter  of  the  calamity,  which  was  first  hinted  to  him  by  a  buffoon  who 
called  the  English  cowards ;  and  when  the  king  asked  his  reason, 
replied,  because  they  had  not  the  courage  to  leap  into  the  sea,  like  the 
French  and  Normans. 

Cressy  and  Poitiers. — Hostilities  with  France  were  recommenced 
for  the  succession  to  the  throne, — Edward  claiming  the  crown  as  the  son 
of  Isabella,  in  opposition  to  Philip  de  Valois,  wflio  was  heir  in  the  male 
line.  By  the  help  of  his  gallant  son,  the  Black  Prince,  he  reduced  the 
power  of  France  to  a  very  low  ebb.  The  war  which  broke  out  in  1339, 
was  continued  with  various  success  till  1346,  when  the  celebrated  battle  of 
Cressy  was  fought,  in  which,  as  just  noticed,  30,000  English  under  Ed¬ 
ward  defeated  100,000  French  under  Philip,  with  the  loss  of  30, 000  men, 
besides  many  of  the  nobility,  1200  knights,  and  1400  esquires.  The  impor¬ 
tant  city  of  Calais  was  invested,  and  taken  the  next  year ;  and  a  long  truce 
succeeded,  during  which  Europe  was  ravaged  by  a  dreadful  plague.  In 
1356,  the  war  was  renewed,  under  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  “  that 
young  Mars  of  men.”  With  an  army  of  8000,  he  defeated,  at  Poitiers, 
King  John  with  60,000,  and  made  him  prisoner.  France  was  now  com¬ 
pletely  at  the  victor’s  mercy;  and  the  treaty  of  Bretigny  was  concluded 
in  1360.  The  terms  of  this  peace  were,  the  ransom  of  the  king  for  three 
millions  of  golden  crowns,  and  the  cession  to  England  in  full  sovereignty 
of  a  great  part  of  the  conquered  territory.  The  declining  age  of  Edward, 
however,  and  the  disordered  health  of  the  prince  were  visible  in  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  campaigns,  during  which  the  sons  of  those  who  had  fallen  at 
Poitiers  recovered  nearly  all  their  fathers  had  lost,  except  Bordeaux, 
Bayonne,  Calais,  Brest,  and  Cherbourg. 

The  Prince  of  Wales  died  in  1376,  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  his  age, 
leaving  behind  him  a  character  without  blemish,  and  exciting  a  degree 
of  sorrow  which  time  could  not  alleviate.  His  father  followed  him 
about  a  year  after,  deserted  by  his  courtiers,  even  by  those  who  had 
grown  rich  on  his  bounty.  This  great  king  confirmed  Magna  Charta 
no  less  than  fifteen  times.  In  his  reign  the  House  of  Commons  first  met 
annually ;  the  parliament  assumed  the  right  of  trying  ministers  of  the 
crown;  and  decided  cases  of  high  treason,  which  had  been  hitherto  left 
to  the  arbitrary  decision  of  the  judges.  Edward  encouraged  trade,  and 
above  all  that  in  wool,  the  main  source  of  the  riches  of  the  kingdom  ;  he 
protected  letters,  and  conferred  many  privileges  on  the  university  of  Ox¬ 
ford.  The  order  of  the  Garter  was  instituted  by  him  in  1347  :  its  origin 
is  involved  in  obscurity. 

About  this  period  the  distinction  between  the  Normans  and  Saxons 
began  to  disappear,  and  they  gradually  formed  an  undivided  people, 
having  one  language  and  the  same  manners.  To  efface  the  last  traces 
of  the  Conquest,  the  king  forbade  the  use  of  the  French  language  in  legal 
proceedings  and  deeds,  though  enjoined  by  law. 

26 


302 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


The  feeble  reign  of  Richard  II.,  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  commenced 
in  1377.  One  of  its  remarkable  events  was  the  march  of  the  Earl  of 
Buckingham,  at  the  head  of  10,000  men,  through  the  heart  of  France. 
Such  was  then  the  terror  of  the  English  name,  that  the  Duke  of  Bur¬ 
gundy,  with  a  much  superior  force,  would  not  hazard  a  battle.  Thirty 
years  of  respite  from  war,  and  an  almost  friendly  intercourse  between 
•he  two  nations,  now  succeeded.*  Richard  w^as  only  eleven  years  of 
age  when  he  ascended  the  throne;  the  guardianship  was  disputed  by 
his  three  uncles,  the  Dukes  of  York,  Lancaster,  and  Gloucester,  whose 
quarrels  dissipated  the  finances  of  the  kingdom,  already  deranged  by  the 
wars  of  the  preceding  reign.  New  taxes  were  imposed,  and  the  arbitrary 
manner  in  which  they  wTere  levied  gave  rise,  in  1381,  to  a  revolt,  headed 
by  Wat  Tyler :  he  rallied  around  him  the  people  of  Essex,  whose 
loyalty  had  already  been  shaken  by  the  discourses  of  John  Ball,  a  priest 
of  Kent.  A  hundred  thousand  rebels  marched  to  London;  but  the 
death  of  their  leader  and  the  treacherous  professions  of  the  young  mo¬ 
narch  restored  order.  The  amnesty  and  charter  promised  by  him  were 
soon  forgotten,  and  the  people  were  more  oppressed  than  before. 

The  war  against  Scotland  was  renewed,  although  without  success ; 
when  the  king,  despairing  of  the  submission  of  its  inhabitants,  abruptly 
relinquished  his  enterprise,  1385;  and  Robert  II.  was  able  peacefully 
to  transmit  to  his  descendants  the  succession  to  a  throne,  which,  how¬ 
ever,  proved  to  them  very  fruitful  in  misfortunes. f 

Returning  from  his  Scottish  expedition,  Richard  aimed  at  absolute 
power,  and  fell  under  the  influence  of  princes  and  favourites  who  op¬ 
pressed  the  people  in  his  name.  By  a  treaty  with  France  in  1395,  it 
was  stipulated  that  he  should  marry  Isabella,  the  daughter  of  Charles 
VI.,  and  surrender  the  ports  of  Cherbourg  and  Brest.  This  latter  con¬ 
dition  was  extremely  unpopular ;  severe  punishments  checked  discontent 
for  a  season;  but,  during  his  absence  in  Ireland,  whither  he  had  g-one  to 
quell  a  revolt,  Henry,  duke  of  Lancaster,  quitted  his  exile  in  France, 
and  landed  in  Yorkshire,  whence  he  marched  to  the  capital.  The  king, 
being  deserted  by  his  army,  was  forced  to  resign  the  crown,  which 
the  parliament  conferred  on  Lancaster,  in  1399.  The  manner  of  Rich¬ 
ard’s  death  in  Pontefract  castle,  is  variously  related  :  some  attributed  it 
to  grief,  others  to  assassination  or  hunger. 

Grea.t  Pestilence,  1348. — A  succession  of  earthquakes  convulsed  Europe 
from  Poland  to  Calabria ;  and  although  England  escaped  this  calamity,  it  was 
deluged  with  incessant  rain  from  June  to  December.  In  August  the  plague 
appeared  in  Dorsetshire,  whence  it  gradually  extended  to  the  north  of  the 
island.  Many  of  its  victims  expired  in  six  hours ;  few  lingered  beyond  three 
days.  All  the  cemeteries  of  London  were  soon  filled, — one  burial-ground  alone 


*  At.  the  coronation  of  Richard  II.  we  first  meet  with  a  ceremony  which  was  repeated 
at  that  of  the  English  kings  till  the  reign  of  William  IV. :  An  officer  called  the  King’s 
Champion,  clad  in  mail,  rides  into  Westminster  Hall,  and  by  his  herald  proclaims  a 
challenge  in  defence  of  the  monarch’s  title  to  the  crown.  Baker,  in  his  Chronicles,  says 
that  “  Sir  John  Dymock  and  Sir  Baldwin  Freville  both  claimed  the  office  of  king’s  cham¬ 
pion,  but  it  was  adjudged  to  the  former,”  in  whose  family  it  is  now  hereditary. 

f  This  race  of  monarchs  was  particularly  unfortunate  .-—James  I.  was  kept  a  prisoner 
in  England  nineteen  years:  he  was  murdered  at  Perth  in  1437.  James  II.  perished  at 
the  age  of  twentv-nine  by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon  at  the  siege  of  Roxburgh  castle, 
1460 ; — James  III.,  after  being  defeated  by  rebels,  was  assassinated,  1488;— James  IV. 
perished  at  Flodden,  1513;— Queen  Mary  was  beheaded  after  being  imprisoned  nineteen 
years,  1587 ;— Charles  I.,  her  grandson,  perished  on  the  scaffold,  1649;— James  II.  was 
driven  from  his  kingdom,  1688,  and  died  in  exile. 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


803 


receiving  200  bodies  daily  during  several  weeks.  Its  ravages  were,  however, 
principally  confined  to  the  lower  orders.  From  man  the  pestilence  extended  to 
the  brute  creation. 


SPANISH  PENINSULA. 

Castile. — The  long  minority  of  Alphonso  XI.,  1312,  was  disturbed 
like  that  of  his  father  by  the  rivalries  of  the  houses  of  Lara  and  Haro ; 
but  so  soon  as  he  assumed  the  reins  of  government  himself,  he  vigor¬ 
ously  repressed  all  domestic  troubles,  and,  uniting  Portugal  to  Aragon, 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Moors  in  1340.  Unfortunately  he 
died  of  the  plague  at  the  very  moment  he  was  about  to  inflict  the  most 
deadly  blow  on  the  Saracenic  power. 

Pedro  the  Cruel,  1350. — This  prince  began  his  reign  with  the  mur¬ 
der  of  Leonora  de  Guzman,  his  father’s  mistress.  His  own  wife,  Blanche 
of  Bourbon,  being  committed  by  him  to  the  custody  of  the  uncle  of  Maria 
de  Padilla,  a  lady  whom  he  had  secretly  married,  soon  perished  by  poi¬ 
son.  Such  was  his  unexampled  tyranny,  that  the  arbitrary  conduct  of 
his  predecessors,  Sancho  and  Alphonso,  was  quite  forgotten.  The  nu¬ 
merous  fugitives  from  his  despotic  cruelty  found  refuge  in  Aragon ; 
thence,  with  Henry  of  Trastamare,  the  son  of  Leonora,  at  their  head, 
they  were  driven  into  France.  Aided  by  the  celebrated  Bertrand  du 
Guesclin,  an  army  of  30,000  men  was  soon  raised  from  the  free  compa¬ 
nies,  and  by  their  help  Pedro  was  dethroned  without  a  blow,  136G.  The 
tyrant  escaped  to  Bordeaux,  where  he  threw  himself  at  the  feet  of  Ed¬ 
ward  the  Black  Prince,  who  undertook  to  avenge  his  wrongs,  and 
marched  into  Spain  at  the  head  of  30,000  men.  The  road  lay  through 
the  valley  of  Roncesvalles,  the  scene  of  the  fabulous  exploits  of  the 
renowned  Orlando.  It  was  then  the  depth  of  winter;  the  snow  beat  in 
the  faces  of  his  troops,  while  to  cold  and  fatigue  was  added  the  want  of 
provisions  in  a  barren  and  mountainous  district.  The  two  armies  met 
in  the  plains  between  Navarete  and  Najera — Henry  having  more  than 
100,000  men  under  his  banners,  while  the  army  of  the  Black  Prince 
scarcely  amounted  to  one-third  of  that  number.  Victory  favoured  the 
cause  of  Pedro,  and  Trastamare  was  compelled  to  flee,  1367.  Two 
years  after,  during  the  siege  of  Montiel,  the  two  brothers  met  by  chance 
in  the  tent  of  a  French  knight:  they  immediately  grappled  ;  Pedro  threw 
Henry  on  the  floor,  but  in  the  struggle  was  despatched  by  the  poniard 
of  his  adversary. 

Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  house  of  Trastamare,  now  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  and  governed  during  a  brief  and  fortunate  period.  He  had  to 
contend  against  the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  son  of  Edward  III.  of  England, 
who  had  married  Constance,  daughter  of  Pedro  the  Cruel;  Granada, 
Portugal,  and  Navarre,  being  also  opposed  to  him.  He  defeated  the 
Portuguese  fleet  in  1370,  and  next  year  that  of  the  English  before  Ro¬ 
chelle;  and,  dying  in  1379,  left  his  crown  to  John  I.,  who  espoused 
Beatrice,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Portugal,  stipulating  that  her  chil¬ 
dren  should  succeed  to  the  throne  of  that  kingdom.  The  Portuguese 
attached  little  importance  to  this  arrangement,  which  sacrificed  their 
independence;  and,  when  Ferdinand  died,  their  choice  fell  upon  John, 
son  of  Pedro  the  Justiciary.  Upon  this  the  Castilian  sovereign  imme¬ 
diately  commenced  hostilities,  but  was  unsuccessful,  being  once  driven 
by  pestilence  from  before  the  walls  of  Lisbon,  and  at  another  time  de- 


304 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


feated  before  the  walls  of  Aljubarotta.  At  the  same  time,  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster  made  a  descent  at  Corunna,  and  was  proclaimed  king  at  San¬ 
tiago  de  Compostella;  his  farther  progress  was,  however,  prevented  by 
treaty. 

Henry  III.  was  only  twelve  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded  his 
father,  John  I.  The  regency  had  been  disturbed,  as  usual,  by  civil  strife, 
which  was  suppressed  when  the  king  assumed  the  government  in  1393. 
He  abolished  the  enormous  pensions  which  had  been  granted  to  various 
members  of  his  family  during  his  minority,  deprived  them  of  the  strong¬ 
holds  to  which  they  had  retired,  and  reduced  them  to  submission.  The 
Portuguese,  who  had  surprised  Badajoz,  were  defeated  ;  and  the  pirates 
of  Tetuan  were  attacked  and  dispersed  in  1400.  Encouraged  by  these 
successes,  Henry  planned  a  war  against  the  Moors,  but  he  died  in  1406, 
leaving  an  infant  son  fourteen  months  old. 

Aragon. — -James  II.,  by  the  conquest  of  Sardinia  in  1325,  was  recom¬ 
pensed  for  the  loss  of  Sicily  ;  this  acquisition,  however,  involved  the 
country  in  a  series  of  wars  with  Genoa,  which  occupied  the  whole  of 
the  reign  of  Alphonso  IV.  Pedro  the  Great,  who  succeeded  in  1336, 
maintained  the  possession  of  Sardinia,  and  united  the  Balearic  Isles  to 
his  dominions,  wresting  them  from  James  III.,  a  prince  of  a  younger 
branch  of  his  own  house.  In  alliance  with  Venice,  he  defeated  the 
Genoese  near  Algheri  in  1353,  and  shortly  after  aided  Henry  of  Trasta- 
mare  to  win  the  crown  of  Castile.  Plis  son,  John  I.,  1386,  continued 
the  war  against  the  Genoese  with  success ;  and  at  his  death,  in  1394, 
he  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  his  brother  Martin,  with  whom  terminated, 
in  1410,  the  house  of  Barcelona,  which  had  reigned  273  years. 

Portugal. — Dionysius,  surnamed  the  Just,  founded  the  university  of 
Coimbra,  and  encouraged  agriculture,  as  well  as  the  sciences,  and 
navigation,  and  commerce.  He  was  succeeded  in  1325  by  Alphonso 
IV.  the  Bold,  who  caused  the  assassination  of  Inez  de  Castro,  whom 
his  son  had  privately  married.  Pedro  I.  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  his 
father  in  1357 ;  and  his  earliest  object  was  to  punish  the  cruel  assassins 
of  his  unfortunate  and  beloved  wife.  His  useful  laws  and  economical 
expenditure  made  his  loss  generally  deplored,  1367.  The  extinction  of 
the  legitimate  line  of  Alphonso  I.  in  1383,  in  the  person  of  Ferdinand 
l.,  was  followed  by  an  interregnum  of  eighteen  months.  Ferdinand 
nad  left  one  child,  an  illegitimate  daughter,  Beatrice.  Desirous  of 
placing  her  on  his  throne,  he  united  her  at  an  early  age  to  John  of  Cas¬ 
tile,  1382,  and  bequeathed  the  sceptre  to  their  issue.  At  his  death, 
which  happened  soon  after,  Don  John,  his  natural  brother,  took  advan¬ 
tage  of  the  jealousies  of  the  two  provinces,  and  seized  on  the  crown. 
The  Castilian  king  upon  this  laid  siege  to  Lisbon;  failing,  however,  in 
his  attacks,  the  cortes,  in  the  year  1385,  elected  Don  John,  by  whom 
the  country  was  soon  cleared  of  invaders. 

THE  CHURCH. 

Great  Schism. — Boniface  VIII.,  who  succeeded  to  the  tiara  in  1294, 
was  the  last  of  the  great  popes,  the  heirs,  so  to  speak,  of  Gregory  VII. 
He  proposed  to  complete  the  mighty  work  of  his  predecessors  by  sub¬ 
jecting  all  the  kings  of  the  earth  to  the  pontifical  authority  ;  but  at  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  condition  of  the  world  had  greatly 


FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


305 


changed,  for  society  was  beginning  to  emerge  from  feudal  anarchy, 
under  the  shield  of  a  power  capable  of  maintaining  public  peace.  Even 
in  the  darkness  and  confusion  of  the  ninth  century,  the  papacy  had 
failed  in  its  enterprises.  It  was  therefore  to  no  purpose  that,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth,  Boniface,  in  the  council  held  at  Rome, 
1302,  composed  the  famous  decretal  TJnam  Sanctam ,  which  asserts  that 
the  temporal  power  is  inferior  to  the  spiritual,  and  that  the  pope  has  the 
right  of  appointing,  correcting,  and  deposing  sovereigns.  Philip  the 
Fair,  against  whom  this  was  manifestly  aimed,  replied  by  accusing  the 
pontiff  of  heresy,  simony,  and  other  crimes, — a  charge  which  is  said  to 
have  caused  the  death  of  his  holiness.  The  dispute,  however,  was 
amicably  settled  by  his  successor  in  1303.  The  residence  of  the 
supreme  pontiff  was  now  transferred  from  Italy  to  France  ;  and  Cle¬ 
ment  V.  made  Avignon  the  capital  of  the  papacy.  This  “  Babylonish 
captivity,”  as  it  was  derisively  called,  lasted  seventy-two  years.  On 
the  decease  of  Gregory  XI.,  in  1378,  two  popes  were  elected:  Urban 
VI.  was  acknowledged  by  the  greater  part  of  the  empire,  also  by  Bohe¬ 
mia,  Hungary,  and  England ;  Clement  VII.  was  recognised  as  legiti¬ 
mate  in  France,  Spain,  and  Scotland.  The  former  resided  at  Rome, 
the  latter  at  Avignon.  This  great  schism  of  the  West  lasted  fifty-one 
years  :  it  was  extinguished  by  the  abdication  of  Clement  VIII.  in  1429. 

TABLE  OF  POPES  DUPING  THE  GREAT  SCHISM. 

1378.  Urban  VI.  1378.  Clement  VII. 

1389.  Boniface  IX.  1394.  Benedict  XIII. 

1404.  Innocent  VII. 

1406.  Gregory  XII.,  de¬ 
posed  and  replaced  by 
409.  Alexander  V. 

1410.  John  XXIII.  ( Three  popes  instead  of  two). 

This  dispute  was  terminated  by  the  council  of  Constance,  in  1414, 
which  deposed  the  three  popes,  Gregory,  John,  and  Benedict,  and  con¬ 
ferred  the  papacy  on 

1417.  Martin  V.  1424.  Clement  VIII.  (antipope.) 

About  1360,  Wickliffe  began  to  expose  the  corruption  of  the  clergy, 
which  paved  the  way  for  the  Reformation  in  England.  Twenty  years 
afterwards,  he  made  known  to  the  people  the  records  of  divine  truth,  by 
the  first  English  translation  of  the  Bible.  It  was  now  that  more  for¬ 
cibly  than  ever  he  raised  his  powerful  voice  against  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation ;  and  above  all,  he  boldly  declared  that  the  Sacred  Scrip¬ 
tures  alone  are  the  sole  foundation  of  our  belief.  His  followers,  by 
way  of  reproach,  were  termed  “  Lollards.”* 

The  Flagellants. — This  sect,  which  appeared  during  the  great  pestilence 
of  1348,  imagined  that  scourging  was  the  only  means  of  procuring  a  remission 
of  the  divine  punishment.  It  originated  in  Hungary,  and  gradually  spread  over 
the  central  parts  of  Europe:  it  was  excluded  from  France,  but  reached  Eng¬ 
land  in  1349. 

The  Bianchi. — In  the  summer  of  1399,  a  sect  of  fanatics  suddenly  arose  in 
Italy  called  Bianchi,  from  the  long  white  garments  they  wore.  Their  faces 
were  covered  with  a  veil,  that  they  might  not  be  known.  They  walked  in 

*  A  word  of  doubtful  origin :  probably  from  Walter  Lollard,  a  German,  1315 ;  or  from 
Lullards  or  Lollards,  the  praisers  of  God,  a  sect  thus  named  in  Brabant,  1309. 

26* 


306 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


procession  from  town  to  town,  following  a  large  crucifix,  and  chanting  that 
beautiful  hymn  of  the  Romish  church,  “  Stabat  mater  dolorosa.”  They 
restricted  themselves  to  bread  and  water.  A  remarkable  although  transient 
reformation  of  manners  has  been  ascribed  to  their  influence.  They  were 
opposed  by  the  pope,  and  strictly  prohibited  both  in  France  and  England.  The 
founders  of  this  sect  are  said  to  have  come  from  Britain  ;  and  their  description 
corresponds  to  a  certain  extent  with  that  of  the  itinerant  priests  in  1382. 

INVENTIONS,  &c. 

The  Mariner’s  Compass.  —  In  this  century  many  new  inventions,  by 
seconding  the  exertions  of  genius,  accelerated  the  progress  of  knowledge  and 
civilisation.  The  chief  of  these  were  the  construction  of  the  mariner’s  compass, 
and  the  manufacture  of  linen  paper.  The  Chinese  were  acquainted  with  the 
polarity  of  the  magnetic  needle  so  early  as  1121 ;  and  they  assign  the  invention 
of  the  compass  to  1108  b.  c.  This  instrument  was  probably  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Saracens ;  but  only  came  into  general  use  at  the  end  of  this 
century.  The  pretensions  of  Flavio  Gioia  of  Almafi  have  been  long  detected  ; 
indeed  it  is  doubtful  if  such  a  person  ever  existed.  A  more  fearless  spirit  of 
maritime  adventure  soon  arose,  and  its  fruits  in  the  next  century  were  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  New  World. 

Linen  Paper. — The  revival  of  learning  in  the  fourteenth  century  called  for 
cheaper  materials  than  the  parchment  in  general  use.  Paper  made  from  cotton 
appears  to  have  been  known  as  early  as  1100.  The  Arabians  assert  that  cotton 
paper  had  been  manufactured  at  Samarcand  in  the  eighth  century,  the  method 
having  been  introduced  from  China.  Though  linen  paper  was  very  little  known 
till  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  it  is  an  unreasonable  scepticism  to 
doubt  its  use  in  the  West  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth.  Pace  da  Fabiano  of 
Treviso  is  said  to  have  been  its  inventor  ;  but  subsequent  researches  place  him 
in  the  same  rank  of  fabulous  persons,  as  Flavio  Gioia  and  the  monk  Schwartz. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Greek  Empire  and  the  East. — 1402,  Invasion  of  Tamerlane — Mohammed  I. 
— 1425,  John  Paleeologus  —  Huniades  and  Scanderbeg.  — 1448,  Constantine 
Palaeologus.  —  1451,  Mohammed  II.  —  1453,  Constantinople  taken  by  the 
Turks. — 1480,  Siege  of  Rhodes — Bajazet  II. 

Germany. — 1400,  Robert. — 1410,  Sigismond. — 1414,  Council  of  Constance — 
Hussite  War. — 1436,  Peace  oflglau. — 1438,  Austrian  House. — 1464,  Ernes¬ 
tine  and  Albertine  Houses. — 1479,  Victory  at  Guinegate. — 1493,  Maximilian 
I. — 1495,  Diet  of  Worms:  Imperial  Chamber. — 1500,  Six  Circles. 

France. — 1407,  Civil  War:  Burgundians  and  Armagnacs. — 1415,  Defeat  at 
Agincourt. — 1420,  Treaty  of  Troyes. — 1422,  Charles  VII. — 1423,  Defeat  at 
Verneuil.  — 1429,  Joan  of  Arc. — 1461,  Louis  XI. — 1477,  Charles  of  Bur¬ 
gundy  killed  at  Nancy. — 1479,  Swiss  League. — 1483,  Charles  VIII. — 1495, 
Naples  conquered — Victory  of  Fornovo. 

Britain. — 1401,  Sawtree  burnt  for  Heresy. — 1413,  Henry  V. — 1415,  Agin 
court. — 1422,  Henry  VI.— Bedford,  Regent. — 1444,  Truce  of  Tours— Jack 
Cade. — Wars  of  the  Roses:  1455,  Battle  of  St.  Albans  :  1460,  of  Wake¬ 
field  Green. — 1461,  House  of  York:  Edward  IV. — 1471,  Battle  of  Bar¬ 
nett;  1483,  of  Tewrkesbury — Jane  Shore — Edward  V. — Richard  III. — 1485, 
Tudors:  Henry  VII.— 1487,  Simnel,  and  Perkin  Warbeck. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


307 


Italian  Peninsula.  — 1400,  John  de  Medici.  — 1434,  Cosmo  I.  — 1435,  Al- 
phonso  V.  of  Naples.  — 1460,  Defeat  at  Sarno.  —  1466,  Galeazzo  Sforza.. — • 
1469,  Lorenzo  de  Medici.— 1485,  Revolt  of  Nobles. 

Spanish  Peninsula. — 1406,  John  II.  of  Castile— Alvarez  de  Luna — Power 
of  Grandmaster  of  the  Three  Orders.  — 1409,  Martin  V.  of  Aragon  and 
Sicily. — 1419,  John  II.  of  Navarre.— 1452,  Don  Carlos  defeated  at  Aibar. — 
Roussillon  and  Cerdagne  sold  to  France.  — 1454,  Henry  IV. — Invasion  of 

Granada.  —  1465,  Deposition  of  Henry - 1474,  Isabella.— 1479,  Union  of 

Castile  and  Aragon. — 1480,  Inquisition. — 1492,  Conquest  of  Granada. 
Church.  — 1409,  Hussites.  — 1414,  Sixteenth  General  Council,  Constance. — 
1429,  End  of  Schism  of  the  West. — 1439,  Council  of  Florence. — 1454,  St. 
Francis. de  Paulo  founds  the  order  of  Minims. 

Inventions  and  Discoveries. — 1440,  Carriages. — 1449,  Felt  Hats. — Painting 
in  Oil. — 1461,  Engraving  on  Copper — First  Silk  Manufacture. — 1450,  Print¬ 
ing.  —  1474,  First  Lithotomic  Operation.  —  1495,  Algebra.  —  1486,  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. — 1492,  America  discovered. 

Literature  and  Art.  —  Poggio,  L.  Valla,  Pulci,  Politian,  Pico  Mirandola, 
Manutius  Aldus,  Ital. — Budaeus,  Fr. — Villena,  J.  de  Mena,  Sp. — Lydgate, 
Fortescue,  Littleton,  Caxton,  E?ig. — Thomas  a  Kempis,  Reuchlin,  Germ. 

GREEK  EMPIRE. 

Fall  of  Constantinople. — The  destruction  of  the  Greek  empire  was 
for  a  time  delayed  by  the  invasions  of  Tamerlane,  so  that  Manuel,  who 
had  visited  the  west  of  Europe  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  succours  from 
the  Latin  powers,  returned  to  his  capital,  where  he  reigned  many  years 
in  prosperity  and  peace.  In  1425,  the  crown  descended  to  John  Pal.e- 
ologus  II.,  who,  with  a  design  of  healing  the  schism  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches,  attended  the  council  of  Ferrara,  1438. 
Had  this  visit  failed  in  its  object,  still  the  revival  of  Greek  literature  in 
Italy  by  the  learned  men  in  the  emperor’s  train  would  have  been  ample 
compensation.  On  his  decease,  in  1448,  the  throne  was  occupied  for  the 
last  time  by  one  of  its  native  sovereigns,  Constantine  Pal^eologus. 
He  was  soon  attacked  by  the  young  and  ambitious  Mohammed  II.,  wiio 
laid  siege  to  his  capital  in  the  spring  of  1453.  The  emperor,  having 
implored  in  vain  the  assistance  of  the  Latin  princes  of  Europe,  was  left 
with  only  7000  or  8000  men  to  contend  against  a  victorious  rival  at  the 
head  of  260,000.  Fourteen  batteries,  mounting  guns  of  enormous  cali¬ 
bre,  poured  their  destructive  fire,  night  and  day,  against  the  ancient 
walls.  The  various  operations  of  the  siege  were  conducted  with  the 
greatest  impetuosity  on  both  sides ;  while  the  failing  spirits  of  the  gar¬ 
rison  and  citizens  were  revived  by  the  timely  arrival  of  five  heavily 
laden  ships  of  war,  that  had  broken  through  the  line  of  the  enemy’s  fleet, 
and  caused  a  loss  of  12,000  men.  Although  this  was  the  only  attempt 
made  to  succour  Constantinople,  it  so  discouraged  the  sultan,  that  he 
was  about  to  withdraw  his  troops,  wdien  the  devoted  city  was  entirely 
surrounded  by  transporting  some  of  the  lighter  Ottoman  vessels  over 
a  narrow  isthmus  into  the  inner  part  of  the  harbour.  The  terms  of 
capitulation  which  Mohammed  now  offered  wTere  such  as  the  religion  of 
Constantine  forbad0  him  to  accept.  Preparations  were  accordingly 
made  for  a  fierce  struggle,  and  while  the  Greeks  dedicated  the  whole 


308 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


night  of  28th  May  to  prayer,  the  besieging  camp  was  already  filled  with 
the  shouts  of  victory.  At  daybreak,  the  city  was  violently  attacked  on 
all  sides  ;  the  valour  of  the  Christians  long  rendered  the  event  doubtful, 
and  the  fortune  of  that  day  might  have  been  different,  but  for  the  retreat 
of  Justiniani,  the  Genoese  commander,  and  his  auxiliaries.  A  gigantic 
janizary,  named  Hassan,  was  the  first  to  climb  the  shattered  rampart, 
and  though  precipitated  into  the  ditch,  he  had  showm  the  practicability 
of  the  enterprise.  Palseologus  fell  by  an  unknown  hand,  resisting  to 
the  last;  and  with  him  the  fate  of  his  capital  was  decided,  after  a  siege 
of  fifty-three  days,  29th  May  1453.  Constantinople  was  sacked,  and 
its  inhabitants  became  the  prey  of  the  victors.  In  the  destruction  of  the 
libraries,  posterity  has  to  regret  the  loss  of  120,000  manuscripts. 

The  dissolution  of  the  Greek  empire  now  proceeded  step  by  step.  “  Every 
province  was  in  turn  subdued  ;  the  limbs  were  lopped  off  one  by  one  ;  and  the 
majesty  of  the  Roman  name  was  ultimately  confined  to  the  walls  of  Constan¬ 
tinople.  Before  Mohammed  II.  planted  his  cannon  against  them,  he  had 
deprived  the  expiring  empire  of  every  hope  of  succour  or  delay.  It  was  neces¬ 
sary  that  Constantinople  should  fall ;  but  the  magnanimous  resignation  of  her 
emperor  bestows  an  honour  upon  her  fall,  which  her  prosperity  seldom  earned. 
The  long  deferred  but  inevitable  moment  arrived,  and  the  last  of  the  Caesars 
folded  round  him  the  imperial  mantle,  and  remembered  the  name  which  he 
represented  in  the  dignity  of  heroic  death.” — Hallam’s  Middle  Ages. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  AND  TURKEY. 

Invasion  of  Tamerlane. — In  1402,  Tamerlane  invaded  the  Ottoman 
empire,  after  provoking  Bajazet  by  menacing  letters,  in  which  he  was 
compared  to  an  insect.  The  sultan  was  at  this  time  besieging  Constan¬ 
tinople,  when  hastily  breaking  up  his  camp  before  that  city,  he  marched 
against  the  Mongols,  who  were  attacking  Angora,  in  Asia  Minor.  Here, 
on  the  28th  July,  he  gave  battle  on  the  ground  where  Pompey  defeated 
the  army  of  Mithridates.  The  combat  was  prolonged  during  three 
days  and  two  nights,  and  140,000  men  were  left  dead  on  that  terrible 
field  of  slaughter.  The  Turks  were  completely  routed,  and  Bajazet 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  by  whom  (according  to  the  western 
historians,  whose  testimony  is  not  confirmed  by  the  Persians)  he  was 
carried  about  enclosed  in  an  iron  cage  until  his  death.  Fortunately  for 
Europe,  the  want  of  ships  checked  the  progress  of  Tamerlane  on  the 
shores  of  the  Hellespont  and  Bosporus.  The  victor  now  returned  to 
Samarcand,  whence  his  ambition,  which  the  snows  of  seventy  winters 
had  not  cooled,  hurried  him  to  China,  hoping  to  add  that  country  to  his 
acquisitions ;  but  he  did  not  live  to  realize  his  project,  having  died  at 
Otrar,  1st  April  1405.  The  fate  of  his  kingdom  was  similar  to  that  of 
Alexander,  whose  place  it  nearly  occupied.  From  a  portion  of  this 
immense  dominion  his  descendant  Baber,  in  the  next  century,  formed 
the  empire  of  the  Great  Mogul  in  India. 

The  invasion  now  described,  and  dissensions  among  the  sons  of  Ba¬ 
jazet,  nearly  compromised  the  existence  of  the  Ottoman  state  ;  but  the 
victory  of  Semendria,  gained  by  Musa  over  the  Emperor  Sigismond  in 
1412,  restored  to  the  Crescent  its  former  glory,  and  the  pacific  policy 
of  Mohammed  I.  secured  the  conquests  of  his  predecessors.  Constan 
tinople,  however,  still  remained  insulated  in  the  midst  of  barbarians, 
having  no  means  of  communication  with  the  rest  of  Europe  except  by 
the  Genoese  cruisers.  It  owed  the  prolongation  of  its  miserable  exist 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


309 


ence  to  the  protection  of  the  merchants  of  Pera.  The  intrigues  of 
Manuel  with  a  pretender,  in  1422,  exposed  him  to  the  vengeance  of 
Amurath  II.,  who  besieged  Constantinople  with  an  army  of  200,000 
men ;  from  which  danger,  however,  the  capital  escaped  for  the  present. 

Huniades.  —  A  formidable  armament  for  the  relief  of  Constantinople 
was  preparing  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  which  the  sultan  resolved  to 
anticipate.  The  Turks  invaded  Servia,  and  took  Semendria  in  1435, 
yet  all  their  efforts  were  unavailing  against  Belgrade,  defended  by  John 
Huniades.  This  hero,  from  an  obscure  origin,  had  risen  by  his  talents 
to  the  command  of  the  Hungarian  armies ;  and  the  epithet  of  brigand, 
which  the  infidels  added  to  his  name,  attests  the  hatred  with  which  he 
was  regarded  by  them.  Through  his  .influence  Ladislaus  of  Poland 
obtained  the  crown  of  Hungary,  1440,  in  return  for  which  important 
service  he  had  received  the  dignity  of  Waywode  of  Transylvania.  In 
1442,  and  the  subsequent  year,  Ladislaus  and  Huniades  gained  several 
advantages  over  the  Turks,  so  that  Amurath  demanded  a  truce  for  ten 
years ;  upon  which,  satisfied  with  having  restored  peace  to  his  domin¬ 
ions,  he  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son  Mohammed  II.,  and  retired  among 
the  dervises  of  Magnesia,  1443.  The  imprudent  zeal  of  Pope  Euge- 
nius  IV.  caused  the  treaty  to  be  broken  the  same  year  it  was  made,— 
a  circumstance  which  drew  Amurath  from  his  seclusion.  Meeting  the 
Hungarians  near  Varna,  he  was  long  unable  to  make  any  impression  on 
their  gallant  band  of  24,000  warriors  ;  but  the  impetuosity  of  Ladislaus 
cost  him  his  life,  and  produced  a  panic  which  ended  in  a  sanguinary 
defeat.  During  the  minority  of  the  Austrian  prince  who  succeeded, 
Huniades  was  governor  of  Hungary,  and,  in  the  course  of  an  adminis¬ 
tration  of  twelve  years,  showed  in  how  eminent  a  degree  he  united  the 
talents  of  a  statesman  and  of  a  warrior.  He  formed  an  alliance  with 
Scanderbeg,  the  Hero  of  Albania,  and  after  employing  two  years  in 
placing  his  own  country  in  a  state  of  defence,  crossed  the  Danube  at 
the  head  of  22,000  men  to  join  that  prince.  Though  betrayed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  the  battle  was  continued  during  three  days,  and 
terminated  in  the  destruction  of  the  Christian  army,  1448.  The  brother 
of  Huniades  and  a  great  number  of  men  of  rank  were  among  the  slain ; 
and  Amurath  lost  34,000  warriors,  many  of  whose  bodies  were  flung 
into  a  neighbouring  river  to  conceal  his  disaster. 

Scanderbeg. — Amurath  II.,  after  this  triumph,  had  retired  once  more 
to  the  solitudes  of  Magnesia,  where  a  mutiny  of  the  janizaries  did  not 
allow  him  to  remain.  Being  forced  to  resume  the  government  after  a 
second  abdication,  he  directed  his  forces  against  Albania,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  had  revolted  on  the  return  of  the  young  Scanderbeg  (Alexan¬ 
der  Bey),  who  had  been  sent  as  hostage  to  Amurath  by  his  father, 
Prince  John  Castriot.  The  permanent  army  of  the  Albanian  prince 
consisted  of  8000  horse  and  7000  foot,  which  insignificant  force  resisted, 
during  twenty-three  years,  all  the  attacks  of  two  formidable  warriors. 
Amurath  is  said  to  have  died  at  Adrianople  of  chagrin  at  his  failure  in 
the  siege  of  Croia,  1451  ;  and  Scanderbeg  perished  of  a  violent  fever  at 
Lissa  in  1467.  When  this  place  was  afterwards  captured  by  the  Turks, 
they  exhumed,  with  religious  respect,  the  mortal  remains  of  the  hero, 
and  suspended  round  their  necks  in  gold  or  silver  frames  the  smallest 
portions  of  his  bones  as  amulets  to  impart  strength  and  courage.  The 
Castriots  took  refuge  in  Naples,  and  the  descendants  of  an  Albanian 


310 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


colony  which  accompanied  them  are  still  to  be  found  in  Calabria,  pre* 
serving  almost  unchanged  the  language  and  manners  of  their  fathers. 

Mohammed  II.,  following  the  advice  of  his  father,  determined  tc 
reduce  Constantinople.  An  army  of  260,000  men,  aided  by  a  fleet  of 
300  sail,  appeared  before  the  imperial  city,  which  was  besieged  for  the 
twenty-ninth  time  since  its  foundation.  After  two  months  the  Greek 
empire  was  terminated  by  the  fall  of  the  capital,  and  its  subjects  were 
scattered  as  slaves  over  all  the  Ottoman  empire.  Various  means  were 
used  to  recall  to  the  deserted  city  those  inhabitants  who  had  fled,  but  it 
was  long  before  they  returned  in  any  considerable  number,  although  per¬ 
fect  toleration  of  their  religion  was  granted. 

Being  now  master  of  the  metropolis,  the  sultan  claimed  the  island  of 
Rhodes,  occupied  by  the  knights  of  Saint  John,  as  a  dependency  of  his 
empire.  His  demand  for  tribute  was  haughtily  rejected ;  and  important 
affairs  soon  called  his  attention  to  another  quarter.  Pope  Cahxtus  III. 
was  labouring  to  unite  the  selfish  and  impolitic  princes  of  the  West  in 
an  offensive  treaty  against  the  Ottomans.  Mohammed,  unwilling  to  be 
surprised,  marched  to  lay  siege  to  Belgrade,  at  the  hefld  of  150,000  men, 
while  200  small  vessels  blockaded  it  on  the  side  of  the  Danube,  1456. 
Here  the  sultan  was  less  fortunate  than  he  had  been  at  Constantinople ; 
for  he  W’as  defeated  by  Huniades,  who  unhappily  perished  in  the  very 
hour  of  triumph.  But  this  check  to  his  arms  only  turned  them  in 
another  direction;  and  the  duchy  of  Athens,  possessed  since  1364  by  the 
Florentine  house  of  Acciaiuoli,  was  destroyed,  as  was  the  independence 
of  Trebizond,  Servia,  and  Bosnia,  not  long  afterwards.  The  Venetians 
alone  made  any  important  resistance  after  the  reduction  of  Albania,  and 
their  devastating  incursions  on  the  seacoasts  of  Greece  gave  rise  to  the 
solemn  vow  of  Mohammed  II.,  offered  up  in  all  the  mosques  in  his 
dominions,  pledging  himself  and  his  subjects  to  the  entire  extirpation 
of  Christianity,  1469.  The  very  next  year,  in  fact,  a  powerful  Turkish 
fleet,  the  largest  armament  that  had  appeared  in  those  seas  since  the 
time  of  Xerxes,  attacked  the  island  of  Negropont,  and  massacred  all  the 
inhabitants  of  its  capital.  The  signal  defeats  suffered  before  Scutari 
and  Lepanto  were  counteracted  by  the  acquisition  of  Caffa  in  the  Crimea, 
a  town  which,  for  two  centuries,  had  been  in  the  power  of  the  Genoese, 
and  was  the  mart  of  all  the  productions  of  the  North  and  the  East. 

In  1480,  the  sultan  carried  into  execution  his  long-meditated  plan 
against  the  island  of  Rhodes.  One  hundred  thousand  men,  commanded 
by  a  renegade  of  the  imperial  house  of  the  Palseologi,  appeared  off  its 
shores,  but  only  to  suffer  defeat.  After  an  attack,  prolonged  during 
three  months,  Misithes  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  firmness  of  Peter 
d’Aubusson,  grand-master,  whose  wise  government  of  thirty  years  was 
productive  of  glory  and  prosperity  to  the  knights  of  his  order.  To  efface 
the  impression  of  this  repulse,  Mohammed  resolved  to  send  two  expedi¬ 
tions  simultaneously  against  the  East  and  West;  but  death  surprised 
him  in  the  midst  of  his  projects  in  May  1481. 

The  two  great  secrets  of  Mohammed’s  military  success  were  rapidity  and 
secrecy ;  but  still  he  is  far  from  meriting  the  praise  that  has  been  lavished  on 
his  generalship.  Although  acts  of  monstrous  ferocity  have  been  imputed  to 
him,  he  was  a  friend  to  letters,  founded  a  public  library,  instituted  two  acade¬ 
mies  (Medresse),  and  was  frequently  present  at  the  discussions  of  their  learned 
members,  distributing  rewards  to  the  most  distinguished  orators  and  poets.  He 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


311 


was  instructed  in  history  and  geography,  and  could  converse  in  Greek,  Latin, 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Persia/i.  It  was  this  prince  who  legalized  fratricide, 
supporting  the  decrees  of  his  code  by  the  maxim  of  the  Koran,  that  confusion 
is  worse  than  murder. 

Mohammed  left  two  sons,  Bajazet  II.  and  Zizim.  While  the  elder 
was  engaged  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  the  younger  laid  claim  to  the 
empire,  and  the  troops  of  Asia  declared  in  his  favour.  Beaten  near  Brusa 
by  the  Grand  Vizier  Achmet,  Zizim  fled  from  one  retreat  to  another, 
until  he  found  an  asylum  in  Rhodes.  He  was  demanded  by  the  sultan, 
but  the  knights  refused  to  give  him  up,  and  afterwards  sent  him  to 
France,  where  he  was  kept  prisoner, — Bajazet  readily  paying  an  annual 
sum  of  35,000  ducats  to  ensure  his  captivity.  He  died  in  1495,  of  poi¬ 
son  administered,  it  has  been  insinuated,  with  the  connivance  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI. 

A  quarrel  between  two  tributary  princes  of  the  respective  empires  was 
the  pretext  for  hostilities  between  Bajazet  and  the  Sultan  of  Egypt. 
The  former  was  at  first  unsuccessful,  and  suffered  defeat  at  Issus  in 
Cilicia,  1488 ;  but  more  fortunate  in  Europe,  he  reduced  Moldavia, 
Bosnia,  and  Croatia,  and  succoured  the  Moors  of  Granada  against  the 
Spaniards. 

GERMANY. 

The  Italian  expeditions,  which  had  again  been  suspended  under 
Wenceslaus,  were  revived,  in  1400,  by  his  successor  the  elector  pala¬ 
tine,  Robert  of  Bavaria,  who  endeavoured  to  open  his  way  to  Rome  by 
the  ruin  of  the  Visconti,  then  absolute  masters  of  the  Milanese ;  but  his 
defeat  on  the  lake  of  Guarda  proved  that  Italy  was  for  ever  lost  to  the 
Germans.  On  the  death  of  Robert,  disunion  again  arose  in  the  electoral 
diet;  and  a  triple  schism  divided  at  the  same  time  the  empire  and  the 
church.  The  electors  favoured  at  once  the  deposed  Emperor  Wences¬ 
laus,  his  brother  Sigismond,  and  Jossus  of  Moravia,  his  cousin:  by  the 
death  of  this  last,  however,  in  1411,  all  the  suffrages  were  united  in  sup¬ 
port  of  Sigismond,  king  of  Hungary  and  elector  of  Brandenburg. 

Under  a  prince  already  possessing  the  rank  of  elector  and  the  crown 
of  Hungary,  with  the  prospect  of  succeeding  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia, 
the  imperial  power  seemed  about  to  regain  its  former  greatness.  But 
the  successful  attacks  of  the  Ottomans,  the  necessity  of  re-establishing 
order  among  churchmen,  and,  above  all,  a  religious  war  in  Bohemia, 
prevented  Sigismond  from  restoring  the  throne  of  the  Caesars  to  its 
ancient  splendour. 

Hussite  War. — The  council  of  Constance,  1414,  which  was  expected 
to  have  effected  a  universal  reconciliation  in  Christendom,  only  imper¬ 
fectly  attained  this  noble  end,  and  was  for  the  empire  in  particular  a 
new  cause  of  discord  and  misfortune.  This  assembly  condemned  to  the 
stake  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  who  had  propagated  in  Bohemia 
the  doctrines  of  our  own  Wickliffe  ;  and  the  news  that  the  cruel  sentence 
was  executed,  inspired  some  of  their  followers  with  a  deep  desire  of 
revenge.  They  took  arms  under  John  of  Zisca,  and  massacred  the 
senate  of  Prague.  King  Wenceslaus  of  Bohemia  died  of  fright ;  and 
Sigismond  was  unable  to  prevent  the  states-general  of  the  kingdom  from 
uniting  with  the  rebels.  Compelled  to  fight  against  his  own  subjects, 
he  at  first  met  with  continual  reverses,  and  was  unable  to  protect  the 


312 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


empire  against  the  incursions  of  the  Taborites.  At  length  the  conces¬ 
sions  made  by  the  council  of  Basle  having  led  to  the  submission  of  the 
states,  their  chief,  Procopius,  could  not  prolong  the  war ;  and  his  defeat 
in  1434  was  followed  by  the  pacification  of  Iglau.  The  King  of 
Hungary  died,  after  having  restored  tranquillity  to  his  dominions ;  and 
with  Sigismond  perished  the  royal  house  of  Luxemburg,  1437. 

House  of  Austria. — Albert  II.,  duke  of  Austria,  the  son-in-law  of 
Sigismond,  and  sovereign  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  was  elected  King 
of  the  Romans  in  1438.  During  his  brief  reign  of  two  years,  he  reformed 
many  abuses  in  the  administration  of  justice,  and  moderated  the  formi¬ 
dable  power  of  the  secret  tribunal  of  Westphalia.  To  suppress  private 
wars  and  establish  public  security  on  a  solid  foundation,  he  proposed  to 
divide  the  empire  into  several  cantons  or  circles,  each  under  a  director 
and  captain-general,  charged  with  maintaining  peace ;  but  various 
obstacles  hindered  the  execution  of  this  project.  Albert  died  on  his 
return  from  an  expedition  against  the  Ottomans  who  had  invaded 
Bohemia.  His  loss  was  regarded  as  a  calamity  to  his  subjects  and  to 
Europe  generally,  his  power  and  talents  being  deemed  the  best  defence 
of  Christendom  against  the  arms  of  the  infidels. 

The  conduct  of  Frederick  III.,  who  succeeded  in  1440,  made  the 
death  of  his  predecessor  more  severely  felt.  In  consequence  of  differ¬ 
ences  with  his  brother  Albert,  he  could  not  for  two  years  after  his 
election  visit  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  receive  the  imperial  crown.  Gained 
by  the  flattering  presents  of  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  he 
surrendered  all  the  ancient  claims  of  the  empire  over  the  duchies  of 
Brabant  and  Limburg,  with  the  countships  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and 
Hainault,  and  the  lordship  of  Friesland.  Nor  was  he  more  capable  of 
maintaining  the  privileges  of  the  Germanic  church  against  the  holy  see. 
The  desire  of  being  crowned  at  Rome  induced  him  to  attempt  a  recon¬ 
ciliation  between  the  states  of  Germany  which  had  adopted  the  opinions 
of  the  council  of  Basle  and  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  After  mutual  conces¬ 
sions,  a  treaty  of  union  was  signed  at  the  diet  of  Frankfort;  and 
subsequently,  in  another  assembly,  the  Germanic  concordat  was  sub¬ 
stituted  for  the  pragmatic  sanction  of  Mentz,  1448.  Idle  projects  of 
ambition  now  filled  the  mind  of  Frederick,  and  withdrew  his  attention 
from  the  government  of  the  empire,  which  was  a  prey  to  civil  war,  at 
the  very  time  when,  in  his  hereditary  dominions,  he  was  contending 
against  his  own  brother. 

The  Elector  of  Saxony,  Frederick  the  Good,  the  firm  friend  and  ally 
of  the  emperor,  died  in  1464,  leaving  two  sons,  Ernest  and  Albert.  The 
former  succeeded  to  Thuringia  and  the  electorate,  and  was  the  founder 
of  the  Ernestine  house,  which  reigned  in  Saxony  until  1548,  and  from 
whence  issued  the  branches  of  Weimar,  Gotha,  Cobourg,  Meiningen, 
and  Hildburghausen.  Albert,  who  had  Misnia,  was  the  root  of  the 
Albertine  family  :  this  dynasty  succeeded  to  the  electorate  of  Saxony, 
and  filled  the  Polish  throne  from  1697  to  1763. 

The  death  of  the  emperor’s  brother  and  the  treaty  of  Frankfort  having 
restored  tranquillity  to  Germany,  all  eyes  were  directed  to  the  rapid 
conquests  of  the  Ottomans  ;  but  even  the  pathetic  exhortations  of  Popes 
Nicholas  V.,  Calixtus  III.,  and  Pius  II.,  failed  to  excite  the  ardour  of 
the  crusades.  The  minds  of  the  people  were  otherwise  occupied ;  and 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  313 

the  church  probably  felt  more  apprehension  at  the  spread  of  the  Hussite 
doctrines  than  at  the  victories  of  the  infidels. 

While  the  weak  Frederick  still  wore  a  crown  which  he  was  incapable 
of  protecting,  Charles  the  Bold,  sovereign  duke  of  Burgundy,  Franche- 
Comte,  Artois,  and  Flanders,  aspired  to  the  regal  dignity.  Negotiations 
on  this  matter  were  opened  with  the  emperor;  but  at  the  very  moment 
the  duke  thought  the  object  of  his  ambition  within  his  grasp,  the  other 
changed  his  mind,  and  hastily  quitted  Treves,  where  the  two  contracting 
parties  had  met.  Charles  soon  sought  an  opportunity  of  avenging  this 
slight;  but  his  forces  being  exhausted  during  the  long  siege  of  Neuss, 
he  was  glad  to  purchase  a  cessation  of  hostilities  by  a  present  of  *200,000 
crowns  and  the  promise  of  his  daughter  to  the  Archduke  Maximilian, 
1475.  Meantime,  the  Swiss  had  invaded  Franche-Comte ;  three  times 
they  defeated  the  armies  of  Charles;  and  he  himself  perished  under  the 
walls  of  Nancy.  His  death,  of  itself  memorable,  is  more  so  from  its 
consequences.  Mary,  the  heiress  of  his  vast  estates,  preferred  the  son 
of  the  emperor  to  all  the  other  princes  who  sought  her  hand  in  marriage. 
This  union,  the  fertile  source  of  a  long  rivalry  between  the  houses  of 
France  and  Austria,  was  immediately  followed  by  a  war  between  Maxi¬ 
milian  and  Louis  XI.,  the  latter  claiming  part  of  the  Burgundian 
succession.  Four  years  of  hostility,  signalized  by  no  events  of  more 
importance  than  the  battle  of  Guinegate,  gained  by  the  Austrians  in 
1479,  and  the  premature  death  of  the  Archduchess  Mary,  endangered 
the  power  of  Maximilian,  who  in  1488,  was  thrown  into  prison  at 
Bruges  by  his  revolted  subjects,  and  liberated  only  on  the  approach  of  a 
German  army. 

In  1493,  Frederick  died,*  and  was  succeeded  by  Maximilian  I.,  who 
shortly  after  espoused  Blanche  Mary,  niece  of  Ludovico  Sforza,  duke  of 
Milan,  by  which  union  he  acquired  the  power  of  interfering  in  the 
political  transactions  of  Italy.  The  part  he  took  in  the  great  events  of 
which  this  peninsula  was  the  theatre  during  his  reign,  will  be  detailed 
in  the  history  of  France. 

When,  in  1495,  Maximilian  demanded  subsidies  for  the  prosecution 
of  the  Italian  war,  the  states  assembled  in  diet  at  Worms  refused  to 
occupy  themselves  with  foreign  matters  until  they  had  decreed  the  pro¬ 
mulgation  of  a  perpetual  peace,  and  the  establishment  of  a  tribunal  for 
punishing  or  preventing  all  infringement  of  the  conditions  of  this  new 
constitution.  By  one  of  its  fundamental  articles,  all  private  war  was 
forbidden  under  the  penalty  of  2000  gold  marcs  and  being  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire.  To  ensure  the  execution  of  its  regulations,  a 
diet  was  created,  under  the  title  of  the  Imperial  Chamber,  a  permanent 
court  of  justice;  the  composition  of  which,  and  the  place  of  its  sitting, 
were  however  continually  changed.  The  decrees  of  the  diet  of  Worms 
were  renewed  by  that  of  Augsburg  in  1500,  the  latter  also  realizing  the 
idea  of  dividing  Germany  into  circles,  of  which  there  were  at  first  only 
six, — Bavaria,  Franconia,  Saxony,  the  Rhine,  Swabia,  and  Westphalia. 


♦The  famous  Austrian  device.  A.  E.  I.  O.  U,  that  is,  Austria  Est  Imperare  Orbi  Uni- 
verso,  was  first  used  by  Frederick  III.,  who  caused  it  to  be  inscribed  on  his  books,  plate, 
and  public  buildings. 

27 


314 


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FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


315 


FRANCE. 

Burgundians  and  Armagnacs. — The  imbecility  of  Charles  VI.  left 
France  without  a  ruler ;  but  his  uncles,  after  expelling  the  ministers, 
seized  on  the  royal  authority,  and  rendered  the  government  odious  by 
the  divisions  and  quarrels  which  threatened  the  country  with  the  greatest 
misfortunes.  After  some  years  of  tyrannical  administration,  the  state 
changed  masters,  without  however  receiving  any  change  of  fortune. 
Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  his  majesty's  brother,  supplanted  his  three 
uncles,  and  was  proclaimed  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom.  But 
this  victory  cost  him  dear,  for  when  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  died,  his 
son  John-sans-Peur,  a  man  of  vindictive  temper,  resolved  to  destroy  his 
father’s  rival ;  and  the  better  to  compass  this  end,  he  feigned  to  become 
reconciled  to'him.  The  two  princes  swore  eternal  friendship,  and  par¬ 
took  of  the  sacrament  together;  yet  three  days  after,  on  23d  November 
1407,  Orleans  was  assassinated  in  the  streets  of  Paris  by  the  agents  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  The  murderer  openly  boasted  of  his  crime,  and 
a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  was  found  to  justify  the  deed.  The  unfor¬ 
tunate  Louis  left  three  legitimate  sons,  and  the  bastard  Dunois,  son  of 
Mary  of  Enghien. 

As  these  young  men  grew  up,  they  determined  to  avenge  their  father’s 
murder.  Charles,  the  eldest,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Armagnac,  became  the  chief  of  the  Orleanists,  and  from  him 
they  derived  the  name  that  characterized  them  in  the  civil  wars  which 
ensued.  Hostilities  began  with  the  devastation  of  the  environs  of  Paris, 
and  to  preserve  this  city,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  organized  the  faction 
of  the  Butchers,  who,  from  the  name  of  one  of  their  chiefs,  were  denomi¬ 
nated  Cabochins,  1411.  His  rivals,  now  despairing  of  success,  solicited 
the  protection  of  Henry  IV.  of  England,  offering  to  fulfil  the  conditions 
of  the  treaty  of  Bretigny.  This  flagrant  abandonment  of  the  rights  of 
France  gave  fresh  power  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  who  induced  the 
king  to  declare  the  Armagnacs  enemies  to  the  state.  The  royalist  army 
marched  into  Berri  against  them,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Bourgess, 
which  put  an  end  to  hostilities  without  bringing  about  a  real  concilia¬ 
tion  ;  the  fear  of  foreign  invasion  alone  having  temporarily  united  the 
twTo  parties. 

Meanwhile  Henry  V.  had  succeeded  to  the  English  crown,  and  on  the 
refusal  of  the  French  princes  to  execute  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  he  landed 
in  Normandy  with  30,000  men,  took  Harfleur,  and  endeavoured  to  march 
through  Picardy  to  Calais.  An  army  nearly  ten  times  the  amount  of 
his  own  encountered  him  at  Agincourt,  25th  October  1415,  and  expe¬ 
rienced  a  defeat  more  terrible  than  those  of  Cressy  and  Poitiers.  Ten 
thousand  French,  among  whom  were  seven  princes  and  more  than  eight 
thousand  gentlemen,  perished  on  the  field,  while  five  princes  and  four¬ 
teen  thousand  men  were  made  prisoners. 

This  loss  increased  in  an  extraordinary  degree  the  unpopularity  of  the 
Armagnacs,  and  the  Parisians  took  a  very  active  part  in  the  revolt 
against  their  party,  great  numbers  of  whom  were  put  into  confinement. 
In  June  1418,  the  prisons  were  broken  open,  and  all  immured  there  were 
slain  one  by  one  as  they  came  out.  The  Count  of  Armagnac,  father-in- 
law  of  the  dauphin,  the  chancellor,  seven  prelates,  with  peers  and 
magistrates  of  the  parliament,  were  dragged  from  their  dungeons  and 


316 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


massacred.  In  one  prison  some  resistance  was  made;  but  the  edifice 
being  at  last  set  on  fire,  the  inmates  surrendered  ;  and  the  populace 
rushing  in,  compelled  them  to  precipitate  themselves  out  of  the  windows 
upon  pikes  held  below.  Three  thousand  five  hundred  persons  are 
stated  to  have  perished  in  three  days. 

The  cruelty  of  the  Burgundians  was  not  atoned  for  by  any  valour  or 
activity  in  their  party,  whose  unpopularity  was  farther  increased  by  the 
conclusion  of  a  treaty  with  the  English.  Circumstances,  however, 
occurred  that  induced  the  duke  to  seek  a  reconciliation  with  the  dauphin, 
for  which  purpose  a  meeting  was  appointed  to  take  place  at  the  bridge 
of  Montereau,  on  the  Yonne,  where  he  was  assassinated  by  the  attend¬ 
ants  of  the  prince.  The  latter,  though  probably  innocent  of  this 
treacherous  act,  was  abandoned  by  the  majority  of  the  nation,  and  expe¬ 
rienced  a  new  enemy  in  Philip  the  Good,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  vast 
possessions  of  his  father.  The  young  duke,  forming  an  alliance  with 
Isabella  of  Bavaria  and  the  king  of  England,  procured  Henry’s  signature 
to  the  treaty  of  Troyes,  1420,  by  which,  on  the  marriage  of  the  latter 
with  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  he  was  to  be  declared  regent 
of  the  kingdom,  and  to  succeed  to  the  throne  on  that  monarch’s  death, 
in  despite  of  the  claims  of  the  dauphin.  In  the  midst  of  his  glory,  and 
when  his  expectations  of  conquering  all  France  were  highest,  Henry  V. 
died  at  the  castle  of  Vincennes  in  1422 ;  and  the  same  year  beheld  the 
close  of  the  unfortunate  reign  of  Charles  in  circumstances  of  great 
depression. 

Charles  VII.  was  crowned  at  Poitiers,  where  he  organized  a  parlia¬ 
ment  and  university  from  among  the  members  of  those  bodies  who  had 
left  Paris  when  the  English  entered  it  in  triumph.  Amused  by  the  little 
court  he  had  assembled  round  him,  he  forgot  the  loss  of  his  provinces 
amid  balls  and  gayeties,  which  soon  exhausted  his  scanty  treasury. 
During  these  festivities,  the  Duke  of  Brittany  declared  for  the  English, 
and  notwithstanding  the  victory  of  Marshal  la  Fayette  at  Bauge,  in 
1421,  the  Scottish  auxiliary  troops  in  the  service  of  Charles  were  de¬ 
feated  at  Crevant,  and  again  at  Verneuil,  1424;  the  city  of  Orleans, 
which  defended  the  passage  of  the  Loire,  was  already  closely  invested, 
and  the  king  proposed  to  retire  into  the  southern  provinces,  when  several 
unexpected  events  turned  the  current  of  affairs.* 

Joan  of  Arc. — On  the  death  of  Henry  V.  of  England,  the  Dukes  of 
Bedford  and  Gloucester  had  been  appointed  guardians  of  his  son,  Henry 
VI. ;  the  former  to  have  the  regency  of  France,  the  latter  that  of  Eng¬ 
land.  At  this  epoch  there  appeared  one  of  the  most  remarkable  enthu¬ 
siasts  that  history  has  commemorated.  Joan  of  Arc,  a  village  girl  of 
Domremy  in  Lorraine,  was  the  daughter  of  poor  and  industrious  parents. 
Her  early  years  had  been  employed  in  tending  cattle,  and  the  solitude 
in  which  much  of  her  time  was  passed  seems  to  have  fostered  a  disposi¬ 
tion  naturally  religious  and  enthusiastic.  The  degradation  of  her  coun¬ 
try  had  so  deeply  impressed  her  mind,  that  she  was  persuaded  heaven 
had  commissioned  her  to  effect  its  deliverance.  Encouraged,  as  she 

*Few  states  have  ever  been  in  a  more  wretched  condition  than  France  at  this  period. 
To  the  north  of  the  Loire  the  country  appeared  to  be  one  vast  scene  of  desolation, — 
theft  and  open  robbery  being  the  chief  occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  Charles  waa 
acknowledged  king  only  by  the  central  provinces,  and  by  Languedoc,  Poitou,  antf 
Dauphiny. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


317 


fondly  imagined,  by  angelic  voices,  she  determined  to  declare  to  the 
king  her  mission;  and  though  she  met  with  great  opposition,  at  length 
appeared  before  Charles,  who  at  first  treated  her  as  a  visionary.  Per¬ 
sisting,  however,  in  her  declaration  that  she  was  delegated  by  Cathe¬ 
rine,  her  patron  saint,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  to  crown  her 
native  monarch  in  Rheims,  at  that  time  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  she 
obtained  a  party  of  troops  for  the  relief  of  the  besieged  town,  1428. 
With  the  veteran  Dunois  at  her  side,  she  succeeded  in  making  her  way 
into  the  city,  when  the  assailants  retired,  a  prey  to  superstitious  terrors, 
not  less  strongly  felt  by  Talbot  and  Chandos  than  by  the  meanest  sol¬ 
diers  under  their  command.  In  the  course  of  the  next  year,  she  had 
the  gratification  of  seeing  her  sovereign  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  of 
Rheims.  She  was  soon  after  taken  prisoner  by  the  Burgundians,  while 
endeavouring  to  raise  the  siege  of  Compiegne;  and  John  of  Luxemburg 
surrendered  her  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford  for  a  large  sum  of  money. 
At  Rouen  she  was  burned  on  a  charge  of  witchcraft  in  1431,  it  having 
been  declared  that  the  defeats  of  the  English  “  were  caused  by  the  un¬ 
lawful  doubt  that  they  had  of  a  disciple  and  limb  of  the  fiend,  called 
the  Pucelle,  who  had  used  false  enchantments  and  sorcery.”* 

With  the  king  every  thing  now  appeared  to  prosper :  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy  entered  into  an  alliance  with  him ;  his  victorious’  troops  re¬ 
entered  Paris  in  1437 ;  and  if  a  few  other  places  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  English,  it  was  owing  entirely  to  the  discontent  of  the  dauphin, 
Louis,  and  some  turbulent  nobles.  A  brief  civil  war,  called  the  Pra- 
guerie ,  interrupted  for  a  season  the  triumphant  progress  of  his  arms ; 
and  in  1444,  a  suspension  of  hostilities,  concluded  at  Tours,  left  several 
towns  in  possession  of  the  enemy  for  a  brief  period.  Charles  took 
advantage  of  this  interval  of  repose  to  re-organize  his  army,  and  to 
negotiate  the  marriage  of  Margaret  of  Anjou  with  Henry  VI., — a  union 
unfavourable  to  England,  as  it  caused  both  the  loss  of  the  French  pro¬ 
vinces  and  civil  wTars  that  lasted  half  a  century.  The  queen  brought 
no  dowry  to  her  husband,  who,  although  crowned  in  his  infancy  King 
of  France  and  England,  was  fated  to  expire  dethroned.  The  Duke  of 
Suffolk,  who  had  risen  to  high  rank  by  the  favour  of  the  king,  found  it 
necessary  to  make  peace  with  France,  and  even  renounced,  in  his  mas¬ 
ter’s  name,  all  title  to  Maine  and  Anjou.  As  he  did  not  venture  to  make 
a  public  avowal  of  these  shameful  transactions,  he  still  maintained  gar¬ 
risons  in  the  two  provinces ;  but  Charles,  who  did  not  understand  the 
policy  of  Suffolk,  renewed  hostilities  in  1448.  Dunois  conquered  all 
Normandy;  while  Richemont  destroyed  at  Formigny  the  only  English 
army  that  could  arrest  his  progress.  The  taking  of  Rouen,  Cherbourg, 
and  Harfleur,  in  1450,  and,  next  year,  of  Bayonne  and  Bordeaux,  left 
Calais  alone  in  the  hands  of  Henry  VI.  Thus  France  became  suddenly 

*  If  the  cruel  fate  of  Joan  of  Arc  be  a  stain  on  the  glory  of  England,  what  can  be  said 
of  Charles  VII.  and  his  friends,  who  abandoned  her  to  languish  in  captivity,  and  to 
perish  at  the  stake?  No  ransom  was  offered  for  her,  no  attempt  made  to  alleviate  the 
rigour  of  her  confinement,  no  notice  was  taken  of  her  execution.  An  ingenious  writer 
in  the  Monthly  Magazine  has  recently  endeavoured  to  prove  that  she  did  not  suffer 
execution,  and  that  she  was  afterwards  received  at  Orleans  with  due  honours ;  that  she 
was  acknowledged  by  her  brothers  Jean  and  Pierre,  and  afterwards  married  to  a  gentle¬ 
man  of  the  house  of  Ambois,  in  1436  ;  and  that,  on  their  solicitation,  her  sentence  was 
annulled  in  1456.  The  curious  in  such  matters  are  referred  to  the  work  of  M.  Palluche, 
Problems  Hist,  sur  la  Pucelle  d' Orleans,  or  to  the  last  volume  of  the  Histoire  de  Jeanne 
d'jlrc,  surnommee  la  Pucelle ,  by  Lebrun  de  Charmettes,  4  vols.  Paris,  1817. 

27* 


318 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


freed  from  her  foreign  enemies.  Charles  recompensed  the  faithful  in¬ 
struments  of  his  success  ;  and  a  profound  peace,  with  a  paternal  govern¬ 
ment  and  wise  legislation,  promised  to  heal  the  wounds  of  the  country, 
when  the  king  found  his  life  endangered  by  the  wickedness  of  his  son, 
which  in  some  degree  accelerated  his  death  in  1461. 

Charles  VII.  was  a  good  king,  but,  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  life,  appears  to 
have  been  of  an  easy  disposition,  so  that  it  was  remarked  of  him,  that  no  one 
could  lose  a  kingdom  with  greater  gayety.  But  when  the  tide  of  affairs  turned, 
and  success  followed  the  enthusiastic  appearance  of  Joan  of  Arc,  he  equalled 
his  greatest  captains  in  activity  and  courage.  It  was  he  who  first  provided  for 
the  security  of  the  throne  and  kingdom  by  a  standing  army,  and  by  his  vigour 
asserted  the  supremacy  of  the  law.  The  bastard  of  Bourbon,  condemned  to 
death,  was  put  into  a  sack  and  thrown  into  the  river.  The  Duke  of  Alengon, 
accused  of  corresponding  with  the  English,  was  sentenced  to  die  ;  and  though 
the  extreme  penalty  was  remitted  in  consequence  of  his  royal  blood,  he  was 
confined  in  the  castle  of  Loches,  near  Tours.  Charles  endeavoured  to  assimilate 
the  customs  of  the  different  provinces  ;  and  the  celebrated  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
long  the  bulwark  of  the  Gallican  church,  was  his  work. 

Louis  XI.,  1461. — The  reign  of  this  monarch  was  one  continued  strucr- 
gle  against  the  great  vassals.  He  had  scarcely  ascended  the  throne 
before  he  displaced  all  his  father’s  ministers,  and  restored  those  who 
had  been  disgraced.  The  result  of  these  measures  tending  to  repress 
the  nobility,  was  the  formation  of  a  league  “  for  the  public  good,”  at  the 
head  of  which  was  placed  Charles,  duke  of  Berri,  a  youth  not  more  than 
sixteen,  1464.  The  battle  of  Montlheri,  fought  the  next  year,  was  inde¬ 
cisive;  but  as  Paris  remained  faithful,  the  king’s  power  was  unshaken. 
He  thought  it  prudent,  however,  to  come  to  terms  with  his  antagonists ; 
and  the  treaties  of  Conflans  and  Saint  Maur  were  concluded.  The  con¬ 
ditions  were  fulfilled  by  neither  party  ;  in  fact,  Louis  never  intended  to 
observe  them,  wishing  merely  to  gain  time  for  sowing  dissension  among  „ 
the  confederate  princes.  Misunderstandings  between  the  Duke  of  Brit¬ 
tany  and  the  new  ruler  of  Normandy  soon  furnished  the  desired  oppor¬ 
tunity  ;  and  Monsieur  (for  so  the  king’s  brother  began  to  be  called)  lost 
his  government  within  a  few  weeks  of  his  investiture,  1465. 

Charles  the  Bold.  —  A  more  formidable  danger  threatened  Louis 
when  the  dukedom  of  Burgundy  fell  to  Charles,  count  of  Charolais,  on 
the  death  of  his  father  Philip  the  Good  in  1467.  The  French  king  was 
marching  against  the  Duke  of  Brittany,  who  persisted  in  holding  certain 
towns  in  Normandy,  which  had  been  declared  by  the  assembly  at  Tours 
to  be  a  fief  inseparable  from  the  crown,  when  Charles  hastened  from  his 
residence  in  Brussels  to  the  support  of  his  ally.  On  reaching  the 
Somme,  he  learnt  that  negotiations  had  been  commenced,  and  that  his 
imposing  force  would  be  compelled  to  remain  inactive.  While  he  was 
waiting  for  the  arrangement  of  affairs,  Louis  roused  a  formidable  enemy 
in  his  states,  which  compelled  him  to  retire.  The  bishopric  of  Liege, 
containing  twenty-six  towns,  yielded  reluctant  obedience  to  a  prelate 
nominated  by  the  duke;  for,  although  it  was  situated  in  the  Low  Coun¬ 
tries,  it  was  a  fief  of  the  empire.  Louis,  by  his  emissaries,  excited  the 
people  to  revolt,  at  the  same  time  that  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  meet 
Charles  at  Peronne,  in  1468.  To  this  place  the  king  resorted  with  few 
attendants;  and  when  the  news  of  the  insurrection  at  Liege,  with  the 
murder  of  the  bishop,  reached  the  duke,  he  kept  Louis  a  prisoner  until 
he  signed  a  treaty  confirming  those  of  Arras  and  Conflans.  After  a  des- 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


319 


perate  resistance,  the  insurgents  were  compelled  to  submit.  Their  town 
was  carried  by  assault;  the  inhabitants  were  drowned  or  massacred 
without  distinction  of  person  or  sex ;  and  the  city  itself  was  burnt  to  the 
ground. 

The  destruction  of  Liege  and  the  abolition  of  the  privileges  of  Ghent, 
allowed  Charles  to  turn  his  views  abroad.  At  this  period  new  commo¬ 
tions  were  taking  place  in  England,  in  which  the  King  of  France  and 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  interposed, — Louis  favouring  Lancaster,  as  the 
French  party ;  while  Charles,  married  to  the  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  sup¬ 
ported  the  Yorkists.  The  objects  of  the  ambitious  duke  were  twofold: 
he  wished  to  re-establish  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  by  re-unit¬ 
ing  to  his  present  dominions  the  states  of  Lorraine,  Provence,  Dauphiny, 
and  Switzerland  ;  and,  secondly,  he  aimed,  in  concert- with  the  English, 
at  the  dismemberment  of  France  and  the  conquest  of  Champagne  and 
Nivernois. 

Charles  entered  Lorraine  with  40,000  men,  and,  having  reduced  it, 
turned  his  arms  against  the  Swiss,  1476.  His  valiant  cavalry  were 
defeated  at  Granson,  and  at  Morat,  by  a  half-disciplined  army  of  pea¬ 
sants.  Before  he  had  recovered  from  these  reverses,  Rene  of  Vaude- 
mont  reconquered  Lorraine ;  and  the  duke  was  roused  from  the  melan¬ 
choly  state  into  which  he  had  fallen,  to  attempt  its  reduction  anew. 
With  all  the  forces  he  could  muster  he  hastened  to  besiege  Nancy,  leav¬ 
ing  an  Italian,  named  Campo-Basso,  to  direct  the  operations;  and  this 
traitor  having  deserted  wuth  a  portion  of  the  troops  under  his  command, 
Charles  was  forced  to  give  battle  wuth  scarcely  4000  men.  On  the  5th 
January  1477,  during  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  the  duke  began  the  engage¬ 
ment  ;  his  small  army  wTas  soon  overw helmed  by  numbers,  and  he  him¬ 
self  fell,  after  having  performed  prodigies  of  valour.  “  Thus  perished,” 
says  Duclos,  “  at  the  age  of  forty-four  years,  Charles,  last  duke  of  Bur¬ 
gundy,  who  had  no  virtues  but  those  of  a  soldier.  He  was  ambitious, 
daring,  and  rash,  the  enemy  of  peace,  and  always  thirsting  for  blood. 
He  ruined  his  house  by  his  foolish  enterprises,  caused  the  misery  of  his 
subjects,  and  merited  his  misfortunes.” 

Louis  immediately  seized  on  the  towns  along  the  Somme,  on  Bur¬ 
gundy  as  a  male  fief  (for  Charles  had  left  only  a  daughter,  Mary),  and 
on  Besanpon,  altogether  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  late  duke’s  territories. 
Flanders  and  Artois  having  declared  in  favour  of  the  princess,  the  king 
proceeded  against  them,  when  the  youthful  heiress  wTas  subjected  to  the 
insolence  of  the  revolted  burghers  of  Ghent,  w7ho  washed  her  to  marry 
Adolphus  of  Gueldres,  an  object  of  universal  execration.  But  this  per¬ 
son  dying  in  battle,  Mary,  to  shield  herself  from  further  persecution, 
united  herself,  in  1477,  to  Maximilian,  son  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  III., 
and  hence  commenced  the  rivalry  of  the  houses  of  France  and  Austria. 
Louis,  on  discovering  the  error  he  had  committed  in  allowing  her  to 
espouse  a  foreigner,  marched  into  Flanders,  and,  after  a  temporary  ad¬ 
vantage,  was  defeated  at  Guinegate.  Negotiations,  truces,  and  intrigues 
followed,  interrupted  only  by  the  death  of  the  archduchess,  who  left  two 
children;  Philip,  wrhose  marriage  with  Joanna  of  Castile  gave  Spain  to 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  a  princess  named  Margaret.  Maximilian  lost 
all  by  the  death  of  his  wife;  and  the  citizens  of  Ghent,  assuming  the 
guardianship  of  her  children,  forced  the  archduke  to  make  peace  with 
Louis.  By  the  treaty  of  Arras,  in  1482,  it  was  stipulated  that  Margaret 


320 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


and  the  dauphin  should  be  united  in  marriage,  and  receive  for  dowry  the 
provinces  of  Franche-Comte  and  Artois. 

The  demise  of  Louis  was  now  fast  approaching.  Frequent  attacks 
of  apoplexy  gave  him  those  salutary  warnings  which  his  physicians 
hesitated  to  offer,  and  he  retired  to  his  favourite  castle  of  Plessis  near 
Tours,  where  he  expired  in  August  1483,  at  the  age  of  sixty,  leaving  by 
testament  the  guardianship  of  his  heir,  Charles  VIII.,  to  his  eldest 
daughter,  the  princess  Anne. 

The  character  of  Louis  XI.  was  an  extraordinary  compound,  and  his  reign, 
though  in  some  respects  odious,  was  beneficial  to  the  interests  of  France.  He 
completed  the  ruin  of  the  great  feudatories  by  annexing  ten  provinces  to  the 
crown :  Roussillon  and  Cerdagne  in  1462 ;  Guienne,  1472 ;  Picardy  and  Bur¬ 
gundy,  1477 ;  Provence,  Maine,  Anjou,  1481 ;  Perche,  Artois,  Franche- 
Comte,  1482.  He  established  monarchical  power  in  the  east  and  south  of 
France,  by  instituting  three  parliaments, — at  Grenoble,  1451 ;  Bordeaux,  1462; 
and  Dijon,  1477  ;  which  also  served  to  limit  the  jurisdiction  of  the  nobles.  He 
repressed  their  license  in  the  person  of  the  Count  of  Armagnac  and  of  the  Sieur 
d’Albret,  1473;  of  the  constable  Saint  Pol,  1475;  of  the  Duke  of  Alen§on, 
1476  ;  and  of  the  Duke  of  Nemours,  1477.  But  he  associated  with  persons  of 
low  birth,  such  as  Oliver  Daim,  his  barber,  whom  he  created  Count  of  Meulan  ; 
he  visited  the  citizens  of  Paris,  inquired  into  their  private  affairs,  and  frequently 
admitted  them  to  his  table.  He  was  superstitious  to  an  extreme  degree ;  care¬ 
less  of  his  most  solemn  promises,  unless  made  by  the  cross  of  Saint  Lo.  His 
mind  was  cultivated  by  study  ;  and  two  works  have  been  attributed  to  him,  le 
Rosier  des  Guerres,  and  a  collection  of  tales.  He  founded  the  universities  of 
Valence  and  Bourges,  and  transported  that  of  Dole  to  Besan9on.  By  him  also 
the  newly  discovered  art  of  printing  was  protected,  the  study  of  medicine 
encouraged,*  and  commerce  increased  by  the  establishment  of  several  new 
fairs  and  markets.  One  of  the  most  useful  institutions  of  this  reign  was  that 
of  posts,  which  originally  served  for  the  conveyance  of  the  correspondence  of 
the  king  with  the  papal  court;  and  in  1481,  they  were  extended  to  private 
individuals. 

Charles  VIII.  was  only  thirteen  years  of  age  when  he  ascended  the 
throne  in  1483,  under  the  regency  of  his  sister,  who  united  all  the  graces 
of  her  sex  with  a  masculine  disposition  of  mind.  Her  first  antagonists 
were  two  pretenders  to  the  guardianship  of  the  young  king;  Louis,  duke 
of  Orleans,  the  presumptive  heir,  and  John  of  Bourbon,  elder  brother  of 
her  husband  the  Lord  of  Beaujeu.  To  decide  upon  their  claims  the 
states-general  were  assembled  at  Tours,  when  the  administration  of  the 
late  monarch  was  bitterly  condemned,  and  the  recall  of  most  of  his  edicts 
loudly  demanded.  Still  the  government  of  the  kingdom  was  secured  to 
Anne,  and  Orleans  nominated  president  of  the  king’s  council.  This 
arrangement  was  far  from  satisfying  the  inordinate  wishes  of  the  duke, 
who,  finding  his  complaints  neglected,  raised  an  army  of  20,000  men. 
and  threatened  the  regent.  She  was  not,  however,  discouraged,  but  by 
her  activity  captured  the  several  leaders  in  their  fortresses,  and  termi¬ 
nated  the  war,  almost  without  a  battle,  1485.  Maximilian,  who  had 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  insurgents,  still  continued  his  attacks,  and 
was  only  prevented  from  maintaining  his  conquests  by  his  inability  to 
pay  his  troops,  who  were  accordingly  disbanded.  The  duke  himself 
not  long  afterwards  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner;  while  Francis  of 
Brittany  was  so  humiliated  by  the  terms  of  peace  forced  upon  him  that 


*  In  this  reign  the  operation  of  Jithotomy  was  first  tried  with  success  on  the  body  of 
a  criminal  condemned  to  die. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


321 


he  died  a  few  days  after  signing  the  treaty.  His  daughter  Anne,  only 
fourteen  years  of  age,  inherited  the  duchy,  which,  by  her  politic  mar¬ 
riage  with  Charles,  was  annexed  to  the  French  crown  in  1491  ;  and  thus, 
of  all  the  great  feudatories  who  had  so  disturbed  the  kingdom,  there 
remained  only  the  Count  of  Flanders,  now  become  Archduke  of  Austria. 

Italian  War. — The  crown  of  France  had  inherited  the  rights  of  the 
house  of  Anjou  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  and  the  greatest  desire  of 
Charles,  during  the  tranquillity  of  his  kingdom,  was  to  assert  them  by 
arms,  and  expel  the  family  of  Aragon.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four,  igno¬ 
rant  of  the  military  art,  without  money  or  skilful  generals,  he  set  out 
from  Grenoble,  in  August  1494,  at  the  head  of  6000  French  infantry,  as 
many  Swiss,  5000  cavalry,  and  140  pieces  of  cannon.  The  march  of 
this  small  army  spread  everywhere  the  greatest  terror.  The  Italians 
were  especially  astonished  to  see  the  artillery,  for  they  themselves  had 
nothing  hut  small  brass  culverins.  Charles  traversed  their  country  with¬ 
out  opposition;  the  gates  of  Florence  and  Rome  were  opened  at  his 
approach;  and  Naples  submitted,  the  new7  king  Ferdinand  II.  having 
retired  to  the  island  o,’  Ischia.  The  French  monarch  next  conceived  the 
chimerical  design  of  passing  into  Greece,  and  attempting  the  conquest 
of  the  Empire  of  the  East,  in  right  of  the  cession  made  by  Andrew1 
Palaeologus,  nephew7  of  Constantine  XII.,  the  last  emperor  of  the  Greeks. 
This  brilliant  project  was  soon  dissipated  by  a  coalition  formed  against 
him  in  most  of  the  Italian  principalities,  and  particularly  by  the  alliance 
of  Ludovico  Sforza  of  Milan,  of  the  Venetians,  and  of  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  w7ith  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  and  Maximilian.  Leaving  half  of  his 
forces  to  garrison  Naples,  the  French  king  retired  towards  his  own  fron¬ 
tiers,  encountering  no  obstacle  until  he  reached  Fornovo  in  Parma,  where 
a  numerous  body  of  Venetians  opposed  his  further  progress.  A  decisive 
victory  crowned  the  arms  of  Charles,  who  lost  only  200  men,  w7hile 
4000  of  the  enemy  were  left  on  the  field  ;  and  meeting  no  farther  oppo¬ 
sition,  he  arrived  safely  at  Lyons.  The  troops  left  at  Naples  were  soon 
compelled  to  capitulate,  and  Ferdinand  II.  was  restored  to  his  throne. 
Death  surprised  the  conqueror  in  his  preparations  for  a  second  expedi¬ 
tion  ;  and  being  childless,  he  was  succeeded,  in  1498,  by  Louis  of  Or¬ 
leans,  heir  of  the  collateral  branch  of  the  house  of  Valois,  which  was 
derived  from  Louis,  second  son  of  Charles  V. 

BRITAIN. 

House  of  Lancaster. — Henry  IV.,  1399,  first  king  of  the  house  ot 
Lancaster,  was  not  the  legitimate  heir  to  the  English  crown  in  default 
of  the  direct  branch  of  the  Plantagenets,  which  became  extinct  in  the 
person  of  Richard  II.  He  was  descended  from  the  third  son  of  Edward 
III.,  and  his  claims  to  the  throne  were  consequently  inferior  to  those  of 
the  sons  of  the  Duke  of  York,  second  son  of  the  same  monarch.  But 
as  Henry  alone  had  given  birth  to  the  revolution,  he  determined  that 
none  but  himself  should  profit  by  it.  His  position  was  not,  however, 
without  difficulty  between  the  partisans  of  the  late  king,  those  of  the 
house  of  York,  and  the  enemies  of  his  government;  so  that  his  whole 
reign  of  fourteen  years  was  employed  in  consolidating  his  usurpation ; 
in  punishing  the  revolts  of  many  of  the  nobles,  and  particularly  of  the 
powerful  Earl  of  Northumberland;  in  gaining  the  favour  of  the  clergy 


FIRST  BRANCH  OF  VALOIS. 


322 


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FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D.  323 

by  persecuting  the  W  ickliffites ;  and  in  securing  that  of  the  nation  by 
making  important  concessions  to  the  House  of  Commons. 

His  son,  Henry  V.,  1413,  reaped  the  fruits  of  his  father’s  prudence, 
and  was,  as  we  have  seen,  enabled  to  take  advantage  of  the  troubled 
state  of  France.  After  showing  from  the  first  days  of  his  reign  a 
moderation  that  was  not  to  be  expected  in  one  whose  youth  had  been  so 
disorderly,  he  summoned  the  French  king  to  fulfil  the  treaty  of  Bretigny. 
On  his  refusal,  the  young  monarch  called  a  parliament  at  Leicester,  1415, 
to  which  he  declared  his  intention  of  recovering  his  inheritance  by  force. 
On  the  14th  August,  he  landed  near  Harfleur  with  6000  men  at  arms, 
and  24,000  archers.  The  town  and  garrison  were  soon  compelled  to 
surrender ;  but  dysentery  attacked  his  troops,  which  were  in  consequence 
forced  to  retire  upon  Calais,  through  the  hostile  provinces  of  Normandy, 
Picardy,  and  Artois.  When  they  had  arrived  near  Agincourt,  a  body 
of  100,000  men  w-as  discovered  ready  to  oppose  them.  A  dark  and 
rainy  night  depressed  the  spirits  of  the  English  soldiers,  who  were 
already  much  enfeebled  by  disease  and  want  of  food  ;  but  brighter  hopes 
revived  with  the  daw  n,  and  the  confidence  of  their  leader  was  shared  by 
the  whole  army.  “The  fewer  we  are,”  exclaimed  Henry,  “the  less 
w’ill  be  the  loss  to  our  country  if  we  fall,  and  the  greater  our  honour  if 
we  gain  the  victory.”  The  battle  wTas  begun  by  the  archers,  who  soon 
threw  the  French  into  inextricable  confusion,  and  then  their  lines  were 
successively  defeated.  The  loss  on  the  side  of  the  conquerors  amount¬ 
ed  to  1600  men,  with  the  Duke  of  York  and  the  Earl  of  Suffolk.  Of 
the  enemy,  there  perished  8000  knights  and  esquires,  more  than  100 
bannerets,  seven  counts,  and  the  dukes  of  Bar,  Alencon,  and  Brabant. 
The  number  of  prisoners  exceeded  that  of  the  whole  army  which  took 
them,  among  whom  Avere  the  Dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon,  and  the 
Counts  of  Eu,  Yendome,  and  Richemont.  This  finished  the  campaign, 
and  when  Henry  returned,  he  w^as  conducted  from  Dover  to  London  in 
one  continued  triumph. 

In  the  succeeding  spring,  he  resumed  operations  in  France.  Cher¬ 
bourg  opened  its  gates  to  him  after  a  siege  of  six  months ;  Rouen  made 
a  desperate  resistance  for  a  period  nearly  equal,  during  which  the  in¬ 
habitants  were  compelled  to  eat  the  most  disgusting  food.  The  capitu¬ 
lation  of  this  city  in  1419  spread  consternation  throughout  France.  A 
treaty  was  soon  after  concluded  at  Troyes,  1420,  by  the  terms  of  which 
Henry  received  the  hand  of  the  Princess  Catherine,  was  appointed 
regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the  life  of  Charles,  and  w^as  to  succeed 
to  the  French  crown  at  his  death.  But  he  did  not  long  enjoy  the  ad¬ 
vantages  of  this  treaty ;  an  inveterate  disease  carried  him  off  on  the 
31st  August,  1422.  in  the  same  year  with  his  father-in-law.  Henry 
was  equally  celebrated  as  a  statesman  and  a  warrior, —  as  able  to  take 
advantage  of  a  victory  as  to  achieve  it.  The  ordinary  crowm-revenue 
in  his  time  amounted  to  about  £56,000,  and  the  usual  outlay  to  £53,000. 

Henry  VI.,  who  was  only  nine  months  old  at  the  death  of  his  father, 
was  immediately  proclaimed  in  London  and  Paris ;  while  the  govern¬ 
ment  was  carried  on  in  France  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  and  at  home 
by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  The  flames  of  war  were  soon  rekindled  on 
the  Continent,  and  at  Crevant,  on  the  banks  of  the  Yonne,  the  united 
French  and  Scots  were  defeated,  and  their  respective  commanders  taken 
prisoners.  Shortly  after  the  breaking  up  of  the  confederacy  between 


324 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


Charles  and  his  allies,  and  the  restoration  of  King  James  I.  of  Scotland 
to  liberty,  the  battle  of  Yerneuil  was  fought,  1424,  in  which  the  Eng¬ 
lish  were  again  successful.  But  the  affairs  of  Henry  in  France  now 
took  an  unfavourable  turn.  Gloucester,  by  marrying  Jacqueline  of 
Bavaria,  forfeited  the  alliance  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  the  Duke 
of  Brittany  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  English  party.  At  length, 
the  Earl  of  Salisbury  crossed  the  Loire  and  laid  siege  to  Orleans,  during 
the  protracted  blockade  of  which,  Sir  John  Falstaff,  at  the  head  of  1500 
men,  routed  a  body  of  5000  cavalry,  under  the  Earl  of  Clermont,  who 
attacked  him  at  Rouvrai.  The  garrison  was  driven  to  despair,  and  on 
the  point  of  surrendering,  when  the  extraordinary  appearance  of  Joan 
of  Arc  completely  changed  the  scene.  She  performed  prodigies  of 
valour;  but,  falling  eventually  into  the  hands  of  her  enemies,  was  burnt 
at  the  stake  in  the  city  of  Rouen,  1431.  Michelet  observes,  that  while 
this  proceeding  was  disgraceful  to  the  English,  it  was  still  more  so  to 
the  French  clergy,  who,  becoming  the  creatures  of  the  foreigner,  show¬ 
ed  the  most  ferocious  dislike  to  the  heroine  who  had  rescued  her  coun¬ 
try  from  bondage.  In  1435,  the  congress  of  Arras  reconciled  the  great 
vassals  of  France  with  their  sovereign,  and  before  the  close  of  the  same 
year  the  Duke  of  Bedford  died.  His  successor,  the  Duke  of  York, 
showed  neither  the  same  talents  nor  activity ;  and  the  quarrels  which 
broke  out  between  Gloucester  and  the  Cardinal  of  Winchester,  prevent¬ 
ed  England  from  adopting  vigorous  measures. 

In  each  successive  campaign,  the  English  were  expelled  from  some 
town  of  France  by  Dunois  or  Richemont.  The  victor  of  Agincourt  was 
ill  replaced  by  the  youthful  Henry,  whose  gentleness  rendered  him  the 
more  unsuited  to  the  turbulent  period  in  which  he  lived.  While  the 
annual  revenue  of  the  crown  had  fallen  to  nearly  425000,  several  families 
had  acquired  princely  fortunes  by  marriages  and  inheritance.  The  Earl 
of  Warwick,  the  last  and  most  illustrious  example  of  feudal  hospitality, 
supported  regularly  on  his  estates  about  thirty  thousand  individuals  $ 
while  his  immense  fortune  was  maintained  by  all  the  talents  which  the 
head  of  a  party  required.  His  intrepidity  was  a  stranger  to  the  chival¬ 
rous  point  of  honour;  for  although  he  had  not  hesitated  to  attack  a  fleet 
double  the  strength  of  his  own,  he  often  fled  when  he  saw  his  troops 
waver  before  the  enemy.  It  was  observed,  too,  that  although  severe 
toward  the  nobles,  he  spared  the  lives  of  his  men  in  battle. 

The  court,  too  weak  to  withstand  such  men  as  Warwick,  seemed  to 
take  a  pleasure  in  aggravating  the  discontents  of  the  people.  As  early 
as  1430,  a  law  had  been  passed,  depriving  of  the  elective  franchise  all 
freeholders  below  forty  shillings;  and,  in  1445,  Henry’s  marriage  with 
the  Princess  Margaret,  together  with  the  cession  of  Maine  and  Anjou, 
rendered  him  still  more  unpopular.  Scarcely  two  years  after  this  event, 
the  good  Duke  of  Gloucester  was  found  dead  in  his  bed  ;  and,  in  1451, 
Calais  was  the  only  town  in  France  which  the  English  were  able  to 
retain.  The  favourite,  Suffolk,  lost  his  life  at  the  hands  of  the  offended 
people,  for  the  supposed  share  he  had  in  these  reverses.  At  the  same 
time,  a  formidable  rising  took  place  in  Kent,  under  the  management  of 
Cade,  and  London  itself  fell  into  the  power  of  the  insurgents,  though  in 
a  few  days  they  all  returned  to  their  homes.  The  rebel  displayed  his 
banner  a  second  time,  but  not  with  the  same  good  fortune ;  he  was  pur¬ 
sued  and  slain  at  Lewes. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


325 


Wars  of  the  Roses. — In  1452,  Richard,  duke  of  York,  openly  pro¬ 
claimed  his  designs  on  the  throne,  and  appeared  in  arms  to  enforce  them, 
though  each  side  hesitated  to  strike  the  first  blow.  However,  in  1454, 
when  Henry  VI.  was  attacked  by  a  mental  disease  which  rendered  him 
incapable  of  governing,  Richard,  being  recalled  to  the  council,  w^as 
named  Protector ;  but  on  the  king’s  recovery,  he  was  again  compelled 
to  quit  the  court.  He  then  put  himself  at  the  head  of  3000  men  in  the 
marshes  of  Wales,  being  aided  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  and  the  Earls 
of  Salisbury  and  Warwick.  The  kinof  advanced  against  him,  and  a 
battle  took  place  at  St.  Albans,  in  which  the  royalists  were  defeated. 
Henry  was  wounded,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  who 
treated  him  with  respect,  but  seized  anew  on  all  his  authority,  under  the 
former  title  of  Protector.  In  1460,  Queen  Margaret  undertook  to  defend 
a  second  time  the  rights  of  the  crown,  but  she  was  vanquished  by  War¬ 
wick  at  Northampton,  and  her  husband  again  became  a  prisoner. 
Richard  now  laid  before  the  peers  his  claims  to  the  throne,  which  they 
recognised  as  legitimate,  declaring,  that  as  Henry  had  already  wielded 
the  sceptre  thirty-eight  years,  he  should  preserve  it  until  his  death,  and 
that  in  the  mean  while  the  Duke  of  York,  being  acknowledged  heir, 
should  administer  the  government  of  the  country.  Margaret,  in  behalf 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  refused  to  ratify  this  act,  supporting  her  refusal 
with  an  army  of  20,000  men.  Richard,  with  only  5000  followers,  im¬ 
prudently  hazarded  a  battle,  in  which  he  was  defeated  and  killed  at 
Wakefield,  1460.  After  this  important  victory,  the  queen  divided  her 
forces,  and  sent  part  under  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  against  Edward,  earl 
of  March,  the  eldest  sen  of  York.  This  young  prince  triumphed  over 
his  adversaries  at  Mortimer’s  Cross,  killing  about  4000  of  their  troops. 
Owen  Tudor,  Pembroke’s  father,  and  who  had  married  Catherine,  widow 
of  Henry  V.,  was  taken  prisoner,  and.  with  seven  other  chiefs,  beheaded 
at  Hereford.  This  barbarous  practice,  which  became  customary  on  both 
sides,  consecrated  private  revenge  under  the  name  of  just  retaliation. 

The  struggle  was  now  almost  at  an  end,  and  although  Maro-aret  was 
victorious  at  St.  Albans,  she  was  compelled  to  retire  towards  the  north, 
while  York  was  proclaimed  king  at  London,  under  the  title  of  Edward 
IV.,  4th  March  1461.* 

Edward  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne  before  he  was  compelled 
to  march  against  the  Lancastrians,  whom  he  defeated  near  Towton,  with 
immense  loss,  quarters  being  refused  on  both  sides.  As  soon  as  these 
pressing  dangers  were  removed,  the  king  in  council  announced  his  pri¬ 
vate  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  the  widow  of  Sir  John  Grey,  a  beautiful 
woman,  daughter  of  Jacquetta  of  Luxemburg,  duchess  of  Bedford,  by 
her  second  marriage  with  Sir  Richard  Woodville.  The  queen’s  rela¬ 
tions  and  friends  soon  obtained  the  principal  offices  about  the  court,  and 
Warwick,  who  had  been  the  chief  means  of  placing  Edward  on  the 


*  It  has  been  observed  that  usually  the  weakening  of  the  regal  power  and  great  poli¬ 
tical  troubles  in  a  state  are  accompanied  with  financial  difficulties.  This  remark  applies 
especially  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  The  hereditary  revenues  of  the  crown  had  long 
been  decreasing;  but  under  this  monarch  they  diminished  still  more  rapidly,  owing  to 
the  enormous  expenses  of  the  French  wars  and  the  personal  extravagance  of  the  king. 
In  1429,  the  money  absorbed  annually  by  the  war  exceeded  the  revenue  by  nearly 
.£14,000  ;  and,  four  years  later,  there  was  an  annual  deficiency  of  £35,000  sterling, 
which,  with  the  debts  of  the  crown,  exceeded  £140.000.  Despite  of  the  measures  adopted 
to  remedy  this  state  of  affairs,  the  evil  still  augmented  ;  and  the  deficit  was  nearly 
tripled  before  the  end  of  Henry’s  reign. 

28 


326 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


throne,  fell  into  disgrace.  He  retired  to  France,  where  he  strengthened 
his  party  by  giving  his  daughter  Isabella  to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  the 
king’s  brother.  Both  soon  afterwards  returned  to  England,  which  they 
found  in  a  state  of  insurrection,  and  battles,  truces,  and  negotiations  fol¬ 
lowed  in  succession.  At  length,  in  1470,  Warwick,  sumamed  the  King¬ 
maker,  expelled  the  monarch  whom  he  had  created,  and  brought  Henry 
VI.  from  his  prison  to  be  reseated  on  his  throne  by  the  unanimous  voice 
}f  parliament,  —  a  body,  however,  which  at  this  time  seldom  failed  to 
respond  to  the  wishes  of  the  strongest  party. 

This  restoration  was  the  consequence  of  an  agreement  made  by  War¬ 
wick  at  the  court  of  Louis  XI.  with  Queen  Margaret,  whose  son  had 
been  married  to  one  of  the  earl’s  daughters.  The  conditions  were,  that 
if  the  Prince  of  Wales  died  without  issue,  Clarence  should  succeed ; 
Warwick  thus  securing  the  crown  in  his  own  family.  But  he  was  dis¬ 
appointed  in  his  schemes ;  for  Edward,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the 
Low  Countries,  returned,  and  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of  60,000 
men,  by  whose  aid  he  was  victorious  at  Barnet,  where  Warwick  and  all 
the  Lancastrian  chiefs,  except  Somerset  and  Oxford,  were  killed,  1471. 
On  the  very  day  of  this  disastrous  battle,  Margaret  and  heT  son  landed 
at  Weymouth  with  a  small  body  of  French  troops.  The  king  defeated 
them  at  Tewkesbury,  and  the  young  prince,  who  was  made  prisoner, 
was  stabbed  in  his  presence.  Henry  VI.  shortly  after  perished  in  the 
Tower,  and  the  Duke  of  Exeter  was  secretly  put  to  death,  his  body  being 
found  floating  between  Dover  and  Calais.  Some  years  afterwards,  Ed¬ 
ward  procured  a  decree  of  the  parliament,*  condemning  his  brother 
Clarence  to  death  for  high  treason.  A  report  was  circulated  that  he  had 
been  drowned  in  a  butt  of  Malmsey  wine. 

After  such  turbulent  scenes,  Edward  relapsed  into  his  former  volup¬ 
tuous  life,  from  which  he  was  aroused,  for  a  moment,  by  the  prospect  of 
a  great  conquest.  In  1475,  he  united  with  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  and 
Brittany  against  Louis  XI. ;  but  his  efforts  soon  terminated  in  the  treaty 
of  Pecquigny,  by  which  the  French  king  agreed  to  pay  75,000  crowns, 
with  an  annuity  of  50,000  more,  while  he  ransomed  Margaret  with  a 
noble  generosity.  In  1483,  Edward  IV.  expired,  leaving  behind  him 
the  character  of  an  accomplished  gentleman,  but  of  a  revengeful  and 
suspicious  king. 

Edward  V.,  then  in  his  twelfth  year,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester  being  made  protector.  The  queen-mother,  who  saw 
in  this  proceeding  the  ruin  of  her  family,  took  refuge  in  the  sanctuary 
of  Westminster.  By  persuasion  and  menace,  Gloucester  succeeded  in 
lodging  the  two  young  princes  in  the  Tower,  as  a  place  of  greater  secu¬ 
rity.  It  appears  also  to  have  been  customary  for  the  sovereigns  to  take 
up  their  residence  in  that  fortress  some  time  before  their  coronation. 
The  ambitious  duke  had  already  procured  the  execution  or  disgrace  of 

*The  independence  of  parliament  was  in  abeyance  during  the  civil  wars:  the  abso¬ 
lute  spirit  of  military  discipline  had  passed  into  the  government,  with  which  terror 
seemed  to  be  the  mainspring  of  action.  The  Lords  and  the  Commons  always  appeared 
ready  to  second  Edward’s  despotic  measures;  and  no  statute  wras  passed  during  his 
reign  for  the  redressing  of  grievances  or  the  maintenance  of  the  national  privileges.  In 
the  preceding  reign,  the  manner  of  elections  had  undergone  some  modifications.  Henry 
IV.,  to  win  popularity,  had  so  greatly  increased  the  number  of  voters,  that  the  elections 
were  become  a  source  of  danger  and  disturbance.  Henry  VI.,  or  rather  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  who  governed  in  his  name,  confined  the  elective  franchise,  in  counties,  to 
the  40s.  freeholders,  a  sum  not  less  than  £45  of  our  money. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


327 


those  whom  he  feared,  and  now,  by  the  most  unwarrantable  means, 
endeavoured  to  induce  the  citizens  of  London  to  name  him  king.  Al¬ 
though  they  did  not  respond  to  his  wishes  so  readily  as  he  might  have 
expected,  he  nevertheless  assumed  the  crown,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
brief  reign  of  Edward  V. 

Richard  III.  ascended  the  throne  June  26,  1483,  sealing  his  usurpa¬ 
tion  by  the  murder  of  his  nephews,  whose  liberation  their  friends  in 
London  were  already  meditating.*  The  news  of  this  crime  spread  hor¬ 
ror  among  all  parties,  and  the  adherents  of  the  young  princes  hied  their 
attention  on  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  heir  to  the  house  of  Lancaster. 
An  ill-timed  insurrection  in  his  behalf  drew  down  all  the  wrath  of  the 
usurper ;  but  the  latter  was  gradually  deserted  by  most  of  his  support¬ 
ers,  Catesby  and  others  of  a  similar  class  alone  remaining  faithful.  At 
length,  Richmond  landed  with  an  army  of  3000  Normans,  and  being 
generally  aided  by  the  English,  he  was  successful  at  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worth,  in  which  the  tyrant  fell,  after  a  reign  of  two  years,  marked  by  a 
succession  of  cruel  executions. 

Tudor  Line. — Henry  VII.,  1485,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  civil 
contest  that  for  more  than  half  a  century  had  deluged  England  with 
blood,  married  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  heiress  of  the  house  of  York. 
Nor  was  such  a  measure  unnecessary,  for  he  had  to  contend  against  the 
impostures  of  Lambert  Simnel,  whom,  after  some  trouble,  he  defeated 
at  Stoke  in  Nottinghamshire,  16th  June  1487. 1  The  king  took  ad¬ 
vantage  of  this  revolt  to  abolish  the  dangerous  and  illegal  practice  of 
“  maintenance,”  that  is,  the  association  of  individuals  under  a  chief, 
whose  livery  they  wore,  and  whose  cause  they  swore  to  defend.  Such 
leagues  gave  the  nobles  means  of  expeditiously  raising  troops,  and  of 
favouring  insurrection  or  usurpation.  The  preceding  parliament  had 
ordered  all  the  lords  to  swear  to  renounce  this  usage,  and  to  receive  no 
longer  into  their  service  men  publicly  known  as  vagabonds,  murderers, 
felons,  or  outlaws ;  and  in  that  held  in  1487,  it  was  further  enacted  that 
the  chancellor,  the  treasurer,  the  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  with  one  tem¬ 
poral  and  one  spiritual  peer,  and  the  judges  of  King’s  Bench  and  Com¬ 
mon  Pleas,  should  have  authority  to  call  before  them  persons  accused 
of  violating  this  law,  and  to  inflict  punishment  on  them.  Their  place 
of  meeting  was  a  chamber  decorated  with  stars,  and  hence  the  tribunal 
acquired  the  appellation  of  the  Star-chamber. 

About  this  time  Henry’s  attention  was  drawn  to  France,  where  Charles 
VIII.,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  had  succeeded  his  father  Louis  XI.  in  1483  ; 
and  although  the  affairs  of  Brittany  were  settled  without  the  aid  of  Eng¬ 
land,  he  nevertheless  landed  at  Calais  with  an  army  of  25,000  men  and 
1600  horse.  He  marched  to  Boulogne,  which  he  invested  ;  but  the  war 
was  soon  terminated  by  the  French  monarch  agreeing  to  pay  ^149,000 
sterling  to  the  invader,  as  an  equivalent  for  his  claims  on  Brittany.  The 


*  In  July  1674,  in  consequence  of  an  order  to  clear  the  White  Tower  from  the  adjoin¬ 
ing  buildings,  as  the  workmen  were  digging  down  the  stairs  which  led  from  the  king’s 
apartment  to  the  chapel,  they  found  the  bones  of  two  boys,  apparently  of  the  age  of  the 
two  princes,  viz.  thirteen  and  eleven  years;  which  were  consequently  deposited  in  the 
chapel  of  Henry  VII.  at  Westminster. 

t  Lord  Lovell  escaped  from  this  battle,  and  was  never  seen  afterwards.  About  the 
end  of  the  17th  century,  there  was  found  in  a  subterraneous  chamber  at  Lovell  Castle, 
Oxfordshire,  the  skeleton  of  a  man  sitting  in  a  chair.  It  has  been  supposed  that  his 
'ordship  had  concealed  himself  there,  and  perished  for  want  of  food. 


328 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


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FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


329 


king’s  repose  was  soon  after  troubled  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Duchess 
of  Burgundy,  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  and  whose  court  was  the  asylum  of 
all  the  disaffected.  Spreading  the  report  that  Richard  of  York  had  not 
perished  with  his  brother  in  the  Tower,  she  put  forward  Perkin  War- 
beck,  the  son  of  a  converted  Jew,  who  had  resided  many  years  in  Eng¬ 
land.  The  vulgar  were  easily  deceived  by  the  polished  manners  of  this 
adventurer,  and  by  the  elegance  of  his  language.  He  was  well  received 
in  Ireland,*  and  protected  by  the  kings  of  France  and  Scotland;  but 
several  partial  insurrections  terminated  his  designs,  and,  after  imprison¬ 
ment,  he  perished  on  the  scaffold,  1499.  In  the  same  year,  another 
insurrection  in  Warwickshire  broke  out,  when,  in  order  to  crush  entirely 
the  hopes  of  the  malcontents,  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  the  last  legitimate 
descendant  of  the  Plantagenets,  was  executed  by  Henry’s  order. 

Let  the  pupil  draw  up:  A  genealogical  table  of  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster. 

Scotland. — This  country  enjoyed  few  intervals  of  repose  from  that  anarchy 
to  which  it  had  been  very  long  subjected.  This  evil  originated  in  the  excessive 
power  of  the  nobles,  sovereigns  on  their  own  estates,  and  almost  always  at  war 
with  one  another  or  with  the  king,  who,  having  but  a  scanty  revenue  and  no  per¬ 
manent  forces,  exercised  at  the  best  a  very  precarious  authority.  Such  disorder 
was  most  prevalent  on  the  English  Border  and  in  the  Highlands,  two  great 
divisions  of  Scotland  which  were  yet  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  mountains  were  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  nation  by  their  man¬ 
ners,  dress,  and  language.  They  spoke,  as  many  still  speak  to  this  day,  a 
Celtic  dialect,  the  Gaelic,  unintelligible  to  the  Lowlanders,  whose  language 
differed  little  from  the  English.  They  were  divided  into  tribes  or  clans,  each 
denominated  after  some  ancient  chief  whom  his  followers  considered  as  their 
common  ancestor.  For  example,  the  MacDonalds  and  the  MacGregors  were 
esteemed  the  sons  of  Donald  and  of  Gregor.  Besides  their  almost  incessant 
struggles  one  with  another,  these  mountaineers  were  in  perpetual  hostility  with 
the  dwellers  in  the  plains,  whom  they  hated  as  Saxons  and  usurpers  of  the 
country  that  had  belonged  to  their  forefathers.  Many  Highland  chiefs  assumed 
the  privileges  of  independent  monarchs.  The  most  powerful  of  these  was  the 
Earl  of  Ross,  lord  of  the  Isles,  who  was  considered  the  absolute  sovereign  of 
the  Hebrides.  The  Borderers  were  no  less  turbulent  than  the  mountaineers, 
to  whom,  in  their  manners,  they  bore  a  great  resemblance.  They  were  divided 
into  clans  under  particular  chiefs,  lived  on  the  booty  plundered  from  England 
or  the  central  counties  of  Scotland,  and  trampled  under  foot  the  respect  due  to 
the  laws  and  regal  government.  Under  the  Stuarts,  in  despite  of  the  wise  laws 
enacted  by  parliament!  to  destroy  or  diminish  the  evil,  the  ambition  of  the 
Douglas  family,  dissensions  in  the  court,  and  numerous  minorities  of  the  crown, 
perpetuated  this  unsettled  condition. 

James  III.  of  Scotland,  1460,  was  not  less  zealous  than  his  two  im¬ 
mediate  predecessors  in  his  endeavours  to  diminish  the  power  of  the 
aristocracy;  but  instead  of  keeping  these  chiefs  around  him,  and  re¬ 
pressing  their  violence  by  firmness  of  character,  he  drove  them  from  his 
presence,  and  passed  his  time  in  comparative  seclusion  at  Stirling,  sur- 


*On  the  occasion  of  these  attempts  of  Perkin,  Sir  Edward  Poynings,  sent  into  Ireland 
to  repress  the  troubles,  assembled  a  parliament  in  Dublin,  which  enacted  the  famous 
statute  known  as  Poynings’  Act,  and  which  forms  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Ireland, 
with  reference  to  the  English  dominion.  This  act  declared,  that  all  the  statutes  of  the 
English  parliament  should  be  law  in  Ireland,  and  that  the  Irish  parliament  should  not 
meet  without  the  permission  of  the  King  of  England,  and  after  assigning  the  motives 
of  such  convocation. 

*  Tn  the  Scotch  parliament,  the  nobles,  prelates,  and  commons  sat  in  one  chamber,  and 
voted  as  members  of  the  same  bodv. 

28* 


330 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


rounded  by  men  of  low  extraction,  with  whom  he  occupied  himself  in 
the  study  of  architecture,  music,  and  other  arts.  The  nobles,  indignant 
at  the  choice  of  his  favourites,  plotted  against  him ;  but  the  treason  was 
discovered  :  John,  earl  of  Mar,  brother  of  the  king,  was  assassinated ; 
Alexander,  duke  of  Albany,  another  brother,  escaped  from  Edinburgh 
castle,  and  took  refuge  in  England.  '  In  consequence  of  the  intrigues  of 
this  fugitive  with  Edward  IV.,  in  which  Albany  assumed  the  title  of 
King  of  Scotland,  and  bound  himself,  if  the  English  monarch  would 
furnish  him  with  the  means  of  establishing  his  claim,  to  do  homage  to 
him,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  marched  northwards  at  the  head  of  a 
numerous  army,  which  compelled  James  to  implore  the  aid  of  his  barons. 
These  readily  assembled  in  arms,  less  with  the  intention  of  repelling 
foreign  invasion  than  of  obtaining  satisfaction  for  their  own  injuries. 
They  resolved  on  the  death  of  the  king’s  favourites,  and  executed  their 
design  in  the  camp  near  Lauder,  with  all  the  promptitude  and  vigour  of 
military  men.  James,  unable  to  rely  on  an  army  so  turbulent,  disband¬ 
ed  it,  and  taking  refuge  in  Edinburgh  castle,  soon  became  reconciled 
with  the  Duke  of  Albany.  But  his  majesty  had  not  learnt  wisdom 
from  the  late  transactions  ;  and  a  decree  forbidding  the  wearing  of  arms 
within  the  royal  palace,  together  with  the  formation  of  a  permanent 
body-guard,  drove  the  nobles  to  revolt,  who  placed  at  their  head  the 
Duke  of  Rothesay,  the  eldest  of  his  children.  This  imminent  danger 
drew  the  monarch  from  his  retirement :  He  marched  against  the  rebels, 
and,  being  defeated  at  Sauchieburn,  a  few  miles  from  Stirling,  was 
assassinated  in  a  miller’s  cottage,  1488.  The  general  indignation  ex¬ 
cited  by  this  atrocious  murder  compelled  the  conspirators  to  use  their 
victory  with  moderation.  James  IV.  succeeded  to  the  throne;  and  in 
his  reign,  the  enmity  which  had  frequently  displayed  itself  between  the 
sovereign  and  the  nobility  was  almost  forgotten.  Far  from  dreading 
the  power  of  the  aristocracy,  he  considered  it  the  best  support  of  the 
throne ;  and  by  his  confidence  gained  their  aid  in  all  his  enterprises. 

% 

ITALIAN  PENINSULA. 

Naples. —  In  the  twelfth  century,  the  kingdom  of  Naples  passed  in 
succession  to  the  Normans,  and  to  the  German  Hohenstaufens ;  and  in 
the  thirteenth,  to  the  house  of  Anjou.  This  dynasty  governed  until 
1382,  when  Joan  I.  adopted  the  younger  brother  of  Charles  V.  of  France, 
Louis  I.  of  Anjou,  who  was,  however,  deprived  of  the  crown  by  Charles, 
duke  of  Durazzo,  the  direct  heir.  Thus  began  those  wars  between  the 
second  house  of  Anjou  and  the  family  of  Durazzo,  which  led  to  the 
invasion  of  Italy  and  the  long  struggle  between  France  and  the  Empire. 
Louis  I.,  in  1383,  and  next  Louis  II.,  in  1390,  invaded  the  kingdom, 
but  without  success.  A  second  Joan,  sister  of  Ladislaus  who  succeed 
ed  Charles  of  Durazzo,  revived  this  war,  when  its  embers  were  nearly 
extinct,  by  adopting  in  turn  Alphonso  V.,  king  of  Aragon  and  Sicily, 
and  Louis  III.  of  Anjou.  When  Joan  and  Louis  died  in  1435,  Rene  of 
Anjou,  duke  of  Lorraine  and  count  of  Provence,  opposed  Alphonso  V., 
and  was  for  a  brief  period  master  of  Naples;  but,  in  1442,  he  was 
driven  out  by  the  latter  sovereign,  who  received  the  investiture  of  his 
new  kingdom  from  the  pope.  Alphonso  died  in  1458,  leaving  to  his 
natural  son  Ferdinand  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  to  his  brother  John 


fifteenth  century  a. d.  331 

II.  (the  usurper  of  Navarre)  Aragon,  Catalonia,  and  Valencia,  with  the 
Balearic  Isles,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily. 

Alphonso  V.,  surnamed  the  Magnanimous,  was  not  only  a  skilful  and  for¬ 
tunate  warrior,  but  the  protector  of  letters.  In  his  liberality  originated  the 
chief  defects  of  his  government ;  for  perpetually  embarrassed  in  consequence 
of  his  profuse  generosity,  he  was  obliged  either  to  oppress  his  subjects  with 
taxes,  or  sell  his  patronage  contrary  to  the  good  administration  of  his  kingdom. 
Lavishly  conferring  new  titles,  he  extended  the  prerogatives  of  the  nobles,  so 
as  to  aggravate  the  evils  of  vassalage,  and  weaken  the  authority  of  the  crown ; 
but  in  spite  of  these  faults,  he  deserves  to  be  considered  one  of  the  greatest  and 
most  worthy  monarchs  that  adorned  the  fifteenth  century. 

At  the  summons  of  the  Neapolitan  barons,  John  of  Anjou,  son  of 
Rene,  in  1459,  opposed  himself  to  Ferdinand,  who,  being  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Sarno,  1460,  was  only  saved  from  destruction  by  Francis 
Sforza  and  Scanderbeg,  the  latter  of  whom  Alphonso  had  often  aided 
against  the  Turks,  and  who  now  repaid  to  the  son  the  assistance  he  had 
received  from  the  father.  The  victory  of  Troja  in  Apulia,  however 
seated  Ferdinand  securely  on  the  throne.  The  conqueror  now  began  tc 
oppress  the  supporters  of  his  rival ;  and  the  hatred  excited  by  his  cruel¬ 
ties  was  increased  during  his  long  reign  by  numerous  acts  of  treachery 
and  violence.  In  1485,  the  nobles  revolted  against  him  ;  but  he  dis¬ 
armed  them  by  an  insidious  peace,  and  arresting  the  most  dangerous 
caused  them  to  be  secretly  put  to  death.  Those  who  escaped  his  ven 
geance  by  flight  spread  throughout  Italy  the  odium  of  his  name. 

Florence. — Towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  triumph 
of  the  Albizzi  faction  deprived  the  Medici  of  all  influence.  John  of  that 
name  restored  his  family  in  1420,  having  acquired  immense  riches,  and 
become  chief  magistrate.  In  1426,  when  the  nobles  had  formed  the 
design  of  usurping  all  the  power  of  the  state,  he  alone  refused  to  second 
their  project,  and  thereby  raised  his  popularity  to  the  greatest  height. 
Cosmo  I.  inherited  the  talents  of  his  father,  but  neglecting  his  sage 
counsels,  was  banished  in  1433.  Being  recalled  the  following  year,  the 
Albizzi  were  all  proscribed,  and  he  preserved  the  supreme  authority 
until  his  death  in  1464.  His  fellow-citizens  conferred  on  him  the  title 
of  “  Father  of  his  Country,” — a  distinction  worthy  of  his  zeal  to  main¬ 
tain  peace  at  home  as  well  as  abroad,  and  of  the  noble  uses  to  which  he 
applied  his  wealth,  in  building  palaces,  founding  monasteries  and 
hospitals,  forming  libraries,  and  extending  to  letters  and  the  arts  that 
protection  which  became  hereditary  in  bis  family.  This  distinguished 
merchant  was  at  the  head  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  commercial 
houses  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

Pietro  de  Medici  had  neither  the  experience  nor  the  talent  required  to 
accomplish  the  objects  contemplated  by  his  predecessor;  but  when 
Soderini,  the  gonfalonier  of  justice,  had  sought  the  alliance  of  the  Duke 
of  Modena  to  dethrone  Pietro,  the  latter  gave  such  proofs  of  firmness  as 
disconcerted  his  enemies,  and  enabled  him  to  proscribe  the  most  illus¬ 
trious  families.  Lorenzo  and  Julian,  though  young,  were  recognised  as 
their  father’s  successors;  and,  during  seven  years,  Florence  enjoyed 
peace  under  their  government.  Among  the  chief  persons  of  the  city  the 
Pazzi  held  the  first  rank,  and  these  Cosmo  had  desired  to  attach  to  his 
party  by  bonds  of  marriage.  Lorenzo,  surnamed  u  the  Magnificent,” 
pursuing  a  different  line  of  conduct,  spared  no  exertions  to  ruin  their 


332 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


fortunes ;  and  hence  a  conspiracy  to  murder  the  Medici  and  change  the 
government  was  eagerly  entered  into  by  these  persecuted  men.*  The 
brothers  were  attacked  in  the  cathedral  church :  Julian  was  killed,  but 
Lorenzo  escaped  to  take  a  bloody  revenge  on  the  assassins,  1478.  The 
war  which  sprung  out  of  this  conspiracy  lasted  nearly  three  years. 

Lorenzo  died  in  1492,  beloved  by  his  subjects,  respected  abroad,  and 
deeply  lamented  on  account  of  the  skill  with  which  he  had  held  the 
balance  among  the  other  powers  of  Italy.  His  taste  for  the  arts  and 
literature  procured  him  the  title  of  “  Father  of  the  Muses ;”  but  his 
luxury,  together  with  the  bad  management  of  his  commercial  transac¬ 
tions,  entirely  absorbed  the  immense  fortune  of  the  Medici.  During 
many  years,  the  public  revenues  contributed  to  cover  their  losses;  and, 
at  last,  to  prevent  their  bankruptcy,  the  state  itself  became  insolvent, 
1490.  The  interest  of  the  debt,  then  fixed  at  three  per  cent.,  was 
reduced  to  one  and  a  half;  a  number  of  charitable  foundations  were 
suppressed ;  and  the  coin  in  circulation  was  received  in  payment  of 
taxes  at  one-fifth  below  its  nominal  value,  and  reissued  at  its  full 
amount. 

The  Roman  State. — The  abdication  of  the  antipope,  Clement  VIIL, 
in  1429,  terminated  the  great  schism  of  fifty-one  years.  Martin  V. 
alone  retained  the  tiara,  by  whom  the  council  of  Basle  was  convoked  in 
1431.  His  successor,  Eugenius  IV.,  alarmed  at  the  attacks  made  by 
this  body  upon  his  prerogative,  convened  in  succession  the  synods  of 
Ferrara  and  Florence,  a  proceeding  which  gave  rise  to  another  separa¬ 
tion, — the  fathers  of  Basle  deposing  him,  and  electing  Amadeus  of 
Savoy  as  Felix  V.  In  1438,  the  French  adopted  several  decrees  of  the 
council  of  Basle,  by  the  famous  pragmatic  sanction  which  Charles  VII. 
drew  up  at  Bourges;  and  their  example  was  imitated  by  the  Germans, 
who  accepted  the  same  decrees  at  the  diet  of  Mentz,  1439,  since  which 
time  the  popes  had  used  every  exertion  to  obtain  their  revocation. 
Nicholas  V.,  who  succeeded  Eugenius  in  1447,  substituted  the  Germanic 
concordat  for  that  of  Mentz  ;  but  the  joy  this  event  caused  was  clouded 
by  the  conspiracy  of  Stephano  Porcari,  and  by  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 
Several  attempts  were  made  by  Calixtus  III.,  Pius  II.,  and  Paul  II.,  to 
excite  the  Christians  to  another  Crusade,  but  they  all  completely  failed. 
The  Cardinal  Francis  de  la  Rovera,  exalted  to  the  pontificate  under  the 
title  of  Sixtus  IV.,  was  more  occupied  in  the  aggrandizement  of  his 
family  than  in  promoting  the  interests  of  the  church.  Innocent  VIII. 
succeeded  in  1484, — a  prelate  of  easy  life  and  manners,  entirely  governed 
by  favourites,  and  who  made  every  thing  a  matter  of  money.  After  him 
the  infamous  Borgia,  Alexander  VI.,  for  eleven  years  disgraced  St. 
Peter’s  chair.  His  simoniacal  election,  1492,  and  the  knowledge  of  his 
character,  spread  general  consternation. 

Venice. — The  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  threatened  the 
destruction  of  the  Venetian  colonies  in  the  East.  At  first  the  republic 
was  allowed  to  have  an  ambassador  in  that  capital;  but  in  1463,  her 
leaders  began  a  war,  which,  after  sixteen  years,  was  terminated  by  an 
unfavourable  treaty.  It  was  during  these  hostilities  that  V enice  obtained 


*  Conspiracy  at  this  period  seemed  to  be  the  constitutional  mode  of  reforming  a  bad 
government.  In  three  years,  historians  reckon  one  at  Ferrara,  two  at  Genoa,  one  a, 
Milan  and  one  at  Florence. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTVfcYT  A.  D. 


333 


possession  of  Cyprus.  This  isic  had  been  given  by  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion  to  Guy  of  Lusignan,  whose  descendants  occupied  the  throne  266 
years.  The  last  of  these,  John  III.,  died  in  1458,  leaving  an  only 
daughter,  Charlotte,  who  succeeded,  and  whose  husband,  Louis  of 
Savoy,  brother  of  Duke  Amadeus  IX.,  shared  the  honours  of  the  crown. 
James,  a  natural  son  of  John  III.,  supported  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt, 
Malek-Ella,  to  whom  the  kings  of  Cyprus  were  tributary,  dethroned 
them  both  in  1460.  The  usurper,  threatened  by  the  knights  of  St.  John 
and  the  Genoese,  sought  the  aid  of  Venice  by  marrying  Catherine  Cor- 
naro,  niece  of  Andrew  Cornaro,  a  patrician,  whose  family  had  extensive 
estates  in  the  island,  1471.  The  senate,  to  honour  this  union,  adopted 
Catherine,  declaring  her  44  daughter  of  St.  Mark,”  that  is,  of  the  republic. 
James  died  two  years  after,  and  the  queen,  owing  to  her  foreign  extrac¬ 
tion,  being  unpopular  among  the  Cypriots,  the  Venetians,  in  her  name, 
reduced  the  island  under  their  power  in  1474,  leaving  to  her  little  beyond 
the  pomp  of  royalty.  Their  hold  on  this  conquest  was  confirmed  by 
Catherine’s  abdication  in  1489  and  the  investiture  given  them  by  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt.  While  the  republicans  were  thus  extending  their 
sway  over  Cyprus,  aggrandizement  in  Italy  was  not  neglected  by  them. 
They  acquired  by  wars  and  treaties  Gallipoli  and  Policastro,  Polesina 
and  the  territory  of  Rovigo ;  for  at  this  period  their  armies  were  scarcely 
less  powerful  on  land  than  their  fleets  at  sea.  The  population  was  nu¬ 
merous,  the  finances  well  administered  ;  and  this  was  the  first  state  that, 
by  government  loans,  had  attached  the  rich  to  the  commonwealth  by  the 
great  bond  of  the  public  funds.  Her  .manufactures  in  gold,  silver,  and 
silk,  were  much  esteemed ;  but  the  time  of  her  fall  drew  near,  when  the 
commerce  of  Asia,  turned  from  its  ancient  course,  went  to  enrich  the 
nations  of  the  West. 

Milan  and  Genoa.  —  A  labourer  of  Cotignola,  named  Attendolo, 
becoming  a  soldier  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  passed 
rapidly  through  all  the  degrees  of  military  rank,  and  became  the  most 
famous  captain  of  the  age.  With  7000  volunteers  who  followed  his 
banner,  he  delivered  Joan  II.  of  Naples  from  the  hands  of  Alphonso  of 
Aragon,  for  which  he  was  made  constable  of  the  kingdom  and  gonfalo¬ 
nier  of  the  Roman  church.  A  premature  death  by  drowning  terminated 
his  honourable  career.  He  had  changed  his  name  to.  Sforza,  which  he 
transmitted  to  his  natural  son  Francis,  inheritor  of  his  talents  and  cou¬ 
rage,  who  had  married  Bianca,  natural  daughter  of  Philip-Maria,  last 
of  the  Visconti  dukes  of  Milan.  On  his  father-in-law’s  death,  1447,  he 
claimed  the  inheritance  in  opposition  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  the  King 
of  Naples,  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  Charles  of  Orleans.  The  Mila¬ 
nese  abolished  the  ducal  power,  and  established  a  republic,  nominating 
their  own  magistrates,  and  appointing  Sforza  commander  of  their  troops. 
In  1  his  post  he  succeeded  in  restoring  the  title  of  duke,  and  reigned  until 
the  year  1466.  The  greatest  princes  sought  his  alliance  ;  his  daughter 
Hippolyta  married  Alphonso  of  Naples,  and  Louis  XI.  ceded  to  him  the 
city  of  Genoa.  His  son  and  successor  Galeazzo,  by  his  pride  and  des¬ 
potism,  excited  an  insurrection  in  which  he  perished,  1476.  L'nder  his 
infant  heir  John  Galeazzo,  two  uncles  disturbed  the  public  tranquillity; 
they  were,  how*ever,  eventually  banished.  About  this  time  the  Genoese 
revolted  and  recovered  their  liberty ;  but  Prospero  Adorno,  the  mover  of 
the  revolution,  having  abused  his  victory  by  putting  some  of  his  oppo 


334 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


nents  to  death,  fled  from  the  city,  and  Battista  Fregosa  was  proclaimed 
doge.  In  1479,  one  of  the  uncles  of  the  Duke  Galeazzo,  known  as 
Ludovico  the  Moor,  made  himself  master  of  Tortona.  Having  been 
called  to  Milan  to  act  as  counterpoise  to  the  favourite  minister  Simoneta, 
he  soon  put  that  officer  to  death,  declaring  that  his  nephew,  a  child  of 
twelve  years,  had  attained  his  majority;  from  which  time  Ludovico  in 
reality  governed  in  the  name  of  his  ward.  In  1488,  Genoa  again  be¬ 
came  a  Milanese  dependency,  although  Sforza  had  the  prudence  to  hold 
it  as  a  fief  of  the  French  crown,  the  investiture  of  which  he  received  two 
years  after. 

The  other  states  of  Italy  do  not  require  to  be  mentioned  in  detail :  it 
will  be  sufficient  merely  to  note  their  existence.  The  Counts  of  Savoy 
were  attached  to  France.  Duke  Philip  II.  was  of  great  use  to  Charles 
VIII.  in  his  Italian  expedition,  for  which  he  was  created  high-chamber- 
lain  and  grand-master  of  the  palace.  The  marquisates  of  Montferrat 
and  Saluzzo  were  not  yet  united  to  Savoy ;  while  Parma  and  Piacenza 
formed  a  portion  of  the  Milanese  territory.  The  house  of  Este  reigned 
in  Ferrara,  Modena,  and  Reggio ;  the  Gonzagas  at  Mantua;  the  Picos 
at  Mirandola  ;  the  Malatestas  at  Rimini ;  the  Malaspinas  at  Massa  and 
Carrara;  the  Grimaldis  at  Monaco;  and  the  Montfeltros  at  Urbino:  all 
of  which  states,  with  the  small  republics  of  Lucca  and  Sienna,  were 
dragged  into  the  common  vortex  of  political  commotion. 

Never  had  Italy  been  happier  or  more  flourishing  than  at  the  epoch 
of  the  French  invasion  in  1494.  Ruled  by  native-born  princes,  inde¬ 
pendent  of  all  foreign  influence,  exempt  from  internal  troubles,  she  had 
carried  the  sciences,  letters,  and  the  arts  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfec¬ 
tion.  Enriched  by  agriculture  and  commerce,  she  possessed  the  most 
brilliant  courts,  the  most  magnificent  cities ;  and  her  pleasures,  the 
natural  result  of  long  prosperity,  had  attained  a  degree  of  delicacy  and 
refinemen  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  But  this  deceitful  exterior 
concealed  those  vices  which  usually  indicate  the  decline  of  nations, — 
effeminacy,  perfidy,  cowardice,  and  corruption.  She  carried  in  her  bosom 
the  seeds  of  ruin,  which  the  concord  maintained  by  the  ascendency  of 
two  wise  rulers,  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  and  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  alone 
prevented  for  a  time  from  bursting  forth.  But  these  two  monarchs 
expiring  about  the  same  period,  in  1492,  the  equilibrium  was  destroyed, 
and  Italy  doomed  to  experience  the  horrors  of  internal  discord  and 
foreign  invasion. 

SPANISH  PENINSULA. 

Navarre. — In  1419,  John  II.,  second  son  of  Ferdinand  the  Just,  king 
of  Aragon,  had  married  Blanche,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  III., 
king  of  Navarre,  of  the  house  of  Evreux.  When  the  latter  monarch 
died,  in  1435,  the  crowrn  passed  to  the  family  of  John,  who  had  one  son, 
Don  Carlos,  prince  of  Viana,  and  two  daughters,  Blanche  married  to 
Henry  IV.  of  Castile,  and  Leonora  the  wife  of  Gaston  IV.,  count  of 
Foix.  On  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1441,  Carlos  ought  to  have 
inherited  the  crown  of  Navarre,  but  as  this  would  have  compelled  his 
father  to  descend  from  his  high  station,  he  not  less  wisely  than  affec¬ 
tionately  left  the  supreme  power  in  his  hands.  The  king  having  taken 
a  second  wife,  Joanna  Henriquez,  daughter  of  the  Admiral  of  Castile, 
had  a  son,  who  is  known  in  history  as  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  At  the 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


335 


instigation  of  his  consort,  John  endeavoured  to  secure  the  succession  to 
his  younger  son,  and  for  this  purpose  deprived  Carlos  of  all  share  in 
public  business.  After  enduring  the  most  unworthy  treatment,  this 
victim  of  an  ambitious  stepmother  took  up  arms,  but  was  defeated  in 
battle  near  Aibar,  1452.  Being  taken  prisoner,  he  was  shut  up  in  a 
strong  castle,  whence  he  was  delivered  only  at  the  earnest  intercession 
of  the  Navarrese  states.  In  1456,  the  queen,  who  had  sworn  the  de¬ 
struction  of  the  prince,  aided  her  husband  in  forming  an  alliance  with 
his  son-in-law,  the  Count  of  Foix,  against  him,  by  which  it  was  agreed 
that  John  should  possess  the  crown  of  Navarre  during  his  life,  and  that 
it  should  afterwards  pass  to  the  Count  and  Countess  of  Foix,  to  the 
prejudice  of  Don  Carlos,  and  Blanche,  queen  of  Castile.  This  injustice 
drove  him  a  second  time  to  arms  ;  but  the  fortune  of  war  turning  once 
more  against  him,  he  went  to  Paris  and  Naples,  to  solicit  the  mediation 
of  Charles  VII.  and  Alphonso  V.  During  his  absence,  his  supporters 
again  proclaimed  him  king,  though  bloodshed  was  avoided  by  the  inter¬ 
position  of  the  latter  monarch,  whose  death  unfortunately  removed  all 
chance  of  reconciliation.  Other  reverses  followed,  but  eventually  the 
injustice  of  John  augmented  so  greatly  the  number  of  his  son’s  sup¬ 
porters,  that,  at  Barcelona,  the  latter  was  proclaimed  heir,  and  intrusted 
with  the  perpetual  lieutenancy  of  Catalonia.  He  did  not  live  to  enjoy 
this  elevation ;  and  his  death,  in  1461,  has  been  attributed  to  various 
causes, — to  poison  administered  by  Joanna,  or  to  grief  at  being  the  con¬ 
tinued  object  of  paternal  hatred.  His  sister,  Blanche,  whom  he  had 
named  his  successor,  was  not  long  after  imprisoned  by  her  father  and 
deprived  of  life.  The  Catalonians  becoming  alarmed  for  their  liberties, 
never  spoke  but  with  abhorrence  of  the  homicidal  monarch,  and  with 
euthusiasm  of  their  governor,  that  noble  victim  of  unnatural  ambition, 
or,  as  he  was  already  esteemed,  that  44  holy  martyr,”  to  whom  the  super¬ 
stitious  attributed  numerous  miracles.  It  was  in  order  to  raise  money 
for  punishing  these  insurgents,  that  the  king  sold  the  provinces  of  Rous¬ 
sillon  and  Cerdagne  to  Louis  XI.  for  300,000  gold  crowns.  John  II. 
died  in  1479,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter  Eleonora,  who 
occupied  the  throne  less  than  a  year,  after  which  it  passed  to  the  house 
of  Foix,  in  the  person  of  Francis  Phoebus,  her  grandson. 

Aragon. — With  the  death  of  Martin  in  1410  ended  the  house  of  Bar¬ 
celona,  which  had  filled  the  throne  273  years.  Five  claimants  to  the 
sovereignty  now  appeared  ;  but,  in  1412,  the  estates  decided  in  favour 
of  Ferdinand  of  Castile,  whose  son  Alphonso  the  Magnanimous  con¬ 
quered  Naples  in  1442.  At  the  death  of  Alphonso  in  1458,  his  natural 
son  Ferdinand  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  and  Aragon  devolved 
on  his  brother  John  II.  The  son  of  the  last  monarch,  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  by  his  marriage  with  Isabella  of  Castile,  united  the  two  king¬ 
doms  in  1479. 

Castile. — Henry  III.,  while  projecting  a  war  against  the  King  of 
Granada,  died  in  1406,  leaving  behind  him  an  infant  son  of  only  fourteen 
months.  In  such  circumstances  Ferdinand,  the  king’s  brother,  was 
solicited  by  the  estates  to  assume  the  crown,  but  he  refused,  and  caused 
his  nephew  to  be  proclaimed  as  John  II.  The  uncle,  however,  held  the 
regency  till  1412,  when  he  was  called  to  the  throne  of  Aragon  to  suc¬ 
ceed  Martin,  who  had  left  no  children.  His  place  as  regent  was  supplied 
by  Alvarez  de  Luna,  who,  in  a  short  time,  excited  disaffection  by  the 


336 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


severity  of  his  government.  Aided  by  Henry,  infant  of  Aragon,  who 
resided  in  Castile,  the  powerful  nobles  took  Toledo  by  surprise,  urged 
the  Prince  of  Asturias  to  revolt,  and  at  last  constrained  John  to  make 
concessions.  But  Don  Juan  Pachecho  engaged  the  prince  to  support  the 
cause  of  his  father  John  II.,  who  was  soon  at  the  head  of  an  army  which 
defeated  the  rebels  in  the  battle  of  Olmedo,  where  Henry  of  Aragon 
fell,  1444.  The  prince,  displeased  at  seeing  Alvarez  restored  to  favour, 
again  revolted,  when  the  latter  was  banished  from  the  court  and  put  to 
death. 

Henry  IV.  succeeded  his  father  in  1454,  and  his  reign  presented  simi¬ 
lar  vicissitudes.  He  invaded  Granada  with  an  army  of  50,000  men  ; 
but  no  conquests  were  made  of  sufficient  importance  to  defray  the  ex¬ 
penses  of  the  war.  Returning  from  this  expedition,  Henry,  who  had 
repudiated  his  first  wife,  Blanche  of  Navarre,  espoused  Joanna  of  Por¬ 
tugal.  In  the  Castilian  court  the  greatest  corruption  prevailed ;  the  king 
indulged  in  every  kind  of  license,  and  the  new  queen  followed  the  con¬ 
tagious  example.  By  this  means  the  affections  of  his  subjects  were 
alienated,  and  a  storm  was  gathering  which  could  not  fail  eventually  to 
burst  on  the  two  sovereigns.  A  few  trifling  though  fortunate  expedi¬ 
tions  against  the  Moors  retarded  the  catastrophe ;  but,  in  14(15,  the  nobles, 
with  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo  at  their  head,  proclaimed  Alphonso,  the 
king’s  brother,  their  new  sovereign. 

The  cowardly  monarch,  Henry,  entered  into  an  accommodation  with 
the  rebels,  by  which  he  sacrificed  his  daughter,  the  Princess  Joanna 
(whose  parentage  appeared  somewhat  doubtful),  and  adopted  Alphonso 
as  his  heir.  New  dissensions  followed  this  arrangement,  until  1465, 
when  a  civil  war  broke  out ;  but  its  cruelties  w*ere  in  a  measure  softened 
by  the  interposition  of  the  pope,  and  it  w7as  terminated  by  the  death  of 
Alphonso  in  1468.  The  factious  nobles  after  this  proclaimed  Henry’s 
sister  Isabella ;  but  she  refused  to  accept  a  title  that  did  not  belong  to 
her  while  her  brother  lived.  In  1469,  this  princess,  whose  hand  had 
been  sought  by  the  King  of  Portugal  and  the  Duke  of  Guienne,  secretly 
married  Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  Henry  immediately  annulled  the  union 
by  a  solemn  decree,  to  which  no  one  paid  any  respect,  and  the  country 
was  once  more  plunged  into  all  the  horrors  of  a  civil  strife,  which  con¬ 
tinued  until  his  death  in  1474.  In  the  preceding  year,  he  endeavoured 
to  remedy  some  of  the  abuses  that  had  accumulated  during  his  unfortu¬ 
nate  reign.  The  revenues  of  the  crown  being  extremely  diminished,  he 
revoked^ all  the  donations  made  during  the  last  ten  years, — an  arrange¬ 
ment  that  became  ineffectual  from  the  number  and  strength  of  the  inte¬ 
rested  parties.  He  also  dissolved  various  brotherhoods  or  congregations, 
established  with  dangerous  views ;  confirming  those  only  which  were 
founded  for  the  security  of  the  kingdom  against  the  bands  of  robbers 
that  everywhere  devastated  it.  Finally,  he  suppressed  all  tolls  and  other 
tributes  of  that  kind,  arbitrarily  established  by  the  nobles  in  their  do¬ 
mains,  and  which  gave  rise  to  innumerable  vexations. 

Joanna  was  left  heiress  to  the  crown,  and  her  cause  was  warmly 
espoused  by  her  uncle,  Alphonso  V.  of  Portugal.  She  was  supported 
in  Castile,  chiefly  by  the  malcontents  who  had  formerly  contested  her 
legitimacy,  but  who  now  dreaded  the  firmness  of  Isabella.  The  victory 
of  Toro,  in  1476,  gave  the  throne  to  the  latter,  and  Joanna,  deserter  oy 
her  partisans,  retired  to  a  convent  in  Coimbra,  1479. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D 


33? 


In  the  same  year  expired  John  II.,  king  of  Aragon,  whose  states,  com¬ 
prising  Aragon  Proper,  Catalonia,  Valencia,  Marcia,  the  Balearic  Isles, 
Sardinia,  and  Sicily,  descended  to  Ferdinand,  by  whom  they  were  united 
to  Castile. 

Aragon  and  Castile.  —  The  moment  that  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
assumed  the  reins  of  government,  the  state  of  their  dominions  was 
changed.  Crime,  even  in  the  highest  ranks,  ceased  to  be  unpunished, 
and  the  execution  of  robbers  and  assassins  showed  the  people  that  vio¬ 
lence  would  ’be  replaced  by  order  and  justice.  The  organization  of  the 
“Holy  Brotherhood”  (Santa  Hermandad),  destined  for  the  repression 
of  murder  and  theft,  was  perfected.  In  Galicia,  where  the  nobles  exer¬ 
cised  the  greatest  tyranny,  forty-six  strongholds  were  demolished,  and 
the  property  stolen  from  the  royal  domains,  the  churches,  monasteries, 
and  private  persons,  was  restored. 

After  having  cnus  destroyed  faction  and  strengthened  their  own  power, 
the  Catholic  sovereigns,  for  by  that  title  were  they  known,  began  to 
carry  into  execution  their  long-meditated  plan  of  expelling  the  Moors 
from  Spain.  Muley  Ali  Abulhassan,  who  at  this  time  occupied  the 
Moorish  throne,  began  the  war  with  the  surprise  of  Zahara,  1481,  which 
was  immediately  retaliated  by  the  capture  of  Alhama.  The  successes 
were  for  a  long  time  balanced,  until  one  imprudent  step  drove  the  infidel 
to  ruin.  Captivated  by  the  charms  of  a  Christian  slave,  he  repudiated 
his  wife  Ayesha,  who  belonged  to  one  of  the  chief  tribes,  and  had  borne 
him  several  sons,  all  of  whom  he  ordered  to  be  destroyed  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  the  succession  to  the  issue  of  his  second  marriage.  One  only 
escaped,  the  celebrated  Boabdil  (Abu-Abdallah),  who  was  shortly  after 
proclaimed  king  by  a  party  of  discontented  nobles,  and  Abulhassan  was 
driven  from  his  capital.  A  cruel  civil  war  forthwith  commenced,  and 
while  the  Moors  were  thus  weakening  their  own  resources,  Ferdinand 
pursued  a  victorious  career.  Ten  years  were  spent  in  a  sanguinary  con¬ 
test  before  the  Christians  were  enabled  to  besiege  Granada,  which  they 
invested  with  a  chosen  army  of  50,000  men,  when  a  blockade  of  nine 
months  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  surrender,  and  in  January,  1492, 
Isabella  and  Ferdinand  made  their  triumphal  entry  into  a  city  whose 
capture  almost  compensated  for  the  previous  loss  of  Constantinople.  To 
Gonzalvo  de  Cordova,  a  distinguished  leader  of  the  Christian  host,  was 
intrusted  the  adjustment  of  the  articles  of  capitulation,  which  were  highly 
honourable  to  both  parties.  They  provided  that  the  vanquished  should 
be  governed  by  their  own  laws,  preserve  their  customs,  judges,  and 
liberty  of  worship ;  that  they  should  hold  their  property  in  Spain  free 
from  molestation,  or  be  allowed  to  sell  it  and  withdraw  wheresoever 
they  pleased  ;  and  that  Boabdil  should  be  permitted  to  retire  to  an  estate 
in  the  Alpuxarras.  The  Saracens  were,  however,  finally  expelled  from 
Spain  in  the  reign  of  Philip  III.,  1610. 

The  Jews  had  been  included  in  the  Moorish  treaty;  but  with  them 
the  conditions  were  not  kept.  Besides  having  amassed  considerable 
riches  by  trade,  they  had  also  acquired  nearly  all  the  wealth  of  the  king¬ 
dom  by  usury.  An  intolerant  zeal,  excited  by  absurd  reports,  impelled 
the  government  to  order  every  individual  of  that  persecuted  race  to  quit 
the  country.  Four  months  only  were  allowed  for  the  settlement  of  their 
affairs,  and  they  were  forbidden,  under  pain  of  death,  to  carry  with  them  * 
either  silver,  gold,  or  precious  stones.  'Half  a  million,  or  according  to 
29 


338 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


certain  authors  800,000,  are  said  to  have  departed,  some  proceeding  to 
Africa,  others  to  France,  and  the  majority  into  Portugal,  where  they 
were  in  a  short  time  treated  with  no  less  severity.  These  oppressed 
individuals  carried  away  all  the  commerce  of  the  Peninsula,  and  the 
Spanish  government,  far  from  enriching  itself,  lost  a  great  portion  of  its 
annual  revenue. 

In  the  same  year  which  saw  Granada  wrested  from  the  Moors,  Ame¬ 
rica  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  who  thus  44  for  Castile  and  Leon 
found  a  New  World.” 

The  restoration  of  Roussillon  and  Cerdagne  by  Charles  VIII.,  before 
his  expedition  into  Italy  in  1494,  added  to  this  prosperity;  and  in  1496, 
a  double  marriage  united  4he  houses  of  Spain  and  Austria.  Mary  of 
Burgundy,  wife  of  the  Archduke  Maximilian,  bore  her  husband  two 
children;  namely  Philip,  who  married  Joanna  second  infanta  of  Spain, 
and  Margaret,  who  became  the  wife  of  John  the  infanta's  brother.  This 
latter  prince  dying  the  same  year,  Isabella,  married  to  Emmanuel  of 
Portugal,  was  declared  heiress  of  Castile  and  Aragon  by  the  estates 
assembled  at  Toledo  and  Saragossa.  But  she  died  in  giving  birth  to  a 
son,  who  did  not  long  survive  his  parent. 

Portugal. — The  race  of  Henry  of  Burgundy  became  extinct  in  1383, 
in  the  person  of  Don  Ferdinand,  who,  at  his  death,  left  a  natural  child 
Beatrice,  married  to  John  I.  of  Castile.  The  aversion  entertained  by 
the  Portuguese  to  a  Castilian  sovereign  enabled  Don  Juan,  brother  of 
the  late  king,  to  ascend  the  throne  as  John  I.  of  Portugal.  Being  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  English,  he  defeated  the  Spaniards  and  their  French 
allies  at  Aljubarotta,  1385,  and  thereby  secured  the  throne,  though  the 

war  was  not  terminated  until  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  centurv 

* 

This  sovereign  died  in  1433,  after  a  popular  and  glorious  reign  of  forty- 
eight  years,  during  which  the  Cortes  were  twenty-five  times  convoked. 
Edward,  his  eldest  son,  succeeded,  but  was  soon  carried  off  by  a  pesti¬ 
lence  which  ravaged  the  country,  1438  ;  and  in  an  expedition  against 
the  African  Moors,  he  was  so  unfortunate  as  to  leave  his  brother  to 
perish  in  captivity.  Alphonso  V.,  a  monarch  of  warlike  and  chivalrous 
spirit,  conducted  three  expeditions  against  the  infidels.  In  1474,  on  the 
death  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile,  he  espoused  Joanna,  daughter  of  that 
monarch,  assumed  the  title  of  sovereign,  and  even  disputed  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  kingdom  with  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  Being  unsuccessful, 
he  visited  France  to  seek  the  assistance  of  Louis  XI. ;  and  here  the 
failure  of  his  negotiations  so  disgusted  him  with  the  regal  power,  that 
he  formed  the  resolution  of  abdicating  and  retiring  to  the  Holy  Land. 
He  died  in  1481,  as  he  was  about  to  enter  the  monastic  life.  John  II. 
strengthened  the  royal  authority  in  Portugal  by  diminishing  the  power 
of  the  barons  :  in  the  diet  of  Evora,  1482,  he  revoked  the  concessions 
made  by  his  predecessors  to  the  prejudice  of  the  crown,  and  suppressed 
the  power  of  life  and  death  exercised  by  many  nobles.  Such  innova¬ 
tions  were  not  tamely  endured,  but  the  vigour  of  the  king  eventually 
compelled  submission.  John  has  been  styled  a  perfect  prince,  and  the 
tutor  of  kings  in  the  art  of  government ;  and  in  truth  he  deserved  the 
esteem  of  his  subjects,  by  the  indefatigable  cares  of  his  administration, 
by  his  just  regulations,  and  by  his  anxiety  in  promoting  maritime  dis¬ 
covery.  But,  by  humbling  the  nobles,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  future 
despotism,  as  they  gradually  beoame  instruments  of  absolute  power, 
lie  died  in  1495. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


339 


DISCOVERIES  AND  COLONIES. 

At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  two  events  of  incalculable  im¬ 
portance  to  mankind, — the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  and  the  route 
to  the  Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, — produced  an  entire  revolution 
in  the  commerce,  manners,  industry7'and  government  of  every  nation. 

Portuguese  Colonies. — John  i.,  who  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century  had  founded  a  new  dynasty  in  Portugal,  undertook  an  expedi¬ 
tion  against  Barbary  in  1412,  with  the  intention  of  occupying  the  rest¬ 
less  minds  of  his  subjects.  His  third  son,  Henry,  who  accompanied 
him,  manifested  thenceforward  averyea  er  desire  for  foreign  adventure. 
Two  ships,  equipped  by  his  orders,  advanced  five  degrees  beyond  Cape 
Nun,  hitherto  considered  impassable  owing  to  the  burning  heat  of  the 
torrid  zone ;  but  they  did  not  venture  to  pass  Cape  Bojador,  lying  three 
degrees  north  of  the  tropic.  In  1419,  accident  led  to  the  discovery  of 
Madeira ;  the  extraordinary  fertility  of  which  island  is  attributed  to  the 
burning  of  the  forests  to  clear  the  face  of  the  country,  which  is  said  to 
have  continued  seven  years.  The  sugar-cane  was  imported  from  Sicily 
and  Cyprus ;  the  vine  was  brought  from  the  Morea ;  and  in  a  few  years 
sugar  and  wine  became  considerable  articles  of  commerce.  The  Canary 
islands,  early  taken  possession  of  by  the  Spaniards,  were  during  several 
years  a  subject  of  dispute  between  Spain  and  Portugal;  but  they  even¬ 
tually  remained  in  the  power  of  the  former. 

Prince  Henry,  now  directing  all  his  attention  to  the  discovery  of  a 
passage  to  India  by  sea,  obtained  from  Pope  Martin  V.,  as  sovereign  of 
the  universe,  a  right  to  the  conquests  he  should  make  between  Cape 
Bojador  and  the  Indies.  As  soon  as  the  necessary  bull  was  granted, 
the  expedition  sailed ;  and  in  1440,  Cape  Blanco  was  reached.  Two 
years  after,  the  exchange  of  some  prisoners  for  gold-dust  and  negroes 
gave  rise  to  the  odious  slave-trade.  In  1484,  the  adventurers  proceed¬ 
ed  more  than  1500  miles,  crossing  the  equator  and  entering  the  river 
Congo.  In  their  farther  progress  south,  the  land  was  found  to  decline 
towards  the  east,  which  gave  them  hopes  of  arriving  at  India,  and  ap¬ 
peared  to  confirm  the  narratives  of  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  by 
the  Phoenicians.  The  solution  of  the  great  problem  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Bartholomew  Diaz,  who  discovered  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1486. 
Vasco  de  Gama,  the  hero  of  the  Lusiad,  sailed  from  Portugal  in  1497, 
and  doubling,  for  the  first  time,  that  celebrated  promontory,  discovered 
Madagascar.  From  this  island  he  proceeded  until  he  reached  Calicut, 
thirteen  months  after  his  departure  from  Lisbon. 

Hindostan  was  at  this  period  divided  among  the  kings  of  Cambay, 
Delhi,  Bisnagar,  Narsinga,  and  Calicut,  who  had  many  sovereigns 
among  their  tributaries.  The  port  of  Calicut,  from  a  Mohammedan 
superstition  connected  with  it,  became  the  most  celebrated  in  the  whole 
peninsula.  Here  Gama  was  at  first  hospitably  received,  but  he  after¬ 
wards  experienced  considerable  opposition  from  the  Moors  of  Africa, 
who  traded  to  that  city.  On  his  return  home  in  1499,  the  king  named 
him  admiral  of  the  Indies,  and  loaded  him  with  honours. 

America. — About  the  end  of  tne  tenth  century,  the  Scandinavians,  in 
some  of  their  maritime  expeditions,  had  reached  Iceland  and  Greenland, 
from  which  latter  country  they  appear  to  have  advanced  to  Finland, 


840 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


probably  Labrador.  In  Greenland  some  unimportant  settlements  were 
made,  and  the  communication  with  the  transatlantic  continent  was  main¬ 
tained  until  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  when  the  fate  of  these 
colonies  was  covered  as  with  a  cloud  ;  and  although  various  attempts 
have  since  been  made  for  their  discovery,  no  traces  of  their  existence 
have  been  obtained.  In  Southern  Europe  these  expeditions  were  entire¬ 
ly  unknown,  and  therefore  the  undiminished  glory  was  left  to  Columbus 
of  proving  the  existence  of  the  Western  World.  This  celebrated  navi¬ 
gator  was  of  Genoese  origin ;  though  his  character  had  been  formed 
and  his  skill  acquired  in  the  service  of  Portugal.  His  active  mind 
readily  foresaw  the  length  and  difficulties  of  a  voyage  to  the  Indies  by 
sailing  to  the  eastward,  even  if  the  route  should  be  discovered ;  and  it 
appeared  to  him  that  by  sailing  directly  west  he  would  more  readily 
attain  his  object.  Many  circumstances,  the  importance  of  which  is 
best  known  to  mariners,  supported  his  theories ;  but  those  to  whom  he 
applied  for  protection  and  support  did  not  acknowledge  their  force. 
The  Genoese  senate  regarded  him  as  a  madman;  in  Portugal  his  confi¬ 
dence  was  most  treacherously  abused ;  and  in  England  his  brother  Bar¬ 
tholomew  obtained  the  consent  of  Henry  VII.  only  when  too  late.x 
After  many  obstacles,  arising  from  the  ignorance  and  religious  scruples 
of  those  to  whom  his  project  was  submitted,  Columbus  sailed  with  three 
small  vessels  from  Palos  in  Andalusia,  3d  August,  1492.  On  the  night 
of  the  11th  October,  land  was  seen  after  a  tedious  voyage,  during  which 
the  commander  had  to  contend  against  the  cowardly  and  rebellious  spirit 
of  his  crew.  San  Salvador  or  Guanahani,  one  of  the  Bahama  chain 
stretching  between  Florida  and  St.  Domingo,  was  the  island  first  dis- 
covered.  Cuba  and  Hayti  were  reached  soon  after.  Columbus,  now 
directing  his  course  homeward,  returned  to  the  harbour  of  Palos,  seven 
months  and  eleven  days  after  his  departure.  He  was  received  with 
great  kindness  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  who  ennobled  his  family, 
and  ratified  all  the  privileges  of  the  treaty  of  Santa  Fe.* 

While  Europe  was  still  re-echoing  with  the  news  of  this  voyage,  the 
navigator  had  acrain  sailed  towards  the  west  with  seventeen  vessels, 
having  on  board  numerous  settlers  eager  to  reap  the  golden  harvest 
which  the  descriptions  of  travellers  had  placed  in  the  Indies.  Isabella 
in  the  island  of  Cuba  was  the  first  city  founded  in  the  New  World.  In 
his  third  voyage,  1498,  Columbus  reached  the  continent  of  America, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  It  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of 
this  work  to  do  more  than  notice  the  leading  points  of  transatlantic  dis¬ 
covery;  the  history  of  the  early  settlers  will  he  found  in  volumes  espe¬ 
cially  devoted  to  that  purpose.  .It  will  here  suffice  to  say,  that  Colum¬ 
bus  died  in  1506,  after  being  treated  by  the  Spanish  court  with  the  great¬ 
est  ingratitude.  His  body  was  pompously  interred  in  the  cathedral  of 
Seville ;  arid  over  it  was  erected  a  monument,  with  the  simple  inscrip¬ 
tion  that  Columbus  had  given  a  new  world  to  Castile  and  Leon.  His 
remains  were  afterwards  transported  to  the  island  of  Hayti,  and  buried 
in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Domingo  in  1536,  whence,  two  hundred  and  sixty 
years  afterwards,  they  were  transferred  to  Havana. 

*  By  the  articles  of  this  treaty,  drawn  up  before  Columbus  sailed,  he  was  created  high* 
admiral,  with  hereditary  right  in  the  seas  he  should  discover  ;  viceroy  also,  with  heredi¬ 
tary  possession  of  the  lands;  he  was  to  receive  a  tithe  of  the  profits  of  commercial 
undertakings;  and  be  supreme  judge  in  all  mercantile  disputes  in  the  newly -discovered 
countries. 


FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


341 


In  1499,  Alonzo  de  Ojeda  sailed  to  the  new  continent,  accompanied 
by  a  Florentine  merchant  named  Amerigo  Vespucci,  under  whose  direc¬ 
tion  the  enterprise  was  chiefly  conducted.  Returning  to  Europe,  he  pub¬ 
lished  an  account  of  his  adventures,  and  claimed  the  honour  of  being  the 
first  to  discover  the  mainland  of  the  new  world.*  In  1500,  the  mouth 
of  the  great  river  Amazon  was  entered  ;  while  the  Portuguese  had  already 
landed  in  Brazil. 

Consult:  Robertson’s  History  of  America;  Irving’s  Life  of  Columbus. 

THE  CHURCH. 

Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  1414  and  1431.  —  Several  at¬ 
tempts  were  made  to  terminate  the  great  schism  in  the  Catholic  church ; 
and  for  that  purpose,  in  the  double  pontificate  of  Benedict  XIII.  and 
Gregory  XII.,  a  council  was  held  at  Pisa  in  1409,  whose  election  of 
Alexander  V.  added  a  third  pope  to  the  two  who  disputed  the  possession 
of  the  tiara.  It  was  not  until  the  council  of  Constance  deposed  all  the 
three,  and  elected  Martin  V.  in  their  stead,  followed,  in  1429,  by  the 
resignation  of  Clement  VIII.,  that  these  divisions  in  the  church  were 
entirely  extinguished.  Martin,  in  contempt  of  his  promises,  published 
only  seven  unimportant  decrees,  by  which  he  pretended  to  satisfy  the 
complaints  and  demands  of  the  council.  In  1418,  he  dissolved  it,  and 
named  Pavia  for  the  next  place  of  meeting,  but  the  assembly  was  even¬ 
tually  held  at  Basle  under  Eugenius  IV.  Independently  of  the  correc¬ 
tion  of  abuses,  this  body  had  to  deliberate  on  a  reunion  with  the  Greek 
church  and  other  schismatic  communions.  The  first  object  was  attained 
by  decreeing  the  abolition  of  u  annates,  reserves,  and  expectatives.” 
The  pope,  alarmed  at  these  bold  measures,  wished  to  dissolve  the  coun¬ 
cil  ;  but  the  members  asserting  their  supremacy  by  force,  accused  Euge¬ 
nius  of  heresy,  and  deposed  him.  The  reforms  effected  at  Constance 
and  Basle  had  not  all  the  happy  results  that  were  expected ;  neverthe¬ 
less,  they  were  adopted  in  France  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges, 
1438 ;  and  the  diet  of  Aschaffenburg  accepted  the  German  concordat, 
drawn  up  in  terms  exceedingly  favourable  to  the  holy  see,  1448.  The 
Emperor  Frederick  III.,  who  desired  to  be  crowned  in  the  Roman  capi¬ 
tal,  withheld  no  sacrifice;  and  his  coronation  in  1452  was  accompanied 
by  a  total  renunciation  of  the  rights  of  the  empire  over  that  ancient  city. 
Since  this  period,  the  authority  of  the  popes  has  been  supreme  in  Rome  ; 
and  the  conspiracy  of  the  tribune  Porcari  in  1453  was  the  last  struggle 
for  republican  liberty. 

The  chief  resolutions  of  the  assembly  at  Basle  were  those  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  sessions:  one  declaring  the  supremacy  of  general  councils,  as  having 
received  by  divine  right  an  authority  to  which  every  rank,  even  the  papal,  must 
submit  in  matters  of  faith,  and  in  the  reformation  of  the  church  ;  the  other 
declares  liable  to  punishment  every  person,  not  excepting  the  pope  himself,  that 
shall  refuse  to  obey  any  council  lawfully  assembled.  These  decrees,  the  great 
boast  of  the  moderate  papists,  are  not  of  direct,  practical  importance  ;  but  they 
served  to  check  the  usurpations  of  the  see  of  Rome,  by  the  acknowledgment 


*  The  imposture  of  Vespucci  has  long  been  known,  and  his  dishonest  narrative  has  in 
no  degree  injured  the  glory  of  Columbus.  As  to  the  honour  of  first  reaching  the  shores 
of  the  new  continent,  it  probably  belongs  to  the  English  mariners,  who,  under  Cabot,  a 
Bristol  seaman  of  Venetian  parents,  sailed  along  the  coasts  of  North  America  from 
Labrador  to  Florida,  1498. 

29* 


342 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


of  a  superior  authority.  The  same  assembly  further  enacted  that  another 
general  council  should  be  held  in  five  years ;  a  second  at  the  end  of  seven 
more ;  and  at  intervals  of  every  ten  years  afterwards.  Their  proposition  on  the 
faith  to  be  kept  with  heretics  will  be  noticed  below.  This  synod  further  took 
away  the  cup  from  the  laity,  ordering  that  “the  Lord’s  supper  should  be 
received  by  them  only  in  one  kind,  i.  e.  the  bread.” 

Hussites. — Since  the  cruel  extirpation  of  the  Albigenses,  the  pope 
and  church,  who  assumed  to  be  sole  interpreters  of  Scripture,  had  reigned 
without  obstacle;  but  the  imprudent  obstinacy  of  John  XXII.,  in  1324, 
excited  complaints  and  accusations  against  the  holy  see,  which  proved 
the  forerunners  of  the  Reformation.  The  Franciscans,  whom  the  pope 
violently  persecuted,  furnished  in  thirty-four  years  no  fewer  than  two 
thousand  victims  to  the  pontifical  executioners.  The  publications  de¬ 
scribing  the  disorders  of  the  court  of  Avignon  were  followed  up  in 
England  with  an  effect  still  more  fatal  to  the  supremacy  of  Rome.  John 
Wickliffe,  by  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  English 
tongue,  inflicted  a  severe  blow  on  the  authority  of  the  clergy. *  His 
doctrines  spread  rapidly  beyond  this  country;  and  in  the  university  of 
Prague  arose  the  great  predecessor  of  Luther.  John  Huss  began  by 
preaching  against  the  disorderly  lives  of  churchmen,  and  soon  adopted 
the  principles  of  Wickliffe,  with  which  he  became  familiar,  by  means 
of  the  books  his  friend  Jerome  had  brought  from  Oxford.  Some  time 
afterwards,  Boniface  IX.  sent  monks  into  Bohemia  charged  with  the 
sale  of  indulgences  :  this  scandalous  traffic  was  forbidden  by  Sigis- 
mond ;  and  Huss  seized  the  opportunity  of  declaiming  against  the  power 
of  the  pope  to  grant  them.  When  the  reformer’s  exertions  in  defence  of  „ 
the  privileges  of  the  university  had  promoted  him  to  the  rectorship,  he 
spoke  more  freely,  and  even  attacked  the  papal  supremacy.  Alexander 
V.  interfered  energetically  to  crush  the  rising  heresy  ;  but  although  in 
1412  he  excommunicated  Huss  and  laid  Prague  under  an  interdict,  the 
rector  continued  to  disseminate  his  doctrines.  For  this  conduct  he  was 
cited  before  the  council  of  Constance,  the  states-general  of  Christendom, 
as  it  has  been  called,  1414.  Under  a  safe-conduct  from  Sigismond, 
Huss  reached  the  place  of  meeting,  where  he  was  soon  thrown  into 
prison,  and  detained  half  a  year  before  his  first  interrogation,  5th  June 
1415.  About  a  month  afterwards,  judgment  was  pronounced  on  a  series 
of  thirty-nine  articles  professed  to  be  taken  from  his  works,  his  books 
were  condemned  to  be  burnt,  and  himself  given  over  to  the  secular 
power.  He  perished  at  the  stake,  protesting  his  orthodoxy  to  the  last,  j* 
In  1416,  his  disciple,  Jerome  of  Prague,  underwent  a  similar  fate. 


*  The  translation  and  reading  of  the  Bible,  after  the  Vulgate  had  ceased  to  be  intel¬ 
ligible,  was  by  no  means  interdicted,  although  the  Legends  of  Saints  were  more  admired 
The  New  Testament  was  rendered  into  German  by  two  different  parties  in  the  ninth 
century,  and  detached  books  had  been  translated  into  French  before  the  twelfth.  When 
the  spread  of  heretical  opinions  began  to  disturb  the  orthodox  believer,  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  provide  against  lawless  interpretation;  and,  accordingly,  the  council  of 
Toulouse,  in  1229,  prohibited  the  laity  from  possessing  the  Scriptures. 

t  Hallam  remarks,  that  “  the  Scandalous  breach  of  faith— the  violation  of  the  safe- 
conduct — which  the  council  induced  Sigismond  to  commit  on  that  occasion,  is  notorious. 
But  perhaps  it  is  not  equally  so,  that  it  recognised  by  a  solemn  decree  the  flagitious 
principle,  that  no  faith  or  promise  ought  to  be  kept  with  Huss,  by  natural,  divine,  or 
human  law,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Catholic  religion.  No  breach  of  faith,  he  continues, 
can  be  excused  by  our  opinion  of  ill-desert  in  the  party,  or  by  a  narrow  interpretation 
of  our  own  engagements.  Every  capitulation  ought  to  be  construed  favourably  for  the 
weaker  side.” 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  SECOND. 


343 


The  news  of  these  executions  excited  general  indignation  throughout 
Bohemia,  where  the  doctrine  of  communion  in  both  kinds  and  evangeli¬ 
cal  self-denial  had  made  great  progress.  All  the  churches  of  Prague 
re-echoed  the  panegyrics  of  Huss ;  medals  were  struck  in  his  honour ; 
and  at  length  a  solemn  festival  was  appointed  to  commemorate  his  mar¬ 
tyrdom.  Angry  feelings  both  against  Germans  and  Romans  now 
announced  a  speedy  outbreak;  and  in  John  of  Trocznow,  surnamed 
Zisca,  was  found  a  leader  in  the  war  against  the  church.  His  partisans 
soon  amounted  to  the  number  of  40,000 ;  and  to  provide  a  stronghold  for 
them,  he  caused  lines  to  be  drawn  around  the  summit  of  a  mountain, 
which  he  called  Tabor  —  the  Bohemian  word  for  a  camp  or  tent  — 
whence  his  followers  derived  their  appellation  of  Taborites.  The 
Hussites  gave  full  scope  to  their  fury,  so  that  they  destroyed  550  monas¬ 
teries  before  the  end  of  the  year.  This  violence  brought  Sigismond 
into  Moravia ;  and  by  means  of  the  crusade  then  preached,  he  united 
140,000  men  under  his  banner.  This  numerous  host  was  defeated  by 
the  Bohemians  armed  with  iron  flails,  and  nearly  all  the  Moravian 
nobility  perished  on  the  field  of  battle.  Zisca  having  died  in  1424  of 
the  plague,  the  Taborites  separated  into  two  bodies,  which  continued  to 
devastate  Bavaria,  Misnia,  and  Lusatia.  Their  ravages  were  terminated 
by  the  concessions  of  the  council  of  Basle. 

Council  of  Florence,  1439. — Under  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  a  council 
was  held  at  Florence,  whither  it  had  been  transferred  from  Ferrara,  for 
the  purpose  of  terminating  the  Greek  schism.  The  Emperor  John  Pa- 
laeologus,  after  a  brief  discussion,  acceded  to  the  Roman  confession  of 
faith,  recognising  especially  the  doctrines  that  the  “  Holy  Ghost  pro¬ 
ceeded  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,”  and  that  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
was  the  head  of  the  universal  church.  The  wound  now  seemed  healed ; 
but  when  the  emperor  returned  to  Constantinople,  he  met  with  such  an 
opposition  to  the  re-union  of  the  two  churches,  that  he  dared  not  perse¬ 
vere.  In  the  subsequent  overthrow  of  the  Greek  kingdom,  Pope 
Nicholas  V.  saw  the  judgment  of  an  offended  Deity.  In  14-92,  the  papal 
crown  was  disgraced  by  Alexander  VI.  (Roderic  Borgia),  whose  profli¬ 
gate  career,  scarcely  possible  to  be  exaggerated,  was  ended  by  his 
drinking  the  poison  he  had  mingled  for  another. 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  SECOND. 

/ 

Commerce ,  the  Progress  of  Learning ,  Discoveries ,  fyc. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Western  Europe  was  almost  entirely  inter¬ 
rupted  between  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  accession  of  Charlemagne,  at  which 
latter  period  the  cities  of  Italy  began  to  form  a  connexion  with  the  ports  of  the 
Greek  empire.  While  Constantinople  flourished,  the  treasures  of  the  East 
were  brought  thither  by  caravans  from  India,  through  Candahar  and  Persia; 
by  the  northern  routes  along  the  Caspian  and  Euxine  seas  ;  by  the  Euphrates 
and  thence  overland  to  the  Syrian  ports ;  or  lastly,  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea  and 
Egypt.  Amalfi,  in  the  tenth  century ;  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  Venice,  in  the 
eleventh,  became  in  turn  the  chief  marts  of  foreign  trade.  The  persecuted 
Jews  were  at  this  time  active  agents  in  the  mercantile  system  ;  and  by  the 
decrees  of  the  church  against  usury,  the  trade  in  money  was,  until  the  thirteenth 


344 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


century,  thrown  almost  entirely  into  their  hands.  The  Crusades  formed  a 
grand  epoch  in  the  history  of  commerce,  by  the  introduction  of  silk  and  sugar 
into  the  west  of  Europe.  Five  hundred  years  before,  in  551,  silk- worms  had 
been  brought  from  China  into  Greece,  and  were  successfully  reared  in  the 
More  a. 

In  the  fourteenth  century,  the  Genoese  traded  with  India  through  the  Black 
Sea;  as  did  the  Venetians  through  Egypt  and  Syria.  The  circumnavigation 
of  Africa  proved  as  fatal  to  the  commerce  of  Venice  as  did  the  fall  of  Constan¬ 
tinople  to  her  great  rival.  So  long  as  the  Mediterranean  was  the  medium  of 
commercial  intercourse,  Venice,  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  civilised 
world,  possessed  the  whole  trade  of  the  East ;  and  such  were  her  resources 
derived  from  the  traffic,  that  five  millions  of  gold  crowns  were  expended  in 
opposing  the  memorable  league  of  Cambray,  1508.  The  maritime  communica¬ 
tion  opened  by  the  Portuguese  with  India  in  1497,  deprived  the  republic  of  the 
wealth  of  the  East ;  while  the  discovery  of  America  directed  the  attention  of 
Western  Europe  to  a  wider  field  of  mercantile  and  naval  enterprise.  Another 
extraordinary  event  again  changed  the  course  of  commerce  :  an  inundation  of 
the  sea  formed  a  connexion  between  the  ocean  and  a  lake  since  called  the 
Zuyder  Zee,  and  thus  Amsterdam  became  a  maritime  port  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  Hanseatic  league,  which,  in  1241,  facilitated  the  progress  of  the 
interior  trade  of  Europe,  began  to  decline  from  1370. 

The  grand  commercial  route  was  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  and  the  various 
passages  of  the  Alps,  particularly  across  the  Tyrol  and  by  the  St.  Gothard.  The 
second  line  proceeded  from  Greece  to  Russia,  passing  by  Vienna  and  Ratisbon. 
A  third  road  extended  from  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  by  Marseilles,  to 
the  Atlantic.  The  merchandise  brought  by  these  channels  was  distributed  at 
the  several  fairs  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  where  all  goods  were  exempt  from  toll, 
and  of  Champagne,  where  might  be  seen  merchants  from  the  most  distant 
parts  of  the  known  world.  Spain  furnished  arms,  silk,  and  Cordovan  leather ; 
while  Germany,  in  return  for  the  wines  of  France  and  spices  of  the  East, 
exported  beer,  cloth,  and  metals. 

In  England  the  charter  of  John,  1215,  declared  a  uniformity  of  weights  and 
measures;  and  in  1331,  Edward  III.  endeavoured  to  bring  from  the  Low 
Countries  a  number  of  the  discontented  weavers.  In  the  thirty-seventh  year 
of  his  reign,  it  was  enacted  that  every  merchant  or  artificer  worth  ,£500  in 
goods  and  chattels  might  dress  like  a  squire  of  £100  a-year,  and  so  on  in  a 
rising  scale.  In  1348,  Spanish  horses  of  Arabian  breed  were  exchanged  for 
sheep  ;  a  barter  which  created  new  sources  of  wealth  in  both  countries.  Agri¬ 
culture  especially  flourished  in  England  ;  and  it  is  to  this  triple  combination  of 
commerce,  manufactures,  and  rural  economy  that  she  is  indebted  for  her 
splendour  and  power.  - 

Woollen  Trade. — The  introduction  into  England  of  the  important  manu¬ 
facture  of  woollen  cloth  was  the  work  of  Edward  III.  Flanders  had  previously 
been  the  great  centre  of  the  trade,  whence,  by  the  institution  of  yearly. fairs, 
960,  all  continental  Europe  was  supplied.  English  wool  had  long  been  exported 
to  the  Netherlands,  but  principally  by  German  and  Italian  merchants.  Henry 
I.  had  endeavoured  to  establish  manufactures  of  fine  wool  in  1111,  by  a  settle¬ 
ment  of  Flemings  at  Ross  in  Pembrokeshire.  The  abuses  of  monopoly,  and 
the  tumults  to  which  they  gave  rise,  drove  many  workmen  from  Holland  and 
Flanders  into  this  kingdom,  1331,  where  they  obtained  such  privileges  as 
encouraged  them  to  resume  their  occupations.  The  serges  of  Ireland  were 
much  esteemed  in  Italy  in  the  fourteenth  century,  before  which  period  the 
woollen  trade  of  Catalonia  had  been  firmly  established. 

Fisheries. — The  earliest  authentic  account  of  the  herring-fishery  on  the  coast 
of  Norway  extends  as  far  back  as  to  978.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Netherlands  rivalled  the  Hanse  Towns,  not  only  in  their  woollen 
manufactures,  but  in  their  method  of  pickling  herrings,  a  superiority  which 
they  attained  about  the  time  of  the  removal  of  the  great  shoal  from  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  first  to  those  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  and,  in 
1394,  to  that  of  Britain. 

IVawzZ  Code. — The  first  maritime  code  was  that  of  Rhodes,  wnich  was  revived 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  SECOND. 


345 


in  that  of  Amalfi.  Richard  I.  of  England  is  supposed  to  have  drawn  up  the 
laws  of  Oleron,  1194  ;  but  the  code  of  Barcelona,  1255,  became  the  fundamental 
law  of  commerce.  Some  such  regulations  were  necessary  to  prevent  piracy 
and  the  barbarous  custom  of  reprisals. 

Banks ,  <$ -c. — The  silver  mines  of  Misnia,  discovered  in  698,  afforded  a  more 
convenient  means  of  trading  than  by  barter.  The  modern  funding  system  dates 
from  1175,  when  a  forced  loan  was  raised  at  Venice.  General  letters  of  credit 
are  mentioned  about  12.00  ;  bills  of  exchange  were  known  in  1255  ;  and  the  first 
bank  of  exchange  and  deposit  was  established  at  Barcelona,  1401.  In  1236,  an 
attempt  was  made  in  China  to  introduce  a  paper  currency  for  the  relief  of  the 
government,  but  it  failed  from  the  want  of  public  confidence. 

Gunpowder. — The  manufacture  of  gunpowder  was  known  to  the  Chinese 
about  a.  d.  85  ;  but  no  traces  of  it  are  discoverable  in  Europe  before  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  it  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  the  Spanish 
Moors  in  defence  of  the  city  of  Niebla,  1249.  Cannon  appear  to  have  been 
first  employed  by  the  King  of  Granada,  when  he  besieged  Baza  in  1312;  and 
by  Edward  III.  at  Cressy,  1346.  Muskets  were  introduced  about  1411,  and 
bombs  in  1450. 

Printing. — The  art  of  printing  with  moveable  types  was  invented  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  but  its  origin  is  involved  in  much  uncertainty, 
no  less  than  fifteen  cities  and  a  greater  number  ef  individuals  laying  claim  to 
the  honour.  The  taking  of  impressions  from  engraved  blocks  or  plates  is  very 
ancient,  and  was  known  to  the  Babylonians  and  Romans.  The  Chinese  are 
supposed  to  have  made  much  progress  in  this  art  before  the  tenth  century. 
Guttenburg  of  Strasburg,  Faust,  and  Schceffer,  however  their  pretensions  may 
be  confused,  consummated  this  valuable  discovery.  The  first  printed  book  was 
a  Latin  Bible,  1450-1455,  known  as  the  “  Mazarin  Bible,”  from  a  copy  having 
been  discovered  at  Paris  in  the  library  of  the  Cardinal  Mazarin.  The  first 
work  printed  in  England  was  executed  at  Oxford,  1468,  three  years  before 
Caxton  began  to  print  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

The  Great  Plague. — An  extraordinary  continuance  of  heavy  rain-storms  in 
the  winter  of  1345  and  the  following  spring,  by  causing  the  almost  entire  failure 
of  the  harvests  in  Europe,  produced  a  severe  famine,  which  rendered  the  popu¬ 
lation  very  susceptible  of  contagion.  The  great  plague  raged  in  every  country 
of  Europe,  carrying  off  nearly  three-fifths  of  the  inhabitants.  It  began  in  the 
Levant  about  1346,  and  thence  extended  to  Sicily,  Pisa,  and  Genoa :  the  suffer¬ 
ings  of  Florence  gave  occasion  to  the  Decameron  of  Boccaccio.  In  1348,  it 
spread  over  France  and  Spain,  reaching  Britain  the  next  year.  In  1350,  it 
coasted  Germany  and  other  northern  states,  continuing  generally  about  five 
months  in  each  country. 

Gipsies. — In  the  year  1417,  the  gipsies  first  appeared  in  Moldavia^  Wallachia, 
and  Hungary.  It  is  extremely  probable  that  the  terror  spread  by  Tamerlane’s 
invasion  of  India,  1408,  drove  out  many  of  the  inhabitants,  and  that  these  are 
the  Zingari  (Wanderers),  known  as  Bohemians  in  France,  and  ’Gipsies  (t*.  e. 
Egyptians)  in  England. 

Revival  of  the  Arts  and  Learning . — The  revival  of  the  fine  arts  illumined  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  church  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice  was  completed 
in  1071  ;  Notre  Dame  in  Paris  was  founded  1163,  and  occupied  100  years  in 
building;  Westminster  Chapel  was  rebuilt  by  Henry  III.  in  1220;  the  dome 
or  cathedral  of  Pisa  was  the  first  model  of  the  Tuscan  order ;  Cimabue,  born 
at  Florence  1240,  was  the  restorer  of  oil-painting ;  while  his  pupil  Giotto  intro¬ 
duced  rules  and  added  dignity  to  the  art.  The  gardens  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici, 
filled  with  the  precious  remains  of  antiquity,  were  the  nursery  of  men  of  genius, 
and  particularly  of  Michael  Angelo,  who  attained  the  highest  eminence  in 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture.  Finiguerra,  in  1460,  or  rather  Baldini, 
invented  the  art  of  engraving  ;*  and  by  1600,  the  sublime  and  graceful  produc¬ 
tions  of  Raphael  were  accurately  transferred  to  paper. 


♦This  is  doubtful,  as  plates  are  to  be  found  in  the  different  cabinets  of  Europe  of 
as  early  a  date  as  1440.  Wood-engraving  made  great  progress  in  Germany  about  the 


346 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


From  the  fall  of  Rome  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne  there  was  a  long  period 
of  violence  and  ignorance  ;  during  which  the  islands  of  Britain  and  Ireland 
claim  the  honour  of  sheltering  the  exiled  learning  of  Europe.  Situated  beyond 
the  iimits  of  the  barbarian  ravages,  they  afforded  an  asylum,  from  which  the 
students  were  again  expelled  by  the  maritime  ravages  of  the  Danes  and  North¬ 
men,  to  diffuse  their  knowledge  over  the  Empire  of  the  West.  The  conventual 
schools,  established  by  Charlemagne,  became  the  means  of  arresting  the  utter 
decay  of  learning. 

The  dialects  of  France,  Italy,  and  Portugal,  are  derived  from  one  common 
source;  for  “  Rome  imposed  not  only  her  yoke  but  her  language  upon  con¬ 
quered  nations.”  The  progressive  corruption  of  the  Latin  language  by  the 
adoption  of  foreign  words,  and  by  the  loss  of  many  works  of  standard  authority, 
conduced  to  the  formation  and  peculiarities  of  its  several  derivatives.  Still  it 
did  not  cease  to  be  spoken  in  France  until  the  eighth  century;  but  in  813,  we 
find  the  Romance  tongue  completely  established.  In  Italy,  the  change  appears 
to  have  taken  place  earlier 

With  the  disuse  of  Latin  all  the  learned  pursuits  were  abandoned,  and  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  alone  preserved  the  remains  of  ancient  literature, 
which  found  refuge  in  the  monastic  institutions.  The  first  great  step  towards 
a  revival  of  letters  appeared  in  the  foundation  of  universities.  Paris,  in 
1100,  became  famous  by  the  teaching  of  William  of  Champeaux,  and  of  his 
rival  Abelard.  Oxford  was  a  flourishing  school  about  1200,  and  Cambridge 
was  incorporated  in  1231.  Bologna  claims  a  higher  antiquity.  These  seats 
of  the  muses  owed  their  reputation  to  the  “scholastic  philosophy” — an  intri¬ 
cate  web  of  logical  and  metaphysical  subtleties,  founded  on  die  dialetics  of 
Aristotle. 

In  the  twelfth  century  the  Romance  language  separated  into  the  Langue 
d ’  Oc  and  the  Langue  d'  Oil,  Provencal  and  Northern  French.  The  celebrated 
Troubadours  now  appeared  ;  and  the  Floral  games  of  Toulouse  and  the  Courts 
of  Love  attracted  the  chivalry  of  Europe.  French,  properly  so  called,  began 
to  be  spoken  prior  to  1100,  and  England  was  the  earliest  school  of  its  literature, 
and  the  resort  of  the  Norman  trouveurs. 

The  English  language  was  formed  at  a  later  period  than  either  of  the  above- 
mentioned  dialects  ;  the  earliest  tolerable  writer  was  the  author  of  Piers  Plow¬ 
man’s  Vision.  Wickliffe  first  displayed  the  copiousness  and  energy  of  the 
language ;  and  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  born  in  1328,  is  justly  esteemed  the  father 
of  English  poetry. 

The  oldest  Italian  poet  is  not  earlier  than  the  year  1193.  Dante,  the  first 
great  one  of  modern  Italy,  was  born  1265  ;  his  noble  poem,  the  Divine  Comedy, 
was  written  in  exile.  He  died  in  the  year  1321.  Petrarch  followed  at  an 
interval  of  eighty-three  years,  1304,  and  gave  a  polish  to  the  language  which 
the  other  had  formed.  He  was  among  the  first  to  urge  the  study  of  Greek 
literature,  and  was  successful  in  recovering  many  of  the  treasures  of  the 
ancient  classics.  Boccaccio,  born  1313,  kindled  his  poetic  ardour  at  the  tomb 
of  Virgil ;  but  he  is  more  justly  famous  as  the  father  of  Italian  prose  composi¬ 
tion.  About  this  period  the  French  commenced  turning  their  old  metrical 
romances  into  prose — an  evidence  that  the  prosaic  genius  of  their  dialect  began 
to  be  felt.  The  language  and  poetry  of  Spain  were  not  developed  before  the 
sixteenth  century. 

The  arrival  of  Barlaan,  a  Calabrian  monk,  at  Avignon  was  an  epoch  in 
literary  history.  He  read  Plato  and  Homer  with  Petrarch,  whose  example 
attracted  the  attention  of  Italy.  Cosmo  de  Medici  established  an  academy  at 
Florence  about  1450,  solely  for  the  study  of  Plato  :  Nicholas  V.,  on  the  con 
trary,  favoured  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  The  progress  of  learning  was 
facilitated  by  the  invention  of  linen  paper  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  public 
libraries  were  soon  afterwards  formed.  To  Poggio  we  are  indebted  for  the 


end  of  the  fifteenth  and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centuries  under  Albert  Durer  and 
his  masters. 


APPENDIX  TO  PART  SECOND. 


347 


discovery  of  Quintilian,  Lucretius,  twelve  comedies  of  Plautus,  and  other 
works.  The  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453  contributed  greatly  to  the  spread 
of  Greek  literature  in  the  West,  by  the  dispersion  of  its  iearned  men.  A  pro¬ 
fessorship  of  Greek  was  established  at  Oxford  under  Henry  VII.,  and  another 
at  Paris  in  1458.  The  cause  of  learning  was  supported  by  Laurentius  Valla, 
Leonardo  Aretino,  Politian,  and  the  learned  printer  Manutius  Aldus. 

Domestic  Manners ,  fyc.  The  increasing  wealth  and  foreign  commerce  of 
Europe  naturally  led  to  greater  refinements  in  domestic  life.  When  other  and 
more  direct  testimony  is  wanting,  we  may,  in  certain  respects,  judge  of  the 
progress  of  society  by  the  sumptuary  laws,  the  chief  part  of  which,  extending 
both  to  the  table  and  the  wardrobe,  were  enacted  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
In  France  these  provisions  were  continued  down  to  1700.  The  history  of  civil 
architecture  gives  a  striking  insight  into  the  advancement  of  social  comforts. 
The  high  gloomy  keeps,  with  their  narrow  loopholes,  gradually  yielded  to  the 
castle  and  the  palace,  in  which  the  large  arched  windows  are  evidences  at 
once  of  internal  quiet  and  magnificence.  The  houses  of  the  gentry  were 
usually  built  of  wood  or  of  stones  rough  from  the  quarry.  Brick  buildings 
first  appear  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The  ordinary  mansion-houses  were 
small  and  inconvenient ;  a  passage  extended  through  the  house,  with  a  hall 
and  parlour  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  the  kitchen  and  offices,  with  one  or 
two  chambers  above.  In  France,  traces  of  fortified  castles  {chateaux)  remain; 
while  in  Italy,  although  in  several  towns  the  houses  were  covered  with  thatch, 
there  was  a  greater  degree  of  elegance  in  the  buildings.  Chimneys  did  not 
come  into  general  use  before  the.  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  and  in 
France,  not  before  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth.  They  were  not  introduced 
into  the  Cheshire  farm-houses  until  the  early  part  of  Elizabeth’s  reign,  the  fire 
being  in  the  middle  of  the  house  against  a  hob  of  clay,  and  the  oxen  lived  under 
the  same  roof  with  the  family.  Neither  in  France  nor  in  England  was  window- 
glass  introduced  before  the  fourteenth  century,  and  during  the  middle  ages 
glazed  windows  appear  to  have  been  an  article  of  moveable  furniture.  Beds 
were  extremely  rare ;  the  walls  of.  the  rooms  were  naked  ;  there  were  no 
libraries  or  pictures ;  silver  cups  and  spoons  were  almost  the  only  articles  of 
plate.  Chairs  and  looking-glasses  were  scarcely  known;  window- shutters 
and  curtains  were  great  luxuries  even  in  1539. 

The  condition  of  agriculture  in  England  had  been  gradually  improving  since 
the  Norman  conquest.  During  the  long  reign  of  the  Plantagenets,  woods 
were  cleared,  marshes  drained,  and  parochial  enclosures  made,  so  that,  under 
Edward  III.,  there  was  a  great  extent  of  land  cultivated;  the  northern  and 
western  parts,  however,  being  the  most  backward.  The  culture  of  the  arable 
soil  was  very  imperfect,  nine  or  ten  bushels  of  wheat  being  a  fair  average  crop 
to  an  acre.  Such  land  was  rented  at  about  sixpence  an  acre,  though  meadow- 
ground  was  double  or  triple  that  sum.  To  augment  their  revenues,  the  land¬ 
lords  procured  a  repeal  of  the  act  forbidding  the  exportation  of  corn,  15th 
Henry  VI.,  so  long  as  wheat  did  not  exceed  6s.  8d.  a-quarter,  and  barley  3s. 
Under  Edward  IV.  the  usual  price  of  land  was  ten  years’  purchase.  But  to 
form  precise  notions  on  this  subject,  we  must  be  acquainted  with  the  relative 
value  of  money.  Before  the  debasement  of  the  coin  in  1301,  the  ordinary  price 
of  a  quarter  of  wheat  was  about  4s.,  that  of  barley  and  oats  being  in  proportion. 
A  sheep  was  dear  at  one  shilling,  and  an  ox  at  ten  or  twelve.  By  a  com¬ 
parative  table  of  English  money,  drawn  up  by  Sir  F.  Eden,  it  appears  that  the 
value  of  a  pound  sterling  of  our  present  coinage  was  worth  at  the  Conquest 
£2,  18s.  l^d.,  whence  it  gradually  decreased  until  it  reached  4s  7|d.  in  1551  ; 
but  the  next  year  it  rose  to  £1,  Os.  6fd.  With  few  variations,  until  the  43d  of 
Elizabeth,  it  continued  as  at  present.  Sir  John  Fortescue  speaks  of  £5  a  year 
as  “  a  fair  living  for  a  yeoman in  1514,  the  expense  of  a  scholar  at  the  uni¬ 
versity  was  but  £5  a-year,  or  about  £60  of  our  money  ;  and  earlier,  in  1476, 
we  find  fourpence  (our  five  shillings)  given  as  a  fee  to  a  barrisler  for  his  dinner. 
Here  we  must  consider  the  change  in  manners  and  the  usual  mode  of  living. 
Little  wine  was  drunk;  there  were  no  foreign  luxuries;  male  servants  were 
kept  chiefly  for  husbandry ;  and  landed  estates  were  nearly  exempt  froir 


348 


MIDDLE  AGES. 


taxation.  The  condition  of  the  labouring  classes,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
or  Henry  VI.,  was  better  than  at  present.  In  the  fourteenth  century  a  harvest¬ 
man  had  fourpence  a-day,  thus  enabling  him  in  a  week  to  buy  a  coom  of 
wheat,  which,  at  the  average  of  the  last  twenty  years,  would  now  cost  about 
28s.  In  1350,  reapers’  wages  were  fixed  by  law  at  threepence  a-day,  without 
food,  equal  to  5s.  at  present;  in  1424,  at  fivepence,  equal  to  6s.  8d. ;  those  of 
ordinary  workmen  being  somewhat  less.  In  1444,  a  head-shepherd  had  £ 1 , 
4s.  a  year,  equivalent  to  about  <£20,  and  in  their  ordinary  diet  labourers  used  a 
good  deal  of  animal  food. 

Consult:  Hallam,  Middle  Ages,  ch.  ix.  pp.  1  and  2;  and  Millar’s  Lectures 
on  the  Philosophy  of  History,  vol.  iv.  lect.  38-40. 


END  OP  PART  II. - MIDDLE  AGES. 


PART  THIRD. 


MODERN  HISTORY 

PROM  THE  ERA  OF  THE  REFORMATION,  AT  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE 

SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 


V 

The  great  historical  and  political  events  which  characterize  this  Iasi 
period  of  Universal  History  were  brought  about  by  many  concurrent 
circumstances,  sufficiently  united  in  respect  of  date  to  form  a  marked 
difference  between  the  middle  ages  and  the  events  of  modern  times. 
The  introduction  of  the  mariner’s  compass  was  followed,  though  at  a 
long  interval,  by  the  discovery  of  America  and  by  the  circumnavigation 
of  Africa ;  while  the  invention  of  printing  prepared  the  way  for  the  intel¬ 
lectual  and  religious  changes  effected  by  Luther  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  considering  the  actual  state  of  Europe,  we  must  not  forget  the 
influence  of  race  and  language.  The  nations  of  the  South,  with  their 
Roman  habits  and  dialects,  were  in  almost  constant  opposition  to  those 
of  the  North,  whose  language  and  manners  were  of  Germanic  origin. 
In  the  West,  civilisation  was  rapidly  developed,  and  carried  to  the  most 
distant  countries,  whereas  in  the  East,  the  people,  chiefly  of  Sclavonic 
lineage,  were  too  much  engaged  in  opposing  the  barbarians  to  make 
any  great  progress  in  the  arts  of  peace.  Similar  causes  will  also 
account  for  the  backwardness  of  the  Scandinavian  tribes,  who  were  so 
far  removed  from  the  influence  of  refinement. 

In  all  the  nations  of  Gothic  descent,  which  alone  were  strictly  under 
the  feudal  law,  a  powerful  middle  class  arose  by  degrees,  and  supported 
the  kings  against  the  barons.  But  the  struggle  was  long  and  severe  ere 
the  people  triumphed.  In  the  middle  jof  the  fifteenth  century,  feudal¬ 
ism  was  dominant  in  the  Empire;  it  had  humbled  the  Castilian 
monarchs,  and  preserved  its  supremacy  in  Portugal,  England,  and 
Naples  ;  in  Scotland  it  was  attacked  by  the  sovereigns  ;  while  in  France, 
Charles  VIII.,  successful  in  recovering  those  provinces  conquered  by 
the  English,  paved  the  way  for  its  abolition  ;  and,  before  the  end  of  the 
century,  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  Henry  VII.  of  England,  and  Louis  XL  of 
France,  had  established  the  royal  power  on  its  ruins.  Sweden,  which 
had  been  united  to  Denmark  during  sixty  years,  broke  the  union  of  Cal- 
mar  ;  Russia  emancipated  herself  from  the  Tartar  yoke  ;  and  the  Teu¬ 
tonic  order  of  knights  became  the  vassals  of  Poland.  Durincr  the  time 
the  emperor  was  busied  in  founding  the  greatness  of  his  house,  and 
Germany  in  repairing  the  evils  inflicted  by  her  political  and  religious 
wars,  all  the  Eastern  states  were  menaced  by  the  Turks,  whom  the 
Hungarians  at  length  arrested  in  their  victorious  career.  By  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Reformed  doctrines  were  already  spread 
30  (349) 


350 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


throughout  Europe,  particularly  in  France,  England,  Scotland,  and  the 
Low  Countries.  Spain  alone  remained  closed  against  them,  and  be¬ 
came  their  most  determined  adversary. 

The  Eastern  and  Northern  states  did  not  long  remain  strangers  to  the 
European  republics.  During  the  rivalry  of  Francis  I.  and  Charles  VI., 
Turkey  was  identified  with  the  European  system ;  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  Sweden  interfered  in  a  resolute  manner  in 
the  affairs  of  her  southern  neighbours.  It  w^as  now  that  France  assumed 
a  high  position;  and  Louis  XIV.  dictated  to  Europe  so  long  as  his  an¬ 
tagonists  were  composed  of  the  divided  Empire,  Holland,  and  Spain, 
then  almost  ruined  ;  but  his  influence  and  power  were  eclipsed  so  soon 
as  William  III.,  in  1688,  ascended  the  British  throne,  and  was  enabled 
to  wield  the  extensive  resources  of  his  new  kingdom.  In  concert  with 
Holland,  the  English  destroyed  the  pretensions  of  France  to  the  dominion 
of  the  sea,  and,  in  union  with  Austria,  confined  her  within  her  proper 
limits,  though  they  could  not  prevent  the  establishment  of  a  Bourbon 
on  the  Spanish  throne.  Sweden  was  the  principal  northern  power : 
twice  she  effected  considerable  conquests,  but  was  too  feeble  to  maintain 
a  lasting  supremacy.  Her  career,  too,  was  checked  by  Russia,  which 
eventually  attained  the  superiority  she  has  ever  since  preserved. 

The  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  marked  by  the  formation 
of  the  kingdoms  of  Prussia  and  Sardinia.  The  colonial  wars,  one  of  the 
characteristics  of  this  period,  furnished  England  with  an  opportunity  of 
destroying  the  navies  of  France  and  Spain,  and  of  asserting  her  power 
over  the  neutral  states.  The  revolution  of  her  American  dependencies 
threatened  her  influence,  and  terminated  in  the  loss  of  these  important 
settlements ;  but,  presenting  a  determined  front  to  her  enemies,  she 
founded  in  the  East  an  empire  of  vast  wealth  and  extent. 

At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  war  raged  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  ;  and  the  very  foundations  of  society  were  shaken 
by  the  most  terrible  revolution  on  record.  The  political  wrhirlwind 
spread  from  France  over  Europe,  leaving  in  all  directions  the  deepest 
marks  of  its  progress.  But  as  storms  and  tempests  serve  to  purify  the 
atmosphere,  so  good  has,  in  the  political  world,  sprung  out  of  what  ap¬ 
peared  to  be  unmingled  evil.  Constitutional  monarchies  are  everywhere 
established,  or  the  way  is  rapidly  preparing  for  them;  and  the  influence 
of  the  middle  class  is  more  directly  felt  in  the  governments  both  of 
England  and  France. 


,  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Britain  and  Ireland. — 1509,  Henry  VIII. — 1513,  Battle  of  Flodden;  James 
V.  —  1514,  Wolsey.  —  1527,  Anne  Boleyn.  —  1536,  First  Suppression  of 
Monasteries. — 1542,  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland. — 1547,  Edward  VI. — 1553, 
Mary. — 1558,  Elizabeth. — 1587,  Queen  of  Scotland  beheaded. — 1588,  Spanish 
Armada  defeated. — 1598,  Irish  Revolt. 

France. — 1508,  League  of  Cambray  against  Venice. — 1512,  Battle  of  Ravenna. 
— 1515,  Francis  I.  —  1520,  Field  of  Cloth  of  Gold.  —  1544,  Battle  of  Cerri- 
soles  ;  Boulogne  taken  by  the  English.  —  1545,  Massacre  of  the  Vaudois.  — - 
1558,  Calais  recovered. — 1560,  Charles  IX. — 1572,  Massacre  of  St.  Bartho- 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  351 

lomew.— 1574,  Henry  III. — 1588,  States  of  Blois. — 1589,  Henry  IV. — 1598, 
Edict  of  Nantes. 

Italian  Peninsula.  — 1501,  Naples  conquered  by  French.  —  1503,  Battle  of 
Cerignola;  1525,  of  Pavia. — 1537,  Cosmo  de  Medici. — 1547,  Fieschi’s  Con¬ 
spiracy. — 1580,  Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy. — 1585,  Pope  Sixtus  V. 

Spanish  Peninsula. —  1500,  Charles  V.  born;  Ximenes.  —  1539,  Last  Casti¬ 
lian  Cortes. — 1555,  Philip  II. — 1557,  Sebastian  of  Portugal. — 1578,  Henry  I. 
of  Portugal. — 1596,  Cadiz  taken  by  the  English. 

United  Provinces. — 1568,  Death  of  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn. — 1579,  Union 
of  Utrecht. — 1584,  Prince  of  Orange  murdered. — 1597,  Victory  of  Turnhout. 
Germany. — 1501,  Aulic  Council. — 1517,  Luther. — 1519,  Charles  V.  Emperor. 
— 1530,  Diet  of  Augsburg. — 1535,  Anabaptist  War. — 1545,  Council  of  Trent. 
— 1552,  Treaty  of  Passau. — 1556,  Ferdinand  I. ;  1564,  Maximilian  II. ;  1576, 
Rudolph  II. 

Hungary  and  Bohemia. — 1490,  Ladislaus. — 1516,  Louis  II. — 1526,  Battle  of 
Mohaz  ;  John  Zapoli  and  Ferdinand. — 1541,  John  Sigismund. — 1548,  Here¬ 
ditary  Succession  of  Bohemia. — 1566,  Turkish  Invasion. 

Poland  and  Russia. — 1506,  Sigismund  I.  king  of  Poland. — 1519,  Polish  War 
against  Teutonic  Order. — 1533,  Ivan  IV. — 1550,  New  Code. — 1573,  Henry 
of  Valois. — 1581,  Conquest  of  Siberia. — 1598,  End  of  Rurik  Dynasty. 
Denmark,  SwedExV,  and  Norway.  — 1448,  Christian  II.  — 1523,  Gustavus 
Vasa.  —  1534,  Christian  III.  —  1560,  Eric  of  Sweden.  —  1592,  Sigismund  of 
Poland. 

The  East. — 1501,  Ismael  Sophi,  King  of  Persia. — 1512,  Selim  I. — 1515,  Mogul 
Empire  in  the  East  Indies. — 1521,  Belgrade  taken. — 1522,  Siege  of  Rhodes. 
— 1548,  War  with  Persia. — 1553,  Roxalana. — 1571,  Battle  of  Lepanto. — 
1574,  Amurath  III. — 1585,  Shah  Abbas. 

Colonies.  —  1500,  Brazil  discovered.  —  1503,  Portuguese  first  established  in 
India.  — 1508,  West  Indies.  —  1513,  Discovery  of  the  South  Sea.  —  1526, 
Pizarro  in  Peru. — 1584,  Virginia,  the  First  English  Colony. — 1586,  Davis’ 
Straits. 

The  Church.— 1517,  Luther.— 1525,  Capuchin  Order.— 1530,  Confession  of 
Augsburg. — 1533,  Calvinists. — 1534,  English  Reformation. — 1540,  Jesuits. 
— 1545,  Council  of  Trent. —  1546,  Socinians.— 1552,  St.  Francis  Xavier.— 
1568,  Bull  in  Ccena  Domini , — 1572,  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. —  1580, 
Chinese  Mission. 

Inventions,  &c.— 1517,  Gun-locks.— 1538,  Lotteries.— 1548,  Balance  Wheel. 
— 1582,  Reformed  Calendar;  Oil-Painting.  — 1593,  Telescope  and  Ther¬ 
mometer. 

BRITAIN. 

England. — In  1501  and  1502  were  concluded  two  marriages  which 
led  to  important  results  in  after-times.  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales,  son  of 
Henry  V  II.,  having  espoused  Catherine  of  Aragon,  fourth  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  dying  six  months  afterwards,  his  brother, 
afterwards  Henry  A  III.,  accepted  the  hand  of  the  widow;  while  Mar¬ 
garet,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  married  James  IV.  of  Scotland, 
thereby  transmitting  rights  to  her  descendants  which  at  length  placed 
the  Stuart  family  on  the  English  throne. 


352 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Henry  VIII.  succeeded  his  father  in  the  year  1509,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen.  His  accession  to  the  throne  excited  transports  of  joy  in  the 
nation,  which  had  been  dissatisfied  with  the  parsimonious  habits  of  his 
predecessor.  The  treasures  amassed  by  the  latter  furnished  the  young 
king  with  immense  resources  ;  the  chief  potentates  of  the  Continent 
sought  his  alliance  ;  the  treaties  with  France  were  made  perpetual;  and 
nothing  was  thought  wanting  to  his  happiness.  The  celebrated  W'olsey 
now  first  appeared  on«the  theatre  of  politics ;  and,  soon  after  his  intro¬ 
duction  to  Henry,  became  the  most  influential  member  of  the  privy- 
council,  and  was  considered  prime-minister.  Although  older  than  his 
majesty,  he  made  it  his  study  to  flatter  and  subserve  the  natural  disposi¬ 
tion  of  his  master  for  luxury  and  every  kind  of  pleasure.  Henry  speedi¬ 
ly  dissipated  in  tournaments  and  banquets  the  wealth  left  by  his  parent; 
and  turned  his  attention  to  political  intrigues  and  active  warfare.  Pope 
Julius  II.,  eager  to  expel  the  French,  whom,  in  virtue  of  the  league  of 
Cambray,  he  had  introduced  into  Italy,  spared  no  means  to  gain  his 
support.  He  succeeded  so  far  as  to  interrupt  the  friendly  relations  with 
Louis  XII.,  and  the  English  king  in  person  led  an  army  into  Flanders, 
where  he  took  Terouenne,  and  routed  the  enemy  at  Guinegate,  in  the 
Battle  of  the  Spurs.  In  Scotland,  the  arms  of  Henry  were  not  less 
successful;  and  James  IV.,  the  Scottish  monarch,  was  entirely  defeated 
and  slain  at  Flodden  in  1513.  But  finding  at  length  that  he  had  been 
the  dupe  of  the  Pope,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  Louis  XII.,  giving 
him  in  marriage  his  sister  Mary,  1514. 

Francis  I.  renewed  the  treaties  of  his  predecessors,  and  Wolsey 
seized  on  this  opportunity  of  making  himself  agreeable  to  the  French 
ruler,  whose  influence  he  required  at  Rome  to  obtain  a  cardinal’s  hat, 
the  object  of  his  ambition.  The  crafty  churchman,  however,  took  ad¬ 
vantage  of  the  success  gained  by  his  patron  at  Marignano  to  alarm 
Henry  as  to  the  effect  of  the  victories  of  the  young  and  warlike  sovereign. 
The  long  rivalry  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.,  consequent  on  the 
elevation  of  the  latter  to  the  imperial  dignity,  for  which  Henry  had  him¬ 
self  been  a  candidate,  brought  the  English  monarch  into  the  quarrel,  in 
the  first  instance,  as  the  ally  of  the  emperor. 

Discussions  of  a  very  different  character  soon  engrossed  the  attention 
of  the  English  monarch.  Henry,  who  piqued  himself  greatly  on  his 
theological  abilities,  was  indignant  at  the  contempt  with  which  Luther 
had  treated  Thomas  Aquinas.  In  support  of  his  favourite  author,  he 
composed  “  A  Treatise  in  Defence  of  the  Seven  Sacraments,”  which 
was  presented  to  the  Pope,  who,  besides  comparing  it  to  the  writings  of 
Jerome  and  Augustin,  gratified  the  king  with  the  title  of  “  Defender  of 
the  Faith,”  1521.  In  return,  the  royal  author,  who  was  not  inaccessible 
to  the  voice  of  praise,  entered  readily  into  the  league  against  the  King 
of  France. 

The  English  invaded  Picardy,  and  advanced  to  within  eleven  leagues 
of  Paris,  when  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Francis  at  Pavia  in  1525, 
altered  the  policy  of  their  sovereign.  His  intercession  between  the 
captive  and  Charles  led  to  new  conventions  between  England  and 
France,  whereby  Henry  gave  up  all  pretensions  to  the  crown  of  the 
latter  country,  which  his  predecessors  had  claimed  since  the  reign  of 
Edward  III. 

In  1527,  Henry  was  seized  with  a  passion  for  Anne  Boleyn,  one  of 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


353 


the  queen’s  maids  of  honour ;  and  he  seems  to  have  early  formed  the 
design  of  getting  rid  of  Catherine,  and  making  this  new  favourite  his 
wife.  The  quarrel  between  Pope  Clement  VII.  and  Charles  V.  appear¬ 
ed  to  Henry  a  favourable  moment  for  accomplishing  his  purpose.  Pro¬ 
posals  to  annul  the  marriage  had  been  ineffectually  made  to  the  Pope 
several  months  before  Anne  appeared  at  court,  when  the  king’s  determi¬ 
nation  assumed  all  the  violence  natural  to  his  character.  Affecting  to 
have  scruples  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  his  union  with  Catherine,  and 
adopting  the  express  language  of  the  Book  of  Leviticus,  he  forwarded 
a  theological  treatise  on  the  subject  to  Clement,  who,  pressed  on  the 
one  side  by  a  prince  whom  he  was  desirous  of  conciliating,  and  on  the 
other  by  the  emperor  whom  he  feared,  promised  and  temporized,  in  the 
hope  that  the  passion  of  the  former  would  cool.  But  this  delay  only 
irritated  Henry’s  impatient  temper,  and,  after  a  disgraceful  scene  before 
the  two  legates,  he  banished  the  unfortunate  Catherine  from  court,  1529. 
Meanwhile  the  Pope  had  become  reconciled  with  Charles  V.,  at  whose 
instigation  the  case  was  transferred  to  Rome.  For  this  change  the  king 
held  Wolsey  responsible,  who,  overwhelmed  with  sudden  disgrace,  was 
stripped  of  his  immense  riches,  and  died  of  a  broken  heart,  1530.  His 
place  was  soon  supplied  by  Cranmer,  under  whose  advice  Henry  con¬ 
sulted  the  principal  universities  of  Europe,  the  majority  of  which  were 
favourable  to  his  wishes ;  and  to  annoy  and  weaken  the  clergy,  he  in¬ 
cluded  them  in  the  charge  previously  brought  against  the  cardinal,  of 
violating  the  statute  of  “  praemunire.”*  A  convocation  was  immediate¬ 
ly  summoned,  and  £100,000  were  offered  for  a  full  pardon,  which 
Henry,  who  had  now  resolved  on  entirely  subverting  the  papal  au¬ 
thority,  refused  unless  he  were  acknowledged  “  Supreme  Head  of  the 
Church  in  England.”  Having  attained  his  object,  he  secretly  married 
Anne  Boleyn,  1533  ;  and  after  publicly  acknowledging  his  new  wife, 
had  her  crowned  with  great  ceremony  so  soon  as  Cranmer,  now  raised 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  could  pronounce  the  sentence  of  divorce 
against  Catherine.  The  parliament  ratified  the  marriage  with  Anne, 
and  declared  Mary,  the  issue  of  the  previous  union,  illegitimate.  It 
also  formally  annulled  the  pontifical  authority,  and  conferred  on  the 
king  the  title  of  “  Supreme  Head  of  the  Anglican  Church,”  with  most 
of  the  spiritual  prerogatives  previously  exercised  by  the  Pope. 

In  separating  from  the  Romish  communion,  Henry  pretended  still  to 
be  orthodox.  Believing  himself  absolute  master  of  the  minds  of  his 
subjects  as  well  as  of  their  bodies,  he  changed  the  discipline  of  the 
church,  but  retained  its  doctrines.  In  his  eyes  it  was  equally  criminal 
to  believe  in  the  Pope  or  in  Luther;  and  those  of  either  party  who  were 
unable  to  disguise  their  sentiments,  were  punished  alike.  In  1535,  two 
illustrious  victims,  Bishop  Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas  More,  perished  on 
the  scaffold  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy ;  and  at  the  same 
time,  Protestants  were  dragged  to  the  stake  for  speaking  against  the 
sacraments  of  the  Roman  church.  The  monks,  whose  credit  had  fallen 
with  the  power  of  the  pontiff,  detested  the  sacrilege  which  they  conceived 

*This  law,  which  is  still  in  force,  was  passed  during  the  disputes  of  Richard  II.  with 
the  papacy,  and  enacts,  that  if  any  man  shall  seek  or  obtain,  in  the  court  of  Rome  or 
elsewhere,  any  translations  of  bishops  from  their  present  sees  to  other  sees  out  of  the 
kingdom  ;  any  excommunications,  bulls,  or  other  instruments  against  the  king’s  crown 
and  dignity  ;  that  his  goods  and  chattels,  lands  and  tenements,  shall  be  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  and  his  body  imprisoned. 

30* 


354 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


the  king  to  have  committed ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  Henry  regarded 
them  as  his  principal  enemies,  whom  it  was  necessary  to  destroy.  For 
this  purpose,  Cromwell,  his  secretary,  was  appointed  “royal  vicegerent 
and  vicar-general,”  with  orders  to  visit  by  his  commissioners  the  con¬ 
vents  of  both  sexes  throughout  the  kingdom.  Though  time  had  intro¬ 
duced  abuses  and  disorders  into  these  institutions,  the  visiters  published 
an  exaggerated  relation  of  them.*  The  parliament  immediately  made 
a  first  step  towards  the  entire  destruction  of  the  religious  orders,  by  sup¬ 
pressing  all  monasteries  whose  yearly  income  did  not  exceed  £200  ster¬ 
ling.  By  this  measure,  380  communities  were  abolished,  whose  total 
revenue  amounted  to  £32,000,  besides  plate  and  jewels  to  the  value  of 
£100,000. 

Soon  after  these  arbitrary  proceedings,  the  queen  was  suddenly  arrested 
and  conveyed  to  the  Tower,  being  accused  of  adultery  and  high  treason. 
Seventeen  days  saw~  Anne  Boleyn  pass  from  the  throne  to  the  scaffold. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  her  vivacity  and  freedom  of  manner  had  given 
rise  to  suspicion  ;  but  the  best  exculpation  of  her  character  is  to  be  found 
in  Henry’s  marriage  with  Jane  Seymour,  one  of  her  maids  of  honour,  on 
the  day  succeeding  Anne’s  execution,  1536.  During  these  transactions, 
the  violent  religious  changes  had  excited  great  discontent,  particularly 
in  the  north  of  England,  where  several  revolts  broke  out.  Thirty  thou¬ 
sand  of  the  malcontents  marched  towards  London ;  but  they  were  dis¬ 
persed,  and  the  principal  leaders  executed.  These  commotions  increased 
the  king’s  dislike  to  the  monks,  whom  he  not  unjustly  accused  of  being 
the  secret  agents  of  the  insurrection.  To  crush  them  entirely,  he  deter¬ 
mined  to  destroy  all  the  remaining  religious  communities.  The  parlia¬ 
ment  readily  passed  the  necessary  measures ;  and  the  annual  revenue  of 
the  crown  was  augmented  by  an  addition  of  £160,000. 

In  the  midst  of  his  hostility  to  the  Romish  church,  Henry  never  failed 
in  his  zeal  to  uphold  its  dogmas.  The  parliament,  becoming  daily  more 
servile,  approved  of  his  intolerance  by  the  famous  bill  of  the  Six  Arti¬ 
cles,  called  the  Bloody  Statute, — a  law  which  asserted  the  real  presence 
and  communion  of  one  kind,  forbade  the  marriage  of  priests,  admitted 
vows  of  chastity7,  and  declared  the  utility  of  private  masses,  with  the 
necessity  of  auricular  confession.  Any  violation  of  the  first  article  was 
punishable  with  death;  and  for  the  others,  the  penalties  were  confisca¬ 
tion  of  property  and  imprisonment  during  the  royal  pleasure.  To  crown 
all,  the  same  parliament  gave  to  the  king’s  proclamations  the  force  of 
statute  law. 

In  1540,  Henry,  left  a  widower  by  the  death  of  his  queen,  Jane  Sey¬ 
mour,  who  died  in  1537,  twelve  days  after  giving  birth  to  a  son,  subse¬ 
quently  Edward  VI.,  contracted  a  new  marriage  with  Anne,  daughter 
of  the  Duke  of  Cleves.  His  union  with  this  princess,  whose  personal 
appearance  did  not  correspond  with  Cromwell’s  flattering  description, 
led  to  the  destruction  of  that  favourite,  whose  sudden  exaltation  and 
tyrannical  conduct  had  caused  him  to  be  generally  hated.  The  king 
gave  him  over  to  his  enemies,  byr  whom  he  was  accused  of  heresy  and 
high  treason;  the  very  parliament  which  condemned  him  to  death  hav- 


*  The  substance  of  these  charges  has  never  been  impeached  ;  and  their  existence  is  in 
a  measure  confirmed  by  similar  imputations  attached  to  monastic  institutions  even  of 
these  later  days  in  Italy  and  Spain,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  life  of  Scipio  Ricci,  bishop  of 
Pistoia. 


\ 


r 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


855 


ing,  but  a  few  days  before,  declared  him  worthy  to  be  the  “  vicar-gene¬ 
ral  of  the  universe.”  The  disgrace  of  this  high  officer  was  followed  by 
the  divorce  of  the  queen  ;  and  in  less  than  a  month  Henry  married  a  niece 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  Lady  Catherine  Howard,  who  was  decapitated 
eighteen  months  afterwards  on  a  charge  of  incontinence  before  and  after 
marriage.  The  king  next  espoused  Catherine  Parr,  widow  of  Lord 
Latimer.  A  revolt  in  Ireland,  hostilities  and  negotiations  with  Scotland, 
and  a  war  with  France,  occupied  the  latter  years  of  his  reign. 

As  Henry  was  descended  from  the  Welsh  Tudors,  he  naturally  di¬ 
rected  his  attention  to  the  country  of  his  ancestors,  which  was  a  prey 
to  all  the  disorders  of  feudal  anarchy,  and  where  his  proclamations  were 
without  force.  In  1536,  it  was  enacted  that  the  whole  of  Wales  should 
be  incorporated  with  England,  being  made  subject  to  the  same  laws, 
and  authorized  to  send  to  parliament  a  member  for  every  county. 

In  Ireland,  the  religious  innovations  countenanced  by  the  government 
had  excited  so  profound  a  sensation  as  to  unite  in  one  common  cause 
the  natives  and  the  settlers,  hitherto  apparently  irreconcilable  enemies. 
But  O’Neill,  the  head  of  the  insurgents,  having  been  defeated,  the  other 
chiefs  submitted  to  the  royal  authority.  In  1542,  that  country  was 
raised  from  a  lordship  to  a  kingdom,  and  several  of  the  most  powerful 
leaders  created  earls,  among  whom  O’Neil  received  the  title  of  Tyrone. 
Lastly,  some  regulations  for  the  administration  of  justice  completed  its 
pacification,  and  the  power  of  the  English  had  never  appeared  more 
firmly  established  since  the  invasion  of  Henry  II. 

The  king,  finding  his  authority  confirmed  in  England  and  Ireland, 
wished  to  extend  his  influence  into  Scotland,  and  oblige  his  nephew, 
James  V.,  to  adopt  his  religious  opinions  and  declare  war  against  France. 
An  invasion  by  an  English  army  produced  no  other  effect  than  the  burn¬ 
ing  of  a  few  villages;  and  the  death  of  the  Scottish  sovereign,  in  1542, 
led  to  a  cessation  of  hostilities.  Henry  was  now  at  leisure  to  turn  his 
attention  to  France,  whither  he  sent  a  numerous  army,  which  took 
Boulogne.  After  the  defection  of  Charles  V.  from  his  alliance,  the  war 
continued  two  years  longer,  but  was  not  marked  by  any  memorable 
event.  In  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  1546,  Henry  retained  his  conquests 
until  certain  sums  of  money  owing  by  the  enemy  were  paid.  „ 

The  end  of  this  extraordinary  monarch  now  rapidly  approached  ;  and 
his  death,  on  the  28th  of  January  1547,  saved  the  life  of  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  who  had  been  condemned  to  be  executed  the  following  morn¬ 
ing. 

Hallam  thus  describes  Henry’s, rule  and  character:  —  A  government  ad¬ 
ministered  with  so  frequent  violations  not  only  of  the  chartered  privileges  of 
Englishmen,  but  of  those  still  more  sacred  rights  which  national  law  has 
established,  must  have  been  regarded,  one  would  imagine,  with  just  abhorrence 
and  earnest  longings  for  a  change.  Yet  contemporary  authorities  by  no  means 
answer  to  this  expectation,  some  mentioning  Henry  after  his  death  in  language 
of  eulogy.  I  do  not  indeed  believe  that  he  had  really  conciliated  his  people’s 
affection  ;  for  that  perfect  fear  which  attended  him  must  have  cast  out  love. 
But  he  had  a  few  qualities  that  deserve  esteem,  and  several  which  a  nation  is 
pleased  to  behold  in  a  sovereign.  He  was  without  dissimulation  ;  his  manners 
were  affable,  and  his  temper  generous.  Though  his  schemes  of  foreign  policy 
were  not  very  sagacious,  and  his  wars  productive  of  no  material  advantage,  yet 
ffiey  were  uniformly  successful,  and  retrieved  the  honour  of  the  English  name. 
But  the  main  cause  of  the  reverence  with  which  our  forefathers  cherished  this 
king’s  memory,  was  the  share  he  had  taken  in  the  Reformation.  They  saw 


856 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


in  hin?  not  indeed  the  proselyte  of  their  faith,  but  the  subverter  of  their  enemies 
power  — the  avenging  minister  of  Heaven,  by  whose  giant  arm  the  chain  of 
superstition  had  been  broken,  and  the  prison  burst  asunder. — Constitutional 
History  of  England ,  ch.  i. 

Read:  Tytler’s  Life  of  King  Henry  VIII.  in  Edinburgh  Cabinet  Library. 

Edward  VI.  had  not  reached  his  tenth  year  when  he  ascended  the 
throne  in  1547.  Henry  had  fixed  his  majority  at  eighteen,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  sixteen  executors,  assisted  by  twelve  counsellors,  to  carry  on 
the  government  in  the  meanwhile.  But  the  young  king’s  uncle,  the 
ambitious  Earl  of  Hertford,  by  securing  a  majority  of  the  curators,  was 
appointed  protector  of  the  realm,  and  created  Duke  of  Somerset.  This 
nobleman,  being  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  new  religious  doctrines,  edu¬ 
cated  Edward  in  Protestant  principles,  and  concerted  with  Cranmer  a 
plan  of  general  reform.  Yet  it  was  necessary  to  proceed  with  caution; 
and  the  duke  suspended  for  a  time  the  episcopal  authority,  appointing 
commissioners  to  visit  the  dioceses.  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
opposed  these  proceedings  with  all  his  influence ;  and  to  silence  so 
powerful  an  adversary,  he  was  thrown  into  prison. 

During  this  time  Scotland  was  more  than  ever  agitated.  The  murder 
of  Cardinal  Beaton  lighted  up  the  flames  of  civil  wTar.  The  queen- 
dowager,  Mary  of  Lorraine,  asked  succour  from  France,  and  the  Pro¬ 
testant  party  had  recourse  to  England.  Somerset,  who  crossed  the 
Tweed  at  the  head  of  20,000  men,  proposed  to  unite  the  two  kingdoms 
by  the  marriage  of  the  young  queen  with  Edward,  and  offered  peace  as 
the  condition.  The  battle  of  Pinkey,  1547,  in  w^hich  more  than  10,000 
Scots  were  left  on  the  field,  followed  the  refusal.  Instead  of  taking 
advantage  of  this  success,  the  victor  returned  to  London,  where  cabals 
were  forming  against  him  by  his  brother  Lord  Seymour,  and  Dudley, 
earl  of  Warwick.  To  secure  his  popularity,  he  summoned  a  parliament, 
which  repealed  the  most  hateful  laws  of  Henry  VIII.,  including  the 
statute  of  the  Six  Articles.  Further,  private  masses  were  forbidden,  and 
the  holy  communion  ordered  to  be  administered  in  bread  and  wine, 
while  the  nomination  of  bishops  became  one  of  the  prerogatives  of  roy¬ 
alty.  In  the  following  year,  the  parliament  enacted  that  the  mass 
should  be  celebrated  in  English,  adopted  the  reformed  liturgy,  and  per¬ 
mitted  the  marriage  of  priests. 

Public  attention  was  now  directed  to  the  struggles  of  the  protector 
against  his  brother  Lord  Seymour,  who  was  one  of  his  greatest  enemies. 
The  ambition  of  the  latter  had  been  nourished  by  his  marriage  with 
Catherine  Parr,  widow  of  Henry  VIII.,  on  whose  death  he  had  aspired 
to  the  hand  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth.  He  had  numerous  partisans ; 
but  being  charged  with  plotting  to  carry  off  the  king  and  change  the 
government,  he  was  executed  on  the  20th  March  1549.  This,  however, 
did  not  terminate  the  protector’s  embarrassments ;  for  Catholic  priests 
had  stirred  up  the  peasants  of  Devonshire  and  Norfolk,  and  when  these 
insurrections  were  suppressed,  he  had  to  contend  against  the  allied 
Scotch  and  French  army.  Failing  in  obtaining  foreign  aid,  and  being 
opposed  by  the  powerful  Warwick  faction,  Somerset  fell  rapidly  from 
his  lofty  station.  He  was  accused  of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanours, 
and  committed  to  the  Tower;  but  his  execution  in  1552,  and  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Northumberland  conferred  on  Warwick,  did  not  satisfy  the  lat* 
ter  nobleman,  who  aspired  to  the  supreme  authority,  founding  his  ambi- 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


357 


tious  views  on  the  delicate  health  of  the  king.  He  first  persuaded  Ed¬ 
ward  to  change  the  order  of  succession,  representing  that  Mary  and 
Elizabeth,  having  been  declared  illegitimate  by  the  parliament,  could 
not  ascend  the  throne ;  that  the  religion  and  birth  of  the  Scottish  queen 
disqualified  her;  and  that,  consequently,  the  nearest  heir  was  his  cousin 
the  Marchioness  of  Dorset,  eldest  daughter  of  Mary,  sister  of  Henry 
VIII.,  by  her  second  husband  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  after  her,  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  the  grand-granddaughter  of  Henry  VII.  While  the  council 
were  deliberating  on  this  momentous  question,  Northumberland  effected 
the  union  of  his  fourth  son,  Guildford  Dudley,  with  Lady  Jane,  and  Ed¬ 
ward  VI.  expired  not  long  after,  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  his  age,  July  6, 
1553. 

Immediately  on  Edward’s  decease,  Northumberland  proceeded  to  pro¬ 
claim  Lady  Jane  Grey ;  but  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  by  his 
first  queen,  Catherine  of  Aragon,  collected  an  army,  asserted  her  claims, 
and  prevailed  over  her  rival.  The  unfortunate  Jane  reigned  only  ten 
days, — to  her  a  period  of  sorrow  and  distress.  The  duke  was  beheaded 
in  1553,  and  Lady  Jane  and  her  husband  in  the  following  year. 

Mary  had  determined  to  re-establish  the  Roman  Catholic  worship,  but 
she  proceeded  cautiously,  at  first  liberating  Gardiner  and  other  bishops 
from  prison,-  and  restoring  them  to  the  sees  of  which  they  had  been 
deprived ;  while  of  the  reformed  clergy  great  numbers  were  ejected. 
Cranmer,  doubly  hateful  to  her  for  the  share  he  had  taken  in  the  divorce 
of  her  mother,  and  in  the  establishment  of  Protestantism,  was  accused 
of  favouring  the  party  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  and  condemned  for  high  trea¬ 
son;  but  his  execution  did  not  take  place  till  three  years  after.  Parlia¬ 
ment  readily  abolished  the  statutes  of  Edward  VI.  w’hich  were  in  any¬ 
wise  favourable  to  the  new  doctrines,  and  restored  affairs  to  the  state  in 
which  they  were  left  by  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.,  Mary  retaining  the 
spiritual  power  and  the  title  of  the  head  of  the  church  only  until  she 
could  restore  both  into  the  hands  of  the  Pope.  In  order  more  surely  to 
accomplish  her  designs,  she  contracted  a  marriage  with  Philip,  son  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  in  1554.  After  a  sojourn  of  fourteen  months 
in  England,  the  prince  returned  to  Flanders,  and  soon  after  inheriting  the 
crown  of  Spain,  he  thought  no  more  of  his  queen.  Thus  was  fortu¬ 
nately  defeated  a  deep-laid  plot  to  transfer  the  kingdom  under  a  foreign 
yoke,  and  to  crush  the  Protestant  religion  along  with  the  national  inde¬ 
pendence. 

In  the  new  parliament,  which  assembled  in  November  1554,  the  entire 
re-establishment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  agreed  to,  and 
Cardinal  Pole  was  sent  from  Rome  to  reconcile  England  to  the  holy 
see.  Worldly  interest  entered  deeply  into  this  religious  change;  for 
those  who  had  enriched  themselves  by  the  spoils  of  the  church  in  the 
two  preceding  reigns,  exacted  a  confirmation  of  the  abbey  lands  to  their 
new  proprietors.  Under  the  fanatical  Gardiner,  it  was  not  to  be  expected 
that  heresy  would  pass  unpunished.  The  number  of  persons  who  suf¬ 
fered  death  by  fire  in  Mary’s  reign  has  been  computed  at  300,  among 
whom  were  Archbishop  Cranmer,  Bishops  Latimer,  Hooper,  and  Ridley. 
The  Princess  Elizabeth  was  confined  in  the  Tower,  on  account  of  her 
extensive  influence  among  the  Protestant  party.  The  murmurs  of  the 
people,  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Reformed  doctrines,  the  indifference  of 
her  husband,  the  loss  of  Calais,  and  the  failure  of  an  expedition  to  Brest, 


358 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


all  preyed  upon  the  queen’s  spirits,  and  hastened  her  death.  She  expired 
in  1558,  leaving  the  kingdom  to  her  sister. 

Hallam  sums  up  the  character  and  reign  of  Mary  in  the  following  expressive 
terms:  —  “Her  reign  was  inglorious,  her  capacity  narrow,  and  her  temper 
sanguinary ;  although  conscientious  in  some  respects,  she  was  as  capable  of 
dissimulation  as  her  sister,  and  of  breach  of  faith  as  her  husband ;  she  obsti¬ 
nately  and  wilfully  sacrificed  her  subjects’  affections  and  interest  to  a  misplaced 
and  discreditable  attachment ;  and  the  words  with  which  Carte  has  concluded 
the  character  of  this  unlamented  sovereign  are  perfectly  just :  —  *  Having 
reduced  the  nation  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  she  left  it,  by  her  seasonable  decease, 
to  be  restored  by  her  successor  to  its  ancient  prosperity  and  glory.’  ” — Const. 
Hist.  England. 

Elizabeth  had  been  brought  up  in  the  religion  of  her  mother,  Anne 
Boleyn,  and  had  with  difficulty  escaped  from  the  trials  of  the  preceding 
reign.  Misfortune  served  only  to  call  forth  the  strength  of  her  character. 
In  her  long  retirement,  occupied  in  the  study  of  ancient  and  modern  lan¬ 
guages,  and  in  the  pursuits  of  literature,  she  prepared  herself  for  the 
great  task  which  Providence  had  reserved  for  her. 

Although  the  divorce  of  Catherine  of  Aragon,  and  Henry’s  marriage 
with  Anne  Boleyn,  had  been  ratified  by  parliament,  yet  as  these  acts 
wTere  not  acknowledged  by  the  Pope,  the  zealous  Catholics  disputed 
Elizabeth’s  right  of  succession,  and  turned  their  eyes  to  Mary  Stuart, 
who  inherited  the  claims  of  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII. 
This  princess,  married  to  the  dauphin  of  France,  accordingly  assumed 
the  title  of  Queen  of  England,  and  quartered  the  English  arms  with  those 
of  Scotland  and  France.  Elizabeth  now  decided  upon  establishing 
Protestantism,  as  the  safeguard  of  her  throne;  but  her  first  steps  were 
marked  by  her  characteristic  caution  and  prudence.  She  published  an 
edict  maintaining,  until  further  orders,  the  services  of  religion  in  the 
same  form  as  at  the  death  of  Mary,  and  permitted  the  prayers  and  offices 
to  be  read  only  in  English.  She  was  even  consecrated  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishop  of  Carlisle,  15th  January  1559;  but  the  parliament 
which  assembled  ten  days  after  abolished  the  papal  supremacy,  ordered 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  to  be  exclusively  used,  and  that  all  clergy¬ 
men  should  sw’ear  to  the  new  order  of  things.  The  bishops,  with  one 
exception  (Landaff),  refused  to  take  the  required  oath;  but  among  the 
inferior  clergy,  spread  over  nearly  ten  thousand  parishes,  there  were  not 
found  two  hundred  to  follow  their  example.  The  Protestant  Church 
of  England  was  thus  established  in  its  present  form. 

As  Elizabeth’s  greatest  difficulties  were  to  be  expected  from  the  oppo¬ 
sition  of  the  Catholics,  she  endeavoured  to  promote  Protestant  principles 
in  those  states  that  were  most  in  connexion  with  her  own.  In  Scotland 
the  reformers  had  made  great  progress,  animated  by  the  zeal  and  elo¬ 
quence  of  Knox;  and  the  dissensions  between  the  twTo  parties  in  that 
kingdom  were  encouraged  by  Secretary  Cecil,  in  order  to  weaken  the 
power  of  the  queen,  and  destroy  the  influence  of  the  French  king,  her 
husband.  The  measures  pursued  were  so  successful,  that  when  Mary 
returned  to  Scotland  in  1561,  she  was  obliged  to  renounce  all  claims  to 
the  English  throne.  Elizabeth  now  turned  her  view’s  to  the  internal 
improvement  of  her  own  dominions,  and  the  success  which  accompanied 
her  labours  excited  the  admiration  of  all  Europe. 

In  1563,  a  law  wTas  passed  commanding  all  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  teachers,  lawyers,  and  clerks,  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy; 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


359 


not  long  after  which  the  Puritans  separated  from  the  estaoixshed  church. 
An  ecclesiastical  convocation  was  summoned  to  compose  the  national 
creed,  and  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  were  drawn  up,  as  they  exist  at  the 

present  day.  ' 

The  progress  of  affairs  in  Scotland  was  so  adverse  to  Mary  Stuart, 

that  she 'was  compelled  to  flee  from  her  own  subjects  into  England, 
where  she  was  immediately  imprisoned  on  the  plea  of  certain  crimes 
with  which  she  was  charged.  The  conferences  at  York  and  Hampton 
Court,  as  to  her  participation  in  her  husband’s  murder,  were  far  from 
disproving  her  guilt;  while  the  extensive  combination  in  1569,  to  marry 
her  to  the°Duke  of  Norfolk,  gave  great  disquietude  to  the  cabinet.  The 
intrigues  of  this  weak  and  ambitious  nobleman  were  terminated  by  his 
death  on  the  scaffold  in  1572.  The  Pope,  Pius  V.,  did  not  remain  an 
idle  spectator  of  these  transactions.  He  issued  a  bull,  which,  after  enu¬ 
merating  Elizabeth’s  crimes,  declared  her  guilty  of  heresy,  and  an¬ 
nounced  that  her  subjects  were  absolved  from  their  allegiance.  This 
edict,  founded  on  the  assumed  right  vested  in  the  supreme  pontiff  to 
depose  kings-for  heinous  crimes  against  the  church,  was  far  more  inju¬ 
rious  in  its  consequences  to  those  whom  it  was  intended  to  serve  than 
to  the  sovereign.  It  elicited  two  statutes  for  her  security,  punishing 
with  severity  any  intercourse  with  Rome,  and  all  who  ventured  to  deny 
her  title.  The  House  of  Commons  even  called  for  the  trial  of  “  the  pre¬ 
tended  Scottish  queen.” 

Elizabeth  now  began  to  enjoy  tranquillity,  her  authority  being  firmly 
established  in  England,  and  Scotland  governed  by  her  creature  Morton. 
Although  herself  a  Protestant,  she  had  not  hitherto,  from  the  unsettled 
state  of  her  affairs,  interfered  directly  in  the  insurrection  of  the  Low 
Countries  or  the  civil  war  in  France.  But  in  1579,  she  beheld  dangers 
closing  around  her  on  every  side.  The  first  blow  was  the  disgrace  of 
Morton,  and  the  subsequent  loss  of  her  influence  in  Scotland.  In  1578, 
she  had  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  states-general  of  Holland,  professing 
at  the  same  time  a  desire  to  preserve  friendly  relations  with  Philip  II., 
notwithstanding  that  Drake,  with  a  privateering  squadron,  was  ravaging 
the  Spanish  colonies  of  America.  His  majesty,  to  retaliate  these  indi¬ 
rect  hostilities  of  the  English  queen,  sent  a  body  of  troops  into  Ireland, 
1579.  Her  quiet  was  farther  menaced  by  the  plots  of  the  Catholics,  to 
counteract  which  the  Protestants  formed  a  solemn  association  for  her 
defence  against  all  enemies,  foreign  or  domestic.  Parliament  banished 
the  Jesuits  as  well  as  the  priests  of  the  Romish  communion,  and  forbade 
their  return  under  the  penalties  of  high  treason. 

The  alarm,  whether  real  or  feigned  is  uncertain,  which  Elizabeth  felt 
on  account  of  Queen  Mary,  caused  an  increase  of  severity  towards  that 
unfortunate  princess.  Her  friends  in  England  were  consequently  more 
earnest  in  her  cause,  and  plotted  the  assassination  of  their  own  sovereign. 
A  young  man,  named  Babington,  managed  to  open  a  correspondence 
with  the  royal  prisoner,  which  however  did  not  long  escape  the  vigi¬ 
lance  of  Secretary  Walsingham.  Means  were  now  found  to  implicate 
Mary  with  the  conspirators,  and  she  was  tried  and  condemned  to  death 
by  a  special  commission,  25th  October,  1586.  On  the  8th  of  February, 
in  the  following  year,  the  sentence  was  carried  into  effect  at  Fotheringay 
castle.  Elizabeth  affected  grief  and  anger,  put  on  mourning,  and  pun¬ 
ished  her  secretary,  Davison,  for  having  allowed  the  execution  to  take 
place  without  her  orders. 


360 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


W  hen  the  King  of  Scotland  was  informed  of  the  death  of  his  motner, 
he  testified  the  most  viclent  indignation  ;  but  policy  soon  prevailed  over 
filial  tenderness,  and  the  prospect  of  one  day  succeeding  Elizabeth  in¬ 
duced  him  to  suppress  his  resentment.  Philip  II.  had  resolved  on  pun¬ 
ishing  the  English  queen  for  the  aid  she  had  given  to  the  Low  Coun¬ 
tries,  and  the  eyes  of  all  Europe  were  fixed  on  his  armaments;  but 
before  the  preparations  were  completed,  Drake,  at  the  head  of  a  gallant 
squadron,  burnt  a  great  number  of  Spanish  ships  in  sight  of  Lisbon  and 
Cadiz,  captured  the  galleons  which  were  on  their  voyage  from  America, 
laden  with  riches,  and  returned  home  with  an  immense  booty,  1587. 
At  the  same  time,  Walsingham  succeeded  in  getting  the  Spanish  bills 
dishonoured  at  Genoa,  thereby  depriving  Philip  of  the  resources  he 
expected.  This  manoeuvre,  and  the  terror  inspired  by  Drake,  compelled 
the  expedition  to  be  deferred  until  the  following  year,  thus  giving 
Elizabeth  time  to  prepare  for  the  defence  of  her  kingdom. 

The  “  invincible  armada,”  as  it  was  called,  consisted  of  13*2  vessels, 
most  of  them  being  of  unusual  magnitude,  and  mounted  3165  guns.  It 
was  navigated  by  8766  seamen,  and  carried  nearly  *22,000  soldiers;  a 
force  which  was  to  be  augmented  by  30,000  men  assembled  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Dunkirk.  England  now  appeared  animated  with  one 
sentiment.  Exclusive  of  the  levies  furnished  by  the  city  of  London, 
132,000  men  were  speedily  collected  where  the  prospect  of  invasion  was 
most  imminent.  The  queen  appeared  on  horseback  in  the  camp  at  Til¬ 
bury,  and  haranguing  the  army,  exhorted  the  soldiers  to  remember  their 
duties  to  their  country  and  their  religion.  “  I  am  ready,”  she  said,  44  to 
pour  out  my  blood  for  God,  my  kingdom,  and  my  people.  I  will  fight 
at  your  head ;  and  although  I  have  but  the  arm  of  a  woman,  I  have  the 
soul  of  a  king;  and  what  is  more,  of  a  king  of  England.”  By  such 
conduct  and  language  she  filled  the  people  with  enthusiasm.  Her  fleet, 
which  consisted  of  only  twenty-eight  ships,  was  by  the  zeal  of  her 
people  soon  increased  to  a  hundred  and  seventeen,  having  on  board 
11,120  men,  placed  under  the  orders  of  the  High-admiral  Lord  Howard 
of  Effingham,  who  was  aided  by  Drake,  Hawkins,  Lord  Henry  Sey¬ 
mour,  and  Frobisher.  The  spirit  of  the  Scotch  was  not  inferior  to  that 
of  the  English ;  they  raised  troops  for  the  defence  of  both  kingdoms, 
and  formed  an  association,  whose  object  was  to  maintain  their  religion 
and  government  against  all  enemies,  at  home  or  abroad. 

On  the  29th  of  May,  1588,  the  Spanish  armada,  under  the  Duke  of 
Medina,  sailed  from  Lisbon  ;  but  a  furious  tempest  next  morning  drove 
it  back  into  harbour,  and  it  did  not  reach  the  Channel  before  the  19th 
of  July.  Here  it  was  attacked  by  the  English  squadron,  which  proved 
victorious  in  five  successive  engagements.  The  duke,  finding  he  could 
not  farm  a  junction  with  the  troops  at  Dunkirk,  meditated  a  return  to 
Spain,  when  a  storm  arose,  w  hich  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  his  fleet 
on  the  shores  of  Orkney  and  Ireland,  so  that  only  53  ships  reached 
home,  and  these  in  a  shattered  condition.  The  event  wras  celebrated  in 
England  with  great  rejoicing's,  and  a  medal  struck  in  commemora¬ 
tion,  bearing  the  inscription,-  Dens  afflavit  et  dissipantur.  The  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  armada  wras  a  fatal  blow'  to  Spain ;  English  cruisers  covereu 
all  the  seas,  ravaged  her  coasts,  and  plundered  her  colonies. 

Henceforward  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  less  disturbed.  The  death 
of  Mary  Stuart,  and  the  Protestant  sentiments  of  her  son,  had  entirely 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


361 


mined  the  hopes  of  the  Catholics;  while  the  cause  of  the  Reformation 
was  supported  in  Holland  by  British  auxiliaries.  Philip,  in  revenge, 
stirred  up  the  Irish  Catholics  to  revolt.  On  a  given  day  there  was  a 
general  massacre  of  the  English,  —  a  detestable  treachery,  that  only 
served  to  call  down  upon  their  country  the  wrath  of  the  queen.  The 
Earl  of  Essex  was  sent  over  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  and  with 
unlimited  power,  but  this  favourite  was  recalled  to  perish  on  the  scaf¬ 
fold,  1601.  The  death  of  Elizabeth  followed  not  long  after,  having- 
been  accelerated,  if  we  may  believe  the  common  rumour,  by  her  regret 
at  the  untimely  fate  of  the  earl.  At  the  age  of  seventy  years,  and  after 
a  glorious  reign  of  nearly  half  a  century,  she  expired  on  the  24th  March 
1603,  leaving  the  sceptre  to  James  VI.  of  Scotland. 

Scotland.  —  This  country  had  suffered  greatly  from  its  wars  with 
England,  against  which  the  alliance  of  France  proved  but  an  uncertain 
protection.  The  chivalrous  temper  of  James  IV.  led  him  to  seek  the 
chief  support  of  his  crown  in  the  great  feudatories ;  but  he  prematurely 
perished  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Flodden,  1513.  During  the  minority 
of  James  V.,  his  mother,  Margaret  of  England,  disputed  the  regency 
with  the  Duke  of  Albany.  But  this  contest  was  of  little  importance, 
compared  with  the  great  change  operating  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformed  doctrines,  about  1530.  James  V.,  who  had  married  a  French 
princess,  Mary  of  Lorraine,  died  in  1542,  leaving  an  only  child,  Mary, 
afterwards  united  to  the  dauphin.  Under  the  regency  of  the  queen- 
mother,  the  Reformation  rapidly  proceeded;  and  Cardinal  Beaton,  who 
virtually  administered  the  government,  attempting  to  check  it  by  violence, 
perished  by  assassination.  Excited  by  the  enthusiastic  eloquence  of 
John  Knox,  the  people  rose  in  insurrection,  stripped  the  Catholic 
churches  of  their  ornaments,  and  in  many  places  totally  destroyed  them. 
An  army  was  immediately  collected  to  punish  these  disorders,  when  the 
Protestants  united  themselves  still  more  closely  by  a  treaty  or  covenant , 
at  the  head  of  which  was  James  Stewart,  a  natural  son  of  James  V., 
and  souo-ht  the  assistance  of  Elizabeth.  Taking  advantage  of  the 
absence  of  their  queen  in  France,  the  people,  who  had  subdued  the 
Catholic  party,  gave  their  new  church  a  regular  form  of  government. 
Professing  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers  of  Geneva,  they  abolished 
Episcopacy,  ^nd  established  an  ecclesiastical  republic,  or  Presbyterian¬ 
ism.  The  return  of  Queen  Mary  to  Scotland,  1561,  was  the  beginning 
of  the  misfortunes  of  that  unhappy  princess.  Her  education  in  the 
court  of  France  made  the  cold  and  rough  manners  of  her  new  subjects 
intolerable,  while  her  adherance  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  far 
from  conciliating  their  affections.  The  sudden  and  violent  death  of  her 
husband,  Darnley,  and  her  subsequent  marriage  with  Bothwell,  drove 
the  people  into  revolt.  Her  forces  were  defeated  at  Carberry  Hill,  and 
she  was  confined  in  Lochleven  castle  ;  having  escaped,  she  was  again 
defeated  at  Langside,  and  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  England,  1568, 
leaving  the  kingdom  in  the  hands  of  the  Earl  of  Moray,  as  regent  for 
her  infant  son,  James  VI. 

Ireland. — This  country,  the  origin  of  whose  inhabitants  is  somewhat 
obscure,  had  been  governed  by  native  princes  until  1172,  when  Henry 
II.  Plantagenet,  taking  advantage  of  its  intestine  troubles,  seized  upon 
the  kingdom,  and  conferred  the  government  upon  his  son  John,  by 
whom  it  was  united  to  England  in  1210.  But  successive  revolutions 
31 


362 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


disturbed  the  country,  and  it  was  not  entirely  subdued  before  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Henry  VIII.  ruled  it  with  a  stern  and  systematic 
despotism,  and  almost  entirely  destroyed  the  ancient  family  of  the  Ge¬ 
raldines.  Laws  were  now  enacted  to  establish  the  English  dress  and 
language,  and  to  prevent  the  colonists  from  holding  intercourse  with  the 
natives.  The  royal  authority,  after  being  in  abeyance  about  two  hun¬ 
dred  years,  was  recognised  in  Ulster  and  Connaught.  The  accession 
of  Elizabeth  was  a  crisis  in  Irish  history  :  in  her  reign  the  Protestant 
church  was  established,  and  all  subjects  were  bound  to  attend  its  public 
services.  The  violent  manner  in  which  these  laws  were  attempted  to 
be  enforced  aggravated  the  rebellious  spirit  of  the  Irish  and  drove  them 
to  insurrection.  The  insurgents  were  with  difficulty  put  down  ;  and 
their  crime  was  punished  with  so  much  severity,  that  the  counties  of 
Cork  and  Kerry,  the  patrimony  of  the  Earl  of  Desmond,  were  reduced 
to  a  barren  waste. 

At  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  Ireland,  the  chieftainships  were  subject  to 
the  law  of  tanist.ry,  i.  e.  that  the  lands  and  dignity  descended  to  the  eldest  and 
most  worthy  of  the  same  blood,  the  claims  of  seniority  being  controlled  by  a 
due  regard  to  desert.  The  landowners,  not  of  noble  rank,  held  their  posses¬ 
sions  by  the  tenure  of  gavel-kind,  which  was  not  an  equal  partition,  as  in 
England,  but  the  chief  of  the  sept  to  which  the  deceased  belonged  was  entitled 
to  divide  the  patrimony  as  he  pleased,  allotting  to  the  lineal  heirs  a  portion  with 
the  rest  of  the  tribe.  Justice  was  administered  in  each  sept  by  judges  called 
bretons,  selected  from  certain  families.  The  government  of  Ireland  was  en¬ 
tirely  aristocratic,  the  condition  of  the  common  people  being  little  different 
from  slavery. 


FRANCE. 

Louis  XII.,  1498,  ascended  the  throne  of  France  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
six.  He  added  to  his  regal  titles  those  of  Duke  of  Milan,  and  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  and  of  Jerusalem, — thus  declaring  his  intention  of  fol¬ 
lowing  in  the  steps  of  Charles  VIII.  His  claims  to  the  duchy  were 
derived  from  his  paternal  grandmother,  Valentina  Visconti,  a  descendant 
of  the  ducal  family  of  that  name. 

Trained  in  the  school  of  misfortune,  this  prince  had  learnt  to  be  just; 
and,  by  his  generous  and  beneficent  character,  deservedly  bore  the  title 
of  Father  of  his  People.  His  chief  minister  was  Amboise,  archbishop 
of  Rouen,  the  early  period  of  whose  government  was  employed  in  use¬ 
ful  reforms,  and  in  diminishing  an  oppressive  taxation,  although  the 
country  was  engaged  in  war.  The  troops  were  subjected  to  regular  dis¬ 
cipline,  fixed  garrisons  appointed,  and  a  stated  subsistence  provided  for 
them.  Pie  moreo  ver  improved  the  administration  of  justice  by  shorten¬ 
ing  the  usual  law-processes  and  their  expenses. 

Almost  the  first  act  of  Louis’  reign  was  to  dissolve  his  marriage  with 
Joan  of  France,  whom  he  had  been  compelled  to  espouse  by  Louis  XL 
He  wedded  his  second  wife,  Anne  of  Brittany,  the  widow  of  Charles 
VIII.,  as  much  from  policy  as  inclination,  since  the  alienation  of  the 
duchy  was  thereby  prevented.  On  her  death  he  married  Mary,  sister 
of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  which  was  the  means  of  obtaining  peace 
after  the  defeat  at  Guinegate,  better  known  as  the  Battle  of  the  Spurs, 
from  the  knights  making  greater  use  of  these  in  their  flight  than  of  their 
lances  in  the  attack. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


363 


Claude  de  Seyssel,  bishop  of  Marseilles,  in  a  work  on  the  Monarchy  of 
France,  has  left  us  a  valuable  picture  of  the  constitution  of  that  country  during 
this  reign.  The  royal  authority  was  limited  by  the  states-general  and  the 
parliaments.  The  former,  meeting  only  for  important  cases,  and  not  being 
regularly  convoked  according  to  a  fixed  law,  possessed  little  real  influence. 
The  parliaments,  comp  >sed  of  permanent  magistrates,  registered  the  edicts, 
and  could  remonstrate  against  them :  so  that  these  two  bodies,  although  im- 
perfec  ly  constituted  for  successful  opposition,  could  in  some  measure  restrain 
the  abuse  of  authority.  The  Court  of  Accompts  verified  the  public  expendi¬ 
ture,  and  had  the  power  of  retrenching  whatever  appeared  unnecessary.  It 
also  watched  over  the  preservation  of  the  royal  domain,  which  provided  for  the 
personal  expenses  of  the  sovereign.  These  several  guarantees  against  despo¬ 
tism,  although  far  inferior  to  those  afforded  by  the  representative  system, 
characterize  the  monarchy  of  this  period  as  more  constitutional  than  is  generally 
supposed. 

The  different  orders  in  society,  although  distinct  and  unequal,  were  not  so 
hostile  as  may  be  imagined.  The  clergy  had  rich  benefices  and  great  privileges, 
ut  their  ranks  were  open  to  all  classes.  The  nobility  were  exempt  from  taxes 

every  denomination  ;  but  in  war  they  served  the  state  gratuitously,  and  were 
forbidden  to  engage  in  any  mechanical  or  secular  profession.  The  upper 
burghers  or  commons  possessed  the  judicial  and  financial  offices,  which  gave 
them  great  influence  in  society.  These  were  not  interdicted  to  the  nobles,  but 
they  generally  preferred  a  military  career.  Fortune  and  talent  were  the  means 
of  raising  the  merchants  and  lawyers  to  the  higher  class ;  as  this  last  might  be 
ennobled  by  the  king  in  reward  of  meritorious  service. 

Italian  Wars. — Before  commencing  his  first  Italian  campaign,  the 
French  monarch  endeavoured  to  strengthen  his  cause  by  numerous 
alliances.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  became  his  friend,  as  did  his  illegiti¬ 
mate  son,  Caesar  Borgia,  upon  whom  was  conferred  the  duchy  of  Valen- 
tinois ;  and  the  kings  of  England  and  Spain,  with  the  republic  of  Venice, 
formed  treaties  of  alliance  with  him.  Sforza,  better  known  as  Ludovico 
the  Moor,  was  without  a  friend ;  but  Bajazet  II.,  the  grand  sultan,  in¬ 
directly  afforded  him  assistance  by  attacking  the  Venetians,  against 
whom  he  had  declared  war. 

At  the  close  of  July,  1499,  the  French  army,  composed  of  1600  lances, 
and  13,000  infantry,  including  5000  Swiss,  crossed  the  Alps  under  the 
command  of  Marshal  Trivulzio.  All  the  strong  places  opened  their 
gates.  Milan  itself  deserted  the  tyrant  Ludovico,  who  was  obliged  to 
seek  an  asylum  with  the  Emperor  Maximilian  at  Innsbruck.  The  con¬ 
quest  of  the  duchy  was  completed  in  twenty  days.  Louis  XII.,  who 
made  a  triumphal  entry  into  the  capital,  exercised  his  rights  of  sove¬ 
reignty  by  diminishing  the  taxes  and  regulating  the  courts  of  justice. 
Trivulzio  was  appointed  governor;  but  his  violence  prepared  the  way 
for  the  return  of  Sforza,  whose  re-appearance  in  the  Milanese  at  the 
head  of  10,000  Swiss  was  the  signal  for  a  general  revolt.  The  duke 
re-entered  his  capital  in  February  1500,  amid  the  shouts  of  those  who 
had  driven  him  into  exile  a  few  months  before.  The  French  returned 
soon  after  his  restoration,  when  the  Swiss,  who  had  fought  under  his 
banner,  deserted  in  a  body.  He  sought  safety  in  flight;  but  was  made 
prisoner,  and  kept  in  close  confinement  at  the  castle  of  Loches,  in  Berri, 
until  his  death  in  1510. 

Louis,  now  thinking  himself  firmly  established  in  the  Milanese, 
turned  his  thoughts  to  Naples.  Frederick,  too  weak  to  dispute  the 
kingdom,  offered  advantageous  conditions,  which  were  rejected ;  and 
finding  that  the  French  still  advanced  towards  Naples,  he  surrendered 


364 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


to  the  invader,  who  sent  him  to  Tours,  where  he  died  in  1504.  The 
French  and  Spaniards  now  began  to  quarrel  about  the  division  of  the 
spoil ;  but  after  two  campaigns,  the  latter  remained  in  possession  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  Three  armies  and  two  fleets  were  soon  prepared 
by  Louis  to  avenge  his  honour,  but  they  all  failed  in  their  object.  The 
succession  of  Julius  II.  to  the  papal  throne  led  to  the  treaty  of  Cam- 
bray  in  1508,  by  which  Louis,  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  Ferdinand  of 
Spain,  and  the  Pope  united  against  Venice.  By  the  battle  of  Agna- 
dello,  gained  by  the  French,  the  Venetians  were  driven  from  the  conti¬ 
nent  and  confined  to  their  isles.  The  allies  took  possession  of  the 
deserted  cities,  but  did  not  occupy  them  long;  for,  in  1510,  Julius  II. 
became  reconciled  with  the  republic,  and  in  the  next  year  succeeded  in 
drawing  Ferdinand,  Henry  VIII.,  and  Maximilian  to  his  side.  France 
bravely  made  head  against  her  enemies.  Gaston  de  Foix,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-two,  repelled  a  body  of  16,000  troops  engaged  in  invading 
the  Milanese,  raised  the  siege  of  Bologna,  defeated  the  Venetians,  re¬ 
covered  Brescia  from  them,  and  gamed  the  battle  of  Ravenna,  in  which 
he  fell,  pierced  by  sixteen  wounds,  1512.  After  Gaston’s  death,  Louis 
experienced  several  reverses  in  Italy ;  and  the  Sforzas  were  established 
at  Milan,  and  the  Medici  at  Florence.  The  war  had  now  no  longer 
any  object.  Louis  therefore  concluded  a  treaty  with  Ferdinand  of 
Spain,  and  abjured  the  council  of  Pisa,  which  had  authorized  his  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  head  of  the  church.  He  died  in  1515. 

Francis  I.,  immediately  on  his  accession,  invaded  Lombardy  with  a 
powerful  army.  The  Swiss  valiantly  opposed  his  troops  at  Marignano; 
for  two  days  the  victory  was  obstinately  contested,  and  at  last  the  moun¬ 
taineers,  though  defeated,  retired  in  good  order.  The  alliance  now 
formed  with  Pope  Leo  X.  and  with  the  Venetians  seemed  to  open  the 
way  to  Naples.  Charles  of  xVustria,  who  had  succeeded  his  grand¬ 
father  Ferdinand  on  the  Spanish  throne,  was  desirous  of  peace,  that  he 
might  consolidate  his  vast  inheritance.  Francis  hesitated  to  profit  by 
his  victory ;  and  the  treaty  of  Noyon,  in  1516,  gave  a  temporary  repose 
to  Europe. 

The  elevation  of  Charles  to  the  imperial  dignity  gave  rise  to  a  long 
period  of  rivalry  between  that  prince  and  the  King  of  France,  1519. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  departure  of  the  emperor  for  Germany,  Francis, 
on  pretext  of  recovering  Navarre  for  John  d’Albret,  sent  an  army  into 
Spain ;  where,  however,  it  was  defeated,  and  compelled  to  recross  the 
Pyrenees.  The  war  was  now  prosecuted  in  the  Low  Countries,  France, 
and  Italy,  with  varied  success.  In  the  latter  country,  the  troops  of  the 
empire  were  commanded  by  the  Constable  Bourbon,  a  prince  of  the 
blood-royal  of  France,  who,  in  consequence  of  the  injuries  inflicted  on 
him  by  the  queen-mother,  had  deserted  his  native  country.  The  French 
under  Bonnivet  were  defeated  at  Rebec,  where  the  celebrated  Chevalier 
Bayard  fell,  1524 ;  and  in  the  subsequent  year  the  king,  who  command¬ 
ed  in  person  at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  w’as  made  prisoner.  The  captive 
was  taken  to  Madrid,  and  there  kept  under  a  strict  guard.  In  January 
1526,  a  treaty  wTas  signed  by  which  he  agreed  to  renounce  all  his  claims 
on  Italy  and  the  sovereignty  of  Flanders  and  Artois,  restore  Burgundy, 
give  his  twro  eldest  sons  as  hostages,  and  marry  Eleanor,  the  emperor’s 
sister.  These  hard  conditions,  extorted  by  force,  were  not  strictly  exe¬ 
cuted.  An  assembly  of  notables,  convened  at  Cognac,  declared  against 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


365 


the  treaty,  and  their  decision  was  confirmed  by  a  similar  body,  which 
met  in  Paris.  At  the  same  time,  his  majesty  concluded  an  alliance 
with  Clement  VII.,  Venice,  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  Henry  VIII.  The 
war  was  terminated  in  15*29  by  the  treaty  of  Cambray;  Charles  gave 
up  his  hostages,  and  Eleanor  was  married  to  the  French  monarch. 

In  1536,  Francis  invaded  Savoy  and  Piedmont;  but  Charles,  hasten¬ 
ing  to  meet  the  French  troops,  drove  them  across  the  Alps,  and  entered 
Provence  at  the  head  of  50,000  men.  While  he  was  detained  by  the 
siege  of  Marseilles,  another  army  ravaged  Champagne  and  Picardy. 
Marshal  Montmorency  saved  Provence  and  Dauphiny  by  devastating 
the- country  through  which  the  imperialists  would  have  to  advance.  In 
1538,  a  truce  for  ten  years  was  concluded  at  Nice  by  the  intervention 
of  Pope  Paul  III.  An  interview  between  the  two  sovereigns  appeared 
to  give  promise  of  a  lasting  peace,  and  these  hopes  were  increased  by 
the  circumstance  of  the  emperor  being  permitted  to  pass  through  France, 
to  quell  a  revolt  at  Ghent.  Scarcely  four  years  of  tranquillity,  how¬ 
ever,  were  allowed  to  elapse  before  hostilities  recommenced.  To  the 
astonishment  of  Christendom,  an  Ottoman  fleet,  united  with  a  French 
squadron,  undertook  the  siege  of  Nice.  But  Andrew  Doria,  the  cele¬ 
brated  Genoese  admiral,  then  in  the  service  of  Austria,  repelled  both, 
and  defeated  the  Turks  in  several  engagements.  The  victory  of  Cerri- 
soles,  near  Carignano,  gained  by  Francis,  was  more  glorious  than 
advantageous.  An  alliance  of  Henry  VIII.  with  Charles  V.  exposed 
Paris  to  the  greatest  risk ;  for  the  latter  had  become  master  of  Epernay 
and  Chateau-Thierry.  It  was  fortunate  for  France  that  the  religious 
disturbances  in  Germany  demanded  the  undivided  attention  of  the 
emperor ;  and  the  peace  of  Crespy  in  Valois  terminated  the  contests  be¬ 
tween  the  two  great  rivals,  1544.  The  French  monarch  expired  in  1547. 

Battle  of  St.  Quentin. — Henry  II.,  wTho,  in  1547,  succeeded  his 
father  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine,  recovered  Boulogne  from  the  English, 
and  compelled  Charles  V.  to  raise  the  siege  of  Metz.  The  war  with 
Spain  and  England  began  in  1557,  in  which  one  of  the  armies  of  Philip 
II.,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  blockaded  St.  Quentin.  The 
Constable  Montmorency  advanced  to  throw  troops  and  provisions  into 
the  place,  when  his  army  suffered  a  dreadful  reverse,  and  the  town  was 
shortly  after  taken  by  assault.  The  Duke  of  Guise,  who  had  been 
recalled  from  Italy,  retook  Calais,  stormed  Guines,  and  by  his  successes 
hastened  the  conclusion  of  peace.  In  a  tournament  given  on  the  occa¬ 
sion  of  the  marriage  of  Henry’s  sister  Margaret  with  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  and  of  his  daughter  Elizabeth  with  Philip  II.,  the  king  was 
accidentally  wounded  in  the  eye  by  the  lance  of  the  Count  de  Mont¬ 
gomery,  a  captain  of  the  Scottish  guard,  and  died  eleven  days  after¬ 
wards,  1559. 

The  Factions. — Francis  II.,  the  husband  of  Mary  Stuart,  queen  of 
Scotland,  who  was  about  sixteen  when  he  ascended  the  throne,  proved 
a  passive  instrument  in  the  hands  of  faction.  On  the  one  side  were  the 
Bourbons  or  princes  of  the  blood-royal,  Anthony,  king  of  Navarre,  and 
Prince  Louis  of  Conde  ;  on  the  other  was  the  family  of  the  Guises,  con¬ 
sisting  of  six  brothers, — whose  leaders  were  the  Duke  Francis,  who 
had  gained  a  high  military  reputation  in  the  last  campaigns,  and  Charles, 
cardinal  of  Lorraine,  whose  vast  erudition  and  fiery  zeal  against  the 
Huguenots  had  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  French  clergy.  The 
31* 


366 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Constable  Montmorency  and  his  nephews,  the  two  Colignis,  formed  4. 
third  party,  which  expected  to  hold  the  balance  between  the  other  two. 

The  Guises,  at  this  time  all-powerful,  held  the  king  in  tutelage,  the 
nation  was  enslaved,  and  the  princes  of  the  blood  were  banished.  It 
was  not  to  be  expected  that  they  could  maintain  their  power  unassailed; 
and  we  find,  accordingly,  that  Conde  formed  a  very  extensive  conspi¬ 
racy,  the  object  of  which  was  to  seize  them  and  the  king.  The  {dot 
wras  discovered  through  the  indiscretion  of  one  of  the  leaders,  and 
several  of  the  conspirators  were  arrested  and  suffered  death.  This 
event,  known  in  history  as  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise,  contributed  to 
increase  their  influence ;  and  under  the  title  of  lieutenant-general  of  the 
kingdom,  the  duke  possessed  nearly  equal  power  with  the  ancient 
mayors  of  the  palace.  This  he  employed  to  destroy  Conde,  who,  in 
defiance  of  numerous  warnings,  imprudently  went  to  Orleans,  at  the 
invitation  of  his  majesty.  He  was  immediately  arrested  ;  the  conspiracy 
just  noticed,  and  other  charges,  were  alleged  against  him,  and  by  an 
extraordinary  tribunal  he  was  condemned  to  death ;  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  demise  of  Francis,  1560,  the  sentence  was  not  carried  into  effect. 

Charles  IX.,  at  the  age  of  ten  years,  succeeded  his  brother ;  and 
Catherine  of  Medici  held  the  reins  of  government,  without,  however, 
assuming  the  title  of  regent.  Louis  of  Conde  was  restored  to  liberty; 
the  Constable  Montmorency  was  received  into  favour;  while  the  queen- 
mother,  on  her  side,  endeavoured  to  create  a  third  party. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  states-general  in  Orleans,  the  clergy  fulminated 
against  the  Huguenots ;  while  the  tiers  etat  demanded  a  reform  of  the 
clergy,  whose  vices,  they  alleged,  were  the  cause  of  all  the  troubles. 
The  nobles  besides  insisted  on  freedom  of  worship  for  the  Huguenots,* 
who  at  this  epoch  were  calculated  to  amount  to  a  sixth  or  a  fourth  of  the 
population.  Many  of  them  had  taken  up  arms  in  different  parts  of 
France  in  defence  of  the  reformed  religion;  and  their  numbers  compelled 
the  Catholic  party  to  treat  them  with  moderation,  until  the  decision  of 
a  national  council  should  be  knowm.  A  conference  was  appointed  to 
take  place  at  Poissy  ;  and  although  no  formula  of  faith  could  be  adopted 
likely  to  unite  all  parties,  an  edict  was  issued  in  1562,  by  which  the 
Protestants  were  allowed  to  preach  outside  the  towns.  Soon  afterwards 
a  body  of  Huguenots,  w7ho  had  met  to  worship  in  a  barn  at  Vassy  in 
Champagne,  wTere  attacked  by  the  retinue  of  the  Duke  of  Guise,  sixty 
of  their  number  murdered,  and  more  than  200  wounded.  This  atrocity 
was  the  signal  for  a  general  rising,  and  the  prelude  to  the  first  civil 
war. 

First  Civil  War,  1562. — The  parties  in  this  conflict  were  the  Guises 
in  amity  with  Montmorency,  wTho  was  master  of  the  king’s  person;  and 
Louis  of  Conde,  wfith  Coligni  and  d’Andelot.  The  court  faction  had 
the  ascendency  in  Paris,  and  in  the  provinces  of  Picardy,  Champagne, 
Brittany,  Burgundy,  and  Guienne.  The  Protestants  were  superior  in 
the  west  and  south,  especially  in  Rouen,  Orleans,  Blois,  Tours,  Angers, 
Le  Mans,  Poitiers,  Bourges,  Angouleme,  La  Rochelle,  Montauban,  and 
Lyons.  But  being  thus  isolated,  they  could  not  co-operate  with  then 
brethren  in  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries. 


*  The  derivation  of  this  word  is  much  disputed.  It  is  probably  another  form  of  Eignot 
(from  the  German,  eignossen ),  a  name  given  to  the  Germans  who  entered  into  alliance 
with  the  Swiss  cantons  to  maintain  their  liberties  against  Savoy. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


367 


The  first  pitched  battle  was  fought  at  Dreux  in  Normandy,  1562, 
where  the  royal  army  was  commanded  by  Montmorency,  who  was  taken 
prisoner  at  the  first  onset.  Guise,  however,  won  the  field  and  captured 
the  Prince  of  Conde;  and  Admiral  Coligni,  who  succeeded  to  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Huguenot  host,  was  compelled  to  retreat.  The  death  of 
Guise  at  the  siege  of  Orleans  restored  Catherine’s  authority,  which  was 
consolidated  by  the  convention  of  Amboise,  1563,  allowing  the  Protest¬ 
ants  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion. 

Second  Civil  War,  1567. — The  pacification  just  mentioned  was 
scarcely  concluded,  before  its  terms  were  modified  by  the  court;  the 
Huguenot  party  still  demanding  securities,  which  their  opponents  de¬ 
layed  to  give.  A  journey  of  the  king  and  his  mother  into  the  southern 
provinces,  and  the  interview  of  the  latter  with  the  Duke  of  Alva  at 
Bayonne,  wrhen  plans  were  concerted  for  the  extirpation  of  the  new 
opinions,  were  soon  followed  by  another  war.  Rochelle  now  became 
the  rallying  point  of  the  reformed  party.  Since  the  reign  of  Charles  V. 
this  city  had  exercised  the  right  of  coining  money ;  its  mayors  and  prin¬ 
cipal  authorities  were  reputed  noble;  besides  which,  with  many  other 
privileges,  it  enjoyed  an  extensive  commerce,  and  possessed  great  influ¬ 
ence  in  Aunis,  Saintono-e,  and  Angoumois.  At  Jarnac,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Charente,  the  insurgents  were  defeated  by  superior  numbers,  1569; 
and  their  brave  leader,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  who  had  been  made  pri¬ 
soner,  was  assassinated  after  the  battle  by  a  captain  of  the  Duke  of  An¬ 
jou’s  guards.  Coligni  once  more  saved  the  relics  of  the  conquered  army. 
The  wfidowed  Queen  of  Navarre,  Joan  of  Albret,  carried  her  son  Henry, 
prince  of  Bearn,  to  the  camp,  and  presented  him  to  the  troops,  by  whom 
he  was  recognised  as  head  of  the  Protestant  party.  They  were,  how¬ 
ever,  again  defeated  at  Moncontour,  in  Poitou,  where  the  royal  youth 
fought  by  the  side  of  the  admiral. 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  1572. — A  peace  was  concluded  in 
1570  at  St.  Germain.  Catherine  accorded  favourable  conditions  to  the 
Huguenots ;  but  she  had  long  been  meditating  a  blow  more  deadly  than 
all  the  preceding  defeats.  Henry,  now  king  of  Navarre,  received  in 
1572  the  hand  of  Margaret  of  France,  the  youngest  of  her  daughters; 
and  to  add  to  the  splendour  of  this  marriage,  the  leading  members  of  the 
Protestant  party  were  invited  to  Paris.  On  the  22d  August,  as  Coligni 
was  returning  home  from  a  conference  with  the  king  at  the  Louvre,  his 
life  was  attempted  by  an  assassin  at  the  instigation  of  the  queen-mother, 
jy  whom  Charles  was  easily  brought  to  consent  to  a  general  massacre 
of  his  Protestant  subjects.  The  night  of  the  23d  August,  St.  Bartholo¬ 
mew’s  eve,  was  the  time  fixed  for  the  perpetration  of  a  deed  which  has 
covered  with  infamy  the  memory  of  every  one  engaged  in  it.  The  admi¬ 
ral  was  one  of  the  first  victims  :  after  being  murdered,  his  head  was  cut 
off,  carried  to  the  queen  as  a  trophy,  and,  being  embalmed,  was  subse¬ 
quently  transmitted  to  Rome.  During  three  days  the  massacre  was 
continued  in  the  streets  and  in  private  houses ;  even  in  the  royal  palace 
some  of  the  retainers  of  the  King  of  Navarre  and  the  Prince  of  Conde 
were  assassinated  before  their  masters’  eyes.  Henry  and  the  young 
prince  were  spared  only  on  condition  of  abjuring  their  religion  within 
three  days.  Neither  rank  nor  age  was  exempted  :  in  the  capital  there 
suffered  500  gentlemen,  with  10,000  persons  of  inferior  station;  while 
not  fewer  than  70,000  individuals  fell  throughout  the  entire  kingdom. 


368 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Public  thanksgivings  were  offered  up  at  Rome  and  Madrid  for  the  suc¬ 
cess  of  a  crime  which  Thuanus,  himself  a  Roman  Catholic,  stigmatizes 
as  “  a  ferocious  cruelty,  without  a  parallel  in  all  antiquity.”*  Charles 
IX.  died  in  1574,  in  great  agony  of  body  and  mind. 

The  League. — Henry  III.,  the  conqueror  at  Jarnac  and  Moncontour, 
who  had  been  elected  King  of  Poland,  returned  hastily  to  France  on  the 
news  of  his  brother’s  death.  The  new  monarch,  who  endeavoured  to 
play  the  parties  against  each  other,  gave  favourable  terms  to  the  reform¬ 
ers,  now  headed  by  his  brother  the  Duke  of  Anjou  and  the  young  King 
of  Navarre.  To  the  former  he  ceded  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Berri;  reli¬ 
gious  toleration  was  permitted  everywhere,  except  in  Paris ;  Protestants 
were  to  form  half  of  each  parliament ;  and  the  cities  of  Angouleme,  Niort, 
La  Charite,  Courges,  Saumur,  and  Mezieres,  were  to  be  held  by  Hugue¬ 
not  garrisons.  The  Catholic  party,  directed  by  the  Duke  of  Guise,  were 
far  from  being  satisfied  with  this  arrangement.  They  formed  the  cele¬ 
brated  compact  known  as  the  Catholic  League ,  1577 ;  and  the  king,  with 
the  view  of  controlling  it,  declared  himself  its  head.  The  ostensible 
object  of  this  association  was  to  promote  the  ascendency  of  the  Romish 
faith  ;  but  it  also  secretly  contemplated  the  deposition  of  the  dynasties 
of  Valois  and  Bourbon,  in  virtue  of  an  anathema  by  Pope  Stephen  II.  in 
752  against  the  usurper  Hugh  Capet,  and  the  placing  of  Guise  on  the 
throne,  on  condition  that  he  should  engage  to  suppress  the  liberties  of 
the  Gallican  church. 

In  1584,  died  Francis  duke  of  Anjou,  on  his  return  from  an  expedition 
into  the  Low  Countries;  and  by  his  decease  the  King  of  Navarre  be¬ 
came  the  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown.  It  was  about  this  time  that  a 
popular  society  was  formed  among  the  leaguers,  more  violent  in  its 
principles,  and  which  was  called  the  Sixteen ,  from  the  number  of  its 
directing  committee,  each  of  whom  became  a  religious  agitator  in  so 
many  quarters  of  Paris. 

The  Barricades. — Henry  III.  gave  himself  up  to  the  debauchery  of 
his  capital;  and,  although  he  practised  every  external  act  of  devotion, 
became  the  object  of  public  contempt,  and  was  daily  exposed  to  some 
new  attack  on  the  part  of  the  Sixteen.  Guise,  who  had  been  forbidden 
to  enter  Paris,  openly  defied  the  royal  prohibition,  and  on  his  arrival  a 
general  rising  was  organized.  The  League  took  up  arms ;  barricades 
were  erected  ;  and  chains  stretched  across  the  streets.  The  king’s  troops 
were  gradually  driven  back  to  the  Louvre ;  and  he  himself  made  a  nar¬ 
row  escape  to  Chartres,  1588.  From  this  place  he  negotiated  with 
Guise,  nominated  him  generalissimo  of  his  armies,  and  promised  to  con¬ 
voke  the  states-general  at  Blois,  to  deliberate  on  the  articles  proposed 
by  the  League.  This  assembly  met  on  the  4th  October  1588;  but  its 
first  measures  disappointed  the  monarch’s  expectations.  The  spirit  of 
Rome  appeared  to  animate  the  deputies ;  and  Henry  soon  discovered  that 


*  Protestant  writers  endeavour  to  prove — and  their  arguments  are  very  powerful — 
that  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  had  been  premeditated  for  nearly  two  years,  if  not 
longer;  and  that  the  nuptials  of  Henry  of  Bearn  and  Margaret  of  Valois  were  only  a 
pretext  for  drawing  the  chief  Huguenots  to  Paris.  But  whether  it  was  premeditated  or 
not  for  so  long  a  period;  whether  the  king  and  his  mother  were  the  sole  contrivers 
whether  a  greater  or  less  number  of  victims  fell  than  above  stated, — are  questions  of 
little  importance :  it  was  planned,  organized,  and  executed,  facts  which  admit  of  no 
palliation,  and  must  eternally  brand  the  memory  of  Charles,  Catherine,  and  their 
counsellors.  • 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


369 


his  enemies  would  prove  successful,  unless  he  anticipated  them  by  some 
bold  measure.  He  therefore  determined  to  assassinate  the  duke;  and, 
accordingly,  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  December,  he  was  killed  when 
entering  the  royal  chamber.  His  brother,  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  was 
murdered  the  next  day  while  the  king  was  at  mass. 

On  the  news  of  these  events  many  towns  rose  in  revolt.  The  sove¬ 
reign  was  regarded  as  the  assassin:  the  pope  excommunicated  him;  the 
Sorbonne  declared  the  throne  vacant,  and  his  subjects  were  released 
from  their  fidelity ;  while  the  faction  of  the  Sixteen  flung  into  the  Bas- 
tile  those  members  of  the  parliament  who  still  showed  any  attachment 
to  the  monarchy.  Henry  ultimately  sought  the  alliance  of  the  King  of 
Navarre,  whom  he  had  long  treated  as  an  enemy,  and  at  the  head  of  the 
united  forces,  Catholic  and  Huguenot,  he  advanced  to  besiege  Paris; 
but  at  the  moment  his  affairs  were  taking  a  favourable  turn,  his  career 
was  checked  by  the  dagger  of  Jacques  Clement,  August  2,  1589,  and  in 
him  the  house  of  Valois  became  extinct. 

The  Bourbons.  —  Davila  regards  the  transactions  which  led  to  the 
advancement  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  throne,  44  as  one  of  the  most  surprising 
arrangements  of  the  providential  government  of  the  world.”  Even  the 
manner  of  his  predecessor’s  death  determined  many  of  the  Catholic  party 
to  attach  themselves  to  this  prince,  rather  than  to  the  League,  which  had 
countenanced  so  unjustifiable  a  deed.  Deserted  by  the  royal  army,  the 
new  king  retired  into  Normandy,  followed  by  the  Duke  of  Mayenne  at 
the  head  of  the  troops  of  the  League,  who  had  already  proclaimed  his 
uncle,  the  Cardinal  Charles  of  Bourbon.  Having  received  an  aid  of 
money  and  reinforcements  from  England,  he  was  however  enabled  to 
keep  the  held;  and  his  troops,  though  inferior  in  number,  being  superior 
in  valour  to  those  of  the  duke,  he  defeated  him  at  Arques  in  1589,  and 
next  year  gained  the  decisive  battle  of  Ivry.  After  some  delay,  he  laid 
siege  to  Paris,  and  when  so  employed  received  notice  that  death  had 
removed  his  rival,  and  that  a  solemn  decree  of  the  Sorbonne  had  declared 
him  incapable,  as  a  heretic,  of  mounting  the  throne  of  France.  Already 
30,000  victims  had  fallen,  when  the  generous  enemy  relaxed  his  rigour, 
and  allowed  all  but  the  military  to  retire.  Peace  was  at  length  restored 
to  the  country,  and  he  became  the  king  of  a  united  people  by  his  abjura¬ 
tion  of  Protestantism,  1593.  He  entered  the  metropolis  on  the  22d 
March  1594.  The  parliament  was  immediately  re-established ;  all  its 
decisions  since  1588  were  cancelled,  and  the  decrees  of  the  last  assem¬ 
bly  held  at  Paris  annulled.  In  1598,  a  memorable  ordonnance  termi¬ 
nated  the  religious  quarrels  which  had  distracted  France  during  thirty- 
six  year^.  The  edict  of  Nantes  granted  to  the  Protestants  the  public 
exercise  of  their  worship,  the  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  citizenship,  and 
free  admission  to  all  employments  and  judicial  offices ;  while,  in  other 
respects,  they  preserved  their  importance  as  a  political  party.  Having 
secured  peace  to  his  country  by  a  treaty  with  Spain,  the  young  sovereign, 
aided  by  his  wise  and  virtuous  minister,  Sully,  devoted  the  remainder 
of  his  reign  to  the  restoration  of  order  and  general  improvement. 

ITALIAN  PENINSULA. 

Naples  and  Milan. — Throughout  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  the  Italian  peninsula  was  the  scene  of  almost  incessant  contests, 


370 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


arising  out  of  the  claims  of  the  French  monarchs  to  the  possession  of 
these  two  states.  Charles  VIII.  of  France  having  taken  possession  of 
Naples  in  1494,  a  general  league  of  the  Italian  powers  was  formed 
against  him,  his  troops  were  driven  from  the  country,  and  Ferdinand  II. 
ascended  the  throne.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle  Frederick,  who, 
being  threatened  by  Louis  XII.,  applied  for  assistance  to  his  relative, 
Ferdinand  of  Spain.  This  last  sent  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  his  captain- 
general  in  Sicily,  into  Naples;  but,  instead  of  rendering  the  aid  demand¬ 
ed,  a  secret  treaty  was  entered  into  with  Louis  for  the  partition  of  the 
kingdom.  This  nefarious  transaction  accordingly  took  place,  1496 ;  but 
Louis  granted  to  the  dethroned  monarch  the  duchy  of  Anjou,  with  a 
pension.  The  plunderers  soon  quarrelled  about  the  division  of  the  spoil, 
which  was  decided  by  the  battle  of  Creignola,  1503,  where  Gonsalvo 
gained  a  complete  victory,*  and  drove  the  French  from  the  country. 
Naples  thenceforth  continued  an  appanage  of  the  Spanish  crown,  go¬ 
verned  by  viceroys. 

Louis  XII.  began  his  wars  in  1499,  by  a  treaty  with  Venice  for  the 
partition  of  the  Milanese,  when  Ludovico  Sforza  was  left  without  an 
ally — the  Turks  alone  making  a  diversion  in  his  favour.  He  was  shortly 
after  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  French  king,  by  whom  he  was  im¬ 
prisoned  till  his  death,  ten  years  later.  Various  alternations  of  success 
followed;  and  the  territory  was  occasionally  in  the  hands  of  the  French 
and  of  the  Sforzas,  until  after  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1525,  when  it  fell 
into  the  possession  of  Charles  V.  Ten  years  subsequently,  the  male 
line  of  the  Sforzas  having  become  extinct,  the  emperor,  who  still  retained 
possession,  granted  the  duchy  to  his  son  Philip,  as  a  vice-royalty  of 
Spain.  The  wars  consequent  on  these  arrangements  are  detailed  under 
the  respective  heads  of  France  and  Germany. 

The  French  invasion  in  1494  appears  to  have  been  courted  by  most  of  the 
powers  of  Italy  : — Ludovico  and  John  Galeazzo  hoped  to  profit  by  the  arrival 
of  Charles  VIII. ;  the  Florentines  were  eager  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
Medici;  Pope  Alexander  VI.  was  jealous  of  the  authority  of  Ferdinand  of 
Spain;  the  Venetians  desired  the  humiliation  of  the  house  of  Aragon,  and  the 
numerous  enemies  of  this  family  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  sought  revenge  for 
a  long  period  of  oppression. 

In  Florence  two  parties  divided  the  state.  Jerome  Savonarola,  a  native  of 
Ferrara,  a  man  of  ardent  imagination,  and  who  had  early  embraced  a  religious 
life,  thought  himself  commissioned  by  Heaven  to  reform  Christendom.  He 
began  by  preaching  on  the  Apocalypse  at  Florence  in  1489,  where  he  continued 
his  exhortations  during  eight  years,  mingling  politics  with  religion.  An  enthu¬ 
siast  in  the  pulpit  and  a  demagogue  in  the  public  places,  he  gradually  became 
the  idol  of  the  people  and  the  leader  of  the  anti-Medician  party.  At  the 
approach  of  Charles,  he  declared  that  monarch  to  be  the  envoy  of  Heaven,  the 
predestined  instrument  of  reform.  Peter  de  Medici,  intimidated  by  the  sensa¬ 
tion  produced  by  his  harangues,  and  unable  to  contend  at  once  against  internal 
tumult  and  foreign  aggression,  submitted  to  Charles  \  III. ;  tor  which  the 
enraged  populace  drove  him  into  banishment,  and  the  government  of  Florence 
became  an  aristocracy.  The  Medici  were  restored  in  1532  by  Charles  V.  after 
the  treaty  of  Camb'ray.  Savonarola,  having  been  excommunicated  by  the 
Pope,  was  tried  for  sedition  and  blasphemy,  and  being  condemned  to  death, 
was  burnt  in  1498. 

At  this  epoch  there  was  a  great  and  important  difference  between  the  French 
and  Italian  armies.  The  former  were  chiefly  composed  of  gentlemen,  animated 
by  the  desire  of  glory  ;  and,  being  paid  by  the  king,  they  were  always  well 
equipped  and  complete.  The  latter  were,  on  the  contrary,  a  crowd  of  adven¬ 
turers  and  peasants,  hired  by  the  chiefs  named  Condottieri,  who  had  neither 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


371 


love  of  fame  nor  attachment  to  the  prince  who  paid  them.  Solely  hent  on  gain, 
.hese  captains  passed  with  their  troops  from  one  side  to  the  other  under  the 
most  trivial  pretexts ;  and  in  battle  their  chief  aim  was  to  make  prisoners  for 
the  sake  of  ransom.  The  Italian  cannons  were  of  iron,  and  difficult  to  manage, 
while  those  of  France  were  of  bronze.  In  such  circumstances  Charles  might, 
wTith  ordinary  prudence,  have  obtained  a  permanent  footing  in  Italy ;  but  the 
arrogance  and  injustice  of  the  French  alienated  all  parties,  and  finally  led  to 
their  expulsion  from  the  country. 

“  During  the  whole  period  of  the  French  wars  the  wretchedness  inflicted  on 
Italy  by  the  foreign  soldiery,  and  especially  by  those  mutinous  robbers  who 
composed  the  armies  of  the  Empire  and  of  Spain,  was  such  as  had  not  been 
exceeded  in  any  age  of  her  eventful  history.  Cities  were  plundered  and  burnt, 
rural  districts  were  converted  into  wastes,  families  were  despoiled  and  dis¬ 
honoured,  individuals  were  imprisoned,  tortured,  and  put  to  death.  And  yet, 
over  this  blood-stained  arena,  on  which  a  nation,  summoning  up  its  expiring 
strength,  fought  unwisely  though  not  ingloriously  its  last  battle  for  independence 
— over  this  wild  and  troubled  scene,  where  danger  stalked  without  and  treason 
lurked  within — genius  diffused  a  radiant  light,  that  died  away  after  peace  had 
revived,  hand  in  hand  with  bondage.  Almost  all  the  greatest  of  those  names 
that  make  the  modern  Italians  proud  of  the  sixteenth  century,  presented  them¬ 
selves  in  groups  which  disappeared  before  the  age  had  proceeded  half  way 
towards  its  close.” — Italy ,  Edinburgh  Cabinet  Library,  vol.  ii.  p.  263. 

Savoy  and  Piedmont. — The  house  of  Savoy  was  founded  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  Berold  possessed  its  lands,  as 
an  ancient  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy.  By  intermarriages, 
by  taking  advantage  of  the  civil  dissensions  of  the  country,  and  par¬ 
ticularly  by  those  in  France,  its  territories  were  gradually  extended; 
but,  when  Duke  Charles  III.  died  in  1553,  a  great  part  of  his  domin¬ 
ions  was  seized  by  the  French  and  Spaniards.  The  troubles  which 
soon  after  broke  out  induced  Charles  IX.  to  restore  to  Savoy  the  strong 
places  which  he  still  occupied  in  Piedmont.  Emanuel  Philibert,  as 
well  as  his  son  Charles  Emanuel,  who  succeeded  in  1580,  had  nothino- 
to  apprehend  from  France,  then  distracted  by  the  religious  wars.  Charles 
even  went  so  far  as  to  invade  Provence  and  Dauphiny,  in  1590,  and 
disputed  the  possession  of  these  provinces  with  his  powerful  neighbour. 

Genoa. — The  aristocratic  constitution  which  Andrew  Doria  had  given 
the  Genoese,  did  not  satisfy  many  of  the  turbulent  and  factious  repub¬ 
licans.  In  January  1547,  a  conspiracy  was  headed  by  John  Louis 
Fieschi ;  all  the  more  important  posts  were  seized ;  Gianettino,  the 
nephew  of  Andrew,  upon  whom  the  government  had  devolved,  was 
stabbed  in  the  streets ;  his  aged  relative  escaped  with  difficulty,  and 
every  thing  had  succeeded  beyond  expectation,  when  the  leader  himself 
perished.  His  partisans  submitted  to  their  rivals,  who  punished  the 
most  guilty  by  banishment  or  death. 

After  suppressing  this  conspiracy,  Doria  continued  to  exercise  the 
supreme  authority  in  Genoa,  until  his  death  in  1560,  at  the  age  of 
ninety-four.  During  the  remainder  of  the  century,  this  state,  disturbed 
by  its  revolted  subjects  without,  did  not  enjoy  internal  repose,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  differences  between  the  old  and  new  nobility.  These 
dissensions  ran  so  high  as  to  give  Don  John  of  Austria  a  hope  of  mas¬ 
tering  the  city,  when  he  lay  in  its  port  with  the  fleet  that  afterwards 
gained  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  1571.  The  disputes  between  the  factions 
were  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  the  Pope,  the  Emperor,  and  the  King 
of  Spain,  by  whom  the  constitution  was  modified,  and  the  privileges  of 
the  nobles  augmented,  1576.  Tranquillity  was  thus  re-established,  and 
the  Genoese  enjoyed  peace  during  the  succeeding  fifty  years. 


872 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Venice. — The  league  of  Cambray,  1508,  armed  the  half  of  Europe 
against  this  single  state.  Venice,  long  confining  her  power  to  the  sea, 
had,  as  early  as  1*274,  forbidden  her  citizens  to  acquire  any  possessions 
on  the  mainland  ;  but,  gradually  departing  from  her  ancient  maxims, 
she  had  made  large  acquisitions  at  the  expense  of  her  neighbours.  To 
enforce  the  abandonment  of  these  conquests,  Louis,  Maximilian,  the 
Pope,  and  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  formed  a  coalition;  but  the  glory  as 
well  as  the  charges  of  this  impolitic  war  devolved  upon  France.  The 
battle  of  Agnadello,  in  1509,  destroyed  the  continental  power  of  Venice  ; 
after  which,  his  Holiness  seized  upon  Rimini,  Faenza,  and  Ravenna; 
the  troops  of  Maximilian,  advancing  through  Friuli,  captured  Verona, 
Vicenza,  Padua,  and  Trieste;  the  Spaniards  retook  the  cities  of  Trani, 
Brindisi,  and  Taranto ;  while  Brescia,  Bergamo,  and  Cremona,  fell  to 
Louis.  The  Venetians,  although  driven  to  the  shelter  of  their  lagunes, 
did  not  despair;  and,  taking  advantage  of  a  trivial  success,  entered 
upon  negotiations  with  the  pontiff,  who  formed  a  treaty  with  them,  24th 
February  1510.  After  exhausting  her  strength  in  resisting  the  league 
of  Cambray,  Venice  sunk  into  comparative  obscurity.  Two  unsuccess¬ 
ful  wars  with  the  Turks  deprived  her  of  the  islands  in  the  Archipelago, 
and  of  Cyprus,  her  most  valuable  colony,  1570.  The  fear  of  the  Otto¬ 
mans  induced  the  government  to  form  an  alliance  with  Austria;  and, 
during  the  remainder  of  the  sixteenth  century,  her  history  contains  little 
worthy  of  attention. 

Tuscany. — After  the  treaty  of  Cambray,  the  Florentines  continuing 
hostile  to  the  Medici,  the  city  was  besieged  by  an  imperial  army,  and 
forced  to  surrender  in  1530.  A  new  constitution,  published  by  the 
emperor  two  years  afterwards,  declared  Alexander  de  Medici  chief  of 
the  city,  with  the  hereditary  title  of  duke;  but  he  did  not  long  enjoy 
his  new  dignities,  being  assassinated  in  1537  by  one  of  his  near  rela¬ 
tives.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  morose  and  heartless  Cosmo  de  Medici, 
the  first  grand-duke,  who  was  very  active  in  the  administration  of 
affairs,  endeavouring  to  reform  the  public  manners,  especially  those  of 
the  clergy,  and  to  revive  agriculture  and  commerce.  He  extended  his 
protection  to  letters,  re-established  the  universities  of  Florence  and 
Pisa,  and  founded  the  Academy  in  the  former  city.  In  1562,  his  palace 
was  the  theatre  of  some  tragical  events.  His  second  son,  Giovanni, 
having  been  assassinated  by  the  third  son,  Garcia,  Cosmo  stabbed  the 
fratricide  in  the  arms  of  his  mother,  who  died  of  grief  shortly  after,  and 
the  duke  himself  retired  from  public  life,  assigning  the  administration 
of  the  government  to  Francis,  his  heir.  Cosmo  died  in  1574,  and  his 
successor,  after  a  reign  marked  by  assassinations  and  crimes  of  every 
kind,  was  poisoned,  1587,  together  with  his  paramour,  who  had  become 
his  wife,  at  a  banquet  given  by  his  brother,  the  Cardinal  Ferdinand. 
The  latter  ascended  the  throne,  and  endeavoured  to  raise  the  people  from 
the  degradation  to  which  they  had  been  subjected  sixty  years.  Under 
this  prince,  agriculture  and  commerce  flourished  ;  he  extended  his 
patronage  to  the  fine  arts,  and  rendered  the  court  of  Tuscany  the  best 
musical  school  in  Europe. 

The  Roman  States. — Romagna  was.  during  many  years,  the  theatre 
of  a  contest  excited  by  the  ambition  of  Caesar  Borgia.  At  this  time  the 
States  of  the  Church  were  the  worst  administered  and  least  peaceful  of 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


373 


all  Italy,  the  territories  immediately  encircling  Rome  having  passed 
entirely  under  the  control  of  the  Colonnas  and  the  Orsini.  The  former 
being  Ghibellines,  the  latter  Guelfs,  the  nobility  were  divided  between 
these  two  powerful  families,  whose  quarrels  often  stained  the  streets  of 
the  capital  with  blood.  Alexander  VI.,  1492,  resolved  to  profit  by  these 
dissensions  for  the  aggrandizement  of  his  son,  at  the  expense  of  the 
church  patrimony.  Caesar  Borgia,  with  the  aid  of  French  troops, 
gradually  reduced  the  petty  lords  of  Romagna ;  and  this  prince,  whom 
Louis  XII.  protected,  extended  his  conquests  by  taking  the  isles  of 
Piombino  and  Elba,  with  several  towns  on  the  mainland. 

Alexander  VI.,  who  died  in  1503,  was  succeeded  by  Pius  III.,  and 
the  latter  by  Julius  II.,  in  the  same  year.  The  last-named  pontiff,  a 
thorough  Italian  in  heart,  entertained  a  like  hatred  to  Spaniards,  Ger¬ 
mans,  and  French,  as  having  been  in  turn  the  conquerors  and  oppressors 
of  his  country.  After  the  death  of  Caesar  Borgia,  he  reduced  part  of 
Romagna,  and  prosecuted  his  design  of  expelling  all  foreign  enemies 
from  the  Italian  soil. 

Julius,  dying  at  the  very  moment  that  his  schemes  appeared  likely  to 
be  realized,  was  succeeded  by  John  de  Medici,  as  Leo  X.,  who  at  first 
trod  in  the  steps  of  his  predecessors,  but  whose  conciliatory  character 
inclined  to  peace.  He  continued  the  magnificent  basilic  of  St.  Peter, 
which  the  other  had  begun ;  and,  in  order  to  raise  the  necessary  funds, 
had  recourse  to  the  sale  of  indulgences, — the  proximate  cause  of  the 
Reformation.  Clement  VII.,  1523,  also  one  of  the  Medici,  and  a  patron 
of  letters,  but  of  an  austere  life,  published  a  bull  for  the  reformation  of 
manners  at  Rome  and  throughout  Italy.  He  was  succeeded  in  1534  by 
Alexander  Farnese,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Paul  III.  It  was  by  his 
intervention  that  Francis  1.  and  Charles  V.  were  induced  to  conclude 
the  treaty  of  Nice  in  1538;  and  the  council  of  Trent,  which  was  sum¬ 
moned  at  his  suggestion,  was  by  him  transferred  to  Bologna.  Paul  IV., 
1555,  was  the  first  who  drew  up  and  published  an  Index  expur  gutorius, 
to  prevent  the  dissemination  of  heretical  doctrines;  he  also  invested  the 
Inquisition  with  more  ample  powers.  Gregory  XIII.  aided  the  Vene¬ 
tians  in  their  wars  with  the  Turks  ;  and  it  was  this  pontiff  who  re¬ 
formed  the  Roman  calendar,  adoptingsthe  system  of  Louis  Lilio,  a  Cala¬ 
brian  astronomer,  and  commanding  its  immediate  use.*  He  was 
distinguished  for  liberality,  having  expended  in  charitable  and  pious 
works  not  less  than  200,000  crowns.  Sixtus  V.,  his  successor,  1585, 
who  was  the  son  of  a  peasant  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  honoured  the 
pontificate  by  the  vigour  of  his  character.  He  cleared  the  country  of 
robbers,  favoured  agriculture,  and  encouraged  manufactures.  Under 
him  Rome  was  greatly  improved  and  extended  ;  he  built  magnificent 
aqueducts,  worthy  of  the  ancient  capital  of  the  world  ;  raised  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  Obelisk  before  the  church  of  St.  Peter ;  and  completed  its  gorgeous 
cupola.  He  died  in  1590.  His  decision,  and  the  numerous  public 
buildings  which  he  constructed,  conferred  honour  on  his  name  ;  but  his 
extreme  rigour  caused  his  death  to  be  hailed  with  joy  by  the  Romans, 


*This  method,  which  consisted  simply  in  throwing  out  ten  days  from  the  common 
reckoning  of  time  at  that  period,  and  introducing;proper  regulations  of  the  bissextiles, 
was  ordered  to  take  place  in  October  1582.  It  has  been  received  by  all  the  nations  of 
Europe,  except  the  Russians  and  Greeks.  The  new  style  was  not  adopted  in  Great 
Britain  before  1752. 

32 


374 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


who  overthrew  the  statues  that  had  been  raised  to  him  in  the  Capitol. 
After  him,  Urban  VII.,  Gregory  XIV.,  and  Innocent  IX.,  successively 
reigned  only  a  few  months ;  they  were  followed  by  Clement  VIII.  in 
1592,  who  reunited  Ferrara  to  the  Holy  See,  and  expired  in  1605. 

Parma  and  Piacenza. — Pope  Paul  III.,  who  passionately  desired  the 
aggrandizement  of  his  family,  had  obtained,  in  1545,  the  consent  of  the 
Sacred  College  to  confer  on  his  illegitimate  son,  Peter  Louis  Farnese, 
the  states  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  with  the  title  of  duke,  feudatory  to 
the  holy  see.  But  the  new  ruler  was  assassinated  in  1547  by  the 
nobles,  to  whom  his  debauchery,  cruelty,  and,  above  all,  his  various 
efforts  to  limit  their  privileges,  had  rendered  him  odious.  Ferdinand  de 
Gonzago,  governor  of  Milan  for  the  emperor,  who  had  taken  some 
share  in  this  conspiracy,  seized  on  the  duchy  in  the  name  of  his  master. 
Octavius,  the  duke’s  son,  claimed  Parma,  which  the  Pope  had  resumed, 
and  applied  to  Henry  II.  of  France  for  assistance,  by  whose  intervention 
it  was  recovered,  in  1552,  to  which  Piacenza  was  added  by  Philip  II., 
in  1556.  The  long  reign  of  this  prince,  of  nearly  forty  years,  contri¬ 
buted  greatly  to  strengthen  the  ducal  throne.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Alexander,  who  commanded  the  Spanish  troops  in  Flanders,  and 
died  at  Arras  in  1592.  His  successor,  Ranuzio  I.,  exercised  the  most 
frightful  tyranny. 

SPANISH  PENINSULA. 

The  death  of  their  only  son,  and  other  family  bereavements,  induced 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  centre  all  their  hopes  on  the  Princess  Joanna 
and  her  posterity.  In  1504,  on  the  demise  of  Isabella,  the  infanta  and 
her  husband  the  archduke  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Castile,  their  son 
Charles  becoming  prince  of  the  Asturias  :  two  years  afterwards,  Philip’s 
reign  was  terminated  by  death.  This  event  entirely  unhinged  the  mind 
of  his  consort,  and  Ferdinand,  her  father,  became  regent  of  the  kingdom. 
He  expelled  John  d’Albret  from  the  throne  of  Navarre,  thus  extending 
the  limits  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  to  the  Pyrenees,  1512.  This  prince, 
who  has  been  reproached  for  his  insatiable  avarice  and  crafty  policy, 
died  in  1516,  leaving  the  throne  to  Charles,  afterwards  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

Ferdinand,  of  whom  it  was  said  by  Philip  II.  that  royalty  in  Spain  was  in¬ 
debted  to  him  for  everything,  rescued  the  country  from  feudal  anarchy.  Under 
various  pretexts — by  violence  or  judicial  sentence — he  deprived  the  nobles  of 
the  lands  they  had  acquired  from  the  prodigality  or  weakness  of  his  predeces¬ 
sors,  and  diminished  the  power  of  the  religious  military  orders.  By  these  and 
similar  innovations,  he  firmly  established  the  royal  authority  ;  but  at  the  same 
time  laid  the  foundation  of  a  political  and  religious  despotism,  which  attained 
its  full  development  in  the  following  reign. 

Charles  I.  was  successively  recognised  king  of  Castile  and  Aragon, 
principally  through  the  influence  of  his  able  minister,  Cardinal  Ximenes. 
The  partiality  of  the  monarch  for  his  Flemish  favourites  had  the  effect 
of  greatly  alienating  the  affections  of  the  Spanish  people  ;  when,  in  the 
midst  of  the  discontents  thus  occasioned,  his  grandfather  Maximilian 
died,  and  he  succeeded  to  the  imperial  crown  by  the  title  of  Charles  V., 
1519.  His  departure  to  Germany  was  immediately  followed  by  a  for¬ 
midable  insurrection,  in  which  even  the  clergy  took  part,  one  of  the 
most  active  leaders  being  the  Bishop  of  Zamora ;  it  was,  however, 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


375 


quelled  after  a  short,  but  ill-concerted  struggle.  The  history  of  Spain 
during  this  reign  is  henceforth  almost  inseparably  connected  with  that 
of  the  empire.  The  incessant  wars  in  which  Charles  was  involved, 
compelled  him  to  make  frequent  applications,  particularly  to  his  Spanish 
subjects,  for  the  necessary  funds.  In  1539,  the  cortes  being  assembled 
at  Toledo,  he  proposed  to  relieve  the  wants  of  his  government  by  a 
general  impost  upon  all  kinds  of  merchandise.  The  violent  opposition 
of  the  several  orders,  especially  of  the  nobles  and  clergy,  to  the  impo¬ 
sition  of  this  tax,  led  to  an  important  change  in  the  constitution  of  the 
cortes.  Finding  it  impossible  to  overcome  their  resistance,  the  emperor 
indignantly  dissolved  the  assembly,  remarking  that  those  who  did  not 
contribute  had  no  rio-ht  to  deliberate.  Thenceforth,  neither  nobles  nor 
prelates  were  summoned  to  take  part  in  the  discussion  of  any  fiscal 
question,  the  states  being  composed  merely  of  the  representatives  of 
cities,  who,  to  the  number  of  thirty-six,  formed  an  assembly  entirely 
subservient  to  the  will  of  the  court. 

Philip  II.  wTas  called  to  the  throne,  in  1555,  by  the  abdication  of  his 
father,  and  signalized  the  commencement  of  his  reign  by  stringent 
measures  for  the  extirpation  of  Lutheranism.  The  regulations  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  were  rendered  imperative  throughout  the  whole  extent 
of  the  Spanish  monarchy  ;  and,  with  the  view  of  compelling  the  Moors 
to  embrace  Christianity,  it  was  ordered,  in  1568,  that  they  should 
renounce  their  language,  names,  and  all  distinctive  usages.  This  blind 
tyranny  provoked  a  general  insurrection,  which  was  headed  by  Moham- 
med-Aben-Humeya,  a  descendant  of  the  former  sovereigns  of  Granada. 
Don  John  of  Austria  being  sent  against  them,  they  were  defeated  in 
several  engagements,  and  compelled  to  submit  to  conditions  which 
involved  their  removal  from  their  former  residence,  and  their  dispersion 
through  the  old  Christian  provinces,  1576. 

Revolutions  in  Portugal  were  preparing  the  way  for  the  temporary 
union  of  that  kingdom  with  Spain.  The  absolute  government  which 
had  prevailed  in  the  former  country  under  John  II.  and  Emanuel, 
increased  greatly  under  John  III.  In  the  reign  of  this  monarch,  which 
lasted  thirty- six  years,  the  cortes  wrnre  only  three  times  convoked  ;  while 
the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Jesuits, 
contributed  greatly  to  the  consolidation  of  despotism.  The  disastrous 
reign  of  Sebastian,  grandson  of  John  III.,  began  in  1557,  when  the 
king  was  a  minor  three  years  of  age.  Educated  in  a  manner  well  cal¬ 
culated  to  excite  a  naturally  romantic  character,  and  full  of  religious 
and  knightly  ardour,  he,  in  1578,  undertook  an  expedition  against  the 
Moors  in  Africa,  w'here  he  was  defeated  and  slain.  The  Cardinal  Henry 
now  succeeded,*  the  only  important  event  of  whose  short  rule  was  the 
meeting  of  the  estates  at  Lisbon  to  decide  between  the  claims  of  the  six 
pretenders  to  the  throne  on  his  decease,  among  whom  was  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  The  priest-king,  as  Henry  was  called,  died  in  1580  ;  and  Philip, 
having  gained  over  a  part  of  the  Portuguese  nobles,  ordered  30,000  men 
into  Portugal,  who,  in  three  weeks,  obtained  possession  of  the  country 

*  Henry  is  seen  to  much  greater  advantage  as  a  prelate  than  as  a  king.  He  reformed 
the  too  relaxed  manners  of  the  ecclesiastics,  established  schools  and  hospitals  for  the 
poor,  protected  letters,  founded  the  university  of  Evora,  and  colleges  at  Coimbra  and 
Lisbon.  He  employed  the  Jesuit  Maffei  in  writing  the  history  of  the  Portuguese  in  the 
Indies,  encouraged  the  useful  labours  of  many  learned  men,  and  himself  composed 
several  works. 


376 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


The  Spanish  arms  were  at  this  period  in  the  height  of  their  success 
in  Flanders  under  Alexander  Farnese.  Seized  with  the  emulation  of 
subjugating  France  and  England,  and  at  the  same  time  irritated  by  the 
assistance  which  the  latter  country  had  afforded  to  the  Flemish  revolt, 
Philip,  in  1588,  fitted  out  the  famous  armament  known  as  the  invincible 
armada ,  which  was  signally  defeated.  Spain  now  gradually  became 
of  less  importance  in  the  politics  of  Europe ;  her  naval  power  and  com¬ 
merce  declined  ;  and  the  king,  at  his  death  in  1598,  bequeathed  a  debt 
of  140  millions  of  ducats  to  a  nation  whose  resources  were  already 
exhausted.* 

THE  NETHERLANDS. 

Philip  the  Hardy,  youngest  son  of  John  of  France,  having  been 
created  Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1303,  married  Margaret,  daughter  and 
heiress  of  Louis  III.,  last  count  of  Flanders.  With  the  hand  of  this 
princess,  he  obtained,  in  addition  to  the  county  now  named,  Artois, 
Franche-Comte,  Nevers,  Rethel,  Mechlin,  and  Antwerp.  The  fortune 
of  the  family  rapidly  increased  with  the  lapse  of  years,  and  the  dukes 
of  Burgundy  were  soon  more  powerful  than  several  of  the  kings  of 
Europe.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  Louis  XI.  seized  on  the 
dukedom,  while  all  the  other  provinces  passed  to  the  house  of  Austria 
by  the  marriage  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  with  the  Archduke  Maximilian, 
1477,  whose  grandson  Charles  V.  increased  his  domains  by  the  lord- 
ships  of  Utrecht  and  Overyssel,  with  the  territory  of  Groningen.  He 
then  formed  the  plan  of  uniting  the  seventeen  provinces^  with  Spain. 
Under  this  monarch  the  United  Provinces  greatly  flourished  ;  but  his 
son,  Philip  II.,  desirous  of  eradicating  Protestantism,  introduced  the 
Inquisition,  which  ultimately  drove  the  inhabitants  into  rebellion. 

In  the  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn,  and  in  William  of  Nassau,  prince 
of  Orange,  the  people  had  leaders  worthy  of  their  cause.  Their  repre¬ 
sentations  to  the  sovereign  having  failed,  they  attacked  the  churches 
and  monasteries,  and  after  destroying  the  altars  and  images,  violently 
introduced  the  Protestant  form  of  worship. 

Philip,  in  1567,  sent  the  Duke  of  Alva  into  the  Low  Countries  with 
an  army  of  20,000  men,  at  whose  approach  100,000  Flemings  abandoned 
their  country,  carrying  their  treasures  and  industry  into  France,  Ger¬ 
many,  and  England.  A  tribunal  of  twelve  judges  established  by  Alva 
to  examine  into  the  excesses,  and  discover  those  who  favoured  Protes¬ 
tant  doctrines,  caused  no  fewer  than  18,000  persons  to  perish  by  the 
hand  of  the  executioner.  The  most  illustrious  of  these  victims  were 
the  Counts  of  Egmont  and  Horn,  who  suffered  death  at  Brussels,  June 
5,  1568.  The  news  of  this  cruelty  was  the  signal  for  a  fresh  revolt  and 
civil  commotion.  The  Prince  of  Orange,  at  the  head  of  a  large  but 
undisciplined  army  of  Germans,  French,  Italians,  and  Flemings,  invaded 

*  At  his  accession,  Philip  possessed,  in  Europe,  the  united  kingdoms  of  Castile,  Ara¬ 
gon,  and  Navarre,  with  Naples,  Sicily,  Milan,  Franche-Comte,  and  the  Netherlands;  in 
Africa,  Tunis,  Oran,  the  Cape  Verde  and  Canary  Islands;  in  America,  Peru,  Mexico, 
New  Spain,  and  Chili,  besides  Cuba,  Hispaniola,  &c.  The  mines  of  Mexico,  Chili,  and 
Potosi  were  alone  a  source  of  greater  wealth  than  almost  all  the  other  princes  of  Europe 
together  were  possessed  of. — Watson’s  Philip  II,  vol.  i.  p.  17. 

f  These  provinces  were  the  duchies  of  Brabant,  Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Gueldres  ; 
the  seven  earldoms  of  Flanders,  Hainault,  Artois,  Holland,  Zealand,  Namur,  and  Zut- 
phen  ;  the  marquisate  of  Antwerp,  and  the  five  lordships  of  Mechlin,  Friesland,  Utrecht, 
Groningen,  and  Overryssel. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


377 


Luxemburg.  His  first  efforts  being  unsuccessful,  he  and  his  brother 
Louis  were  compelled  to  return  to  Germany.  Though  defeated  on  land, 
the  prince  and  Count  William  de  la  Marck  encouraged  a  maritime  war 
against  the  Spaniards;  and  in  1572,  a  small  body  captured  the  town  of 
Briel,  an  event  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  republic  of  the  United 
Provinces.  A  revolution  broke  out  in  Zealand ;  and  all  the  cities,  except 
Middleburg,  opened  their  gates  to  the  insurgents,  an  example  followed 
by  many  towns  in  Holland.  At  Dort,  William  was  declared  stadt- 
holder,  and  the  public  exercise  of  the  Reformed  religion  in  the  Calvin- 
istic  form  openly  introduced. 

Alva  was  recalled  and  disgraced ;  his  successor,  Louis  de  Requesens, 
and  Don  John  of  Austria,  continued  the  war  wfith  varied  success.  The 
Spanish  fleet  having  attempted  to  secure  Middleburg,  was  defeated  by 
the  Prince  of  Orange;  while  Count  Louis  of  Nassau  and  his  brother 
Henry  w^ere  killed  at  the  battle  of  Mookerheide.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  events  of  the  wTar  was  the  siege  of  Leyden,  1574,  which 
W’as  defended  by  the  Dutch  with  heroic  resolution.  The  dikes  of  the 
Yssel  and  Maes  w*ere  broken  down;  the  fields  occupied  by  the  besieging 
army  inundated  ;  and  the  invaders  were  eventually  forced  to  retire.  In 
the  following  year,  the  states  of  Holland  founded  the  university  of  Ley¬ 
den,  which  long  held  an  elevated  rank  among  the  great  seminaries  of 
Europe. 

The  Spanish  soldiery  now  committed  the  greatest  excesses,  plunder¬ 
ing  many  cities,  and  ravaging  the  open  country.  In  this  extremity,  a 
common  danger  united  the  Protestants  and  Catholics.  The  states-gene- 
ral,  assembled  at  Brussels,  proposed  negotiating  with  the  Prince  of 
Orange  and  the  confederates  of  Dort.  Their  overtures  w*ere  favourably 
received ;  and  a  treaty  of  general  union  was  concluded,  under  the  title 
of  the  “  Pacification  of  Ghent,”  between  the  provinces  of  the  north  and 
south,  guaranteeing  mutual  support  against  the  Spaniards,  and  solemnly 
pledging  the  contracting  parties  not  to  lay  down  their  arms  until  their 
enemies  were  finally  expelled  from  the  country,  1576. 

On  the  death  of  Requesens,  Don  John  of  Austria  was  appointed  go¬ 
vernor.  The  confederates  wrere  now  masters  of  Antwerp,  Bergen-op- 
Zoom,  Breda,  and  other  important  places.  With  an  army  of  20,000 
men,  the  new  governor  was  at  first  successful ;  but  was  eventually  de¬ 
feated  on  the  banks  of  the  Diemar,  and  dying  in  1578,  wTas  succeeded 
by  the  Prince  of  Parma,  wTho,  like  his  predecessors,  failed  to  make  any 
impression  on  the  northern  provinces.  He  wTas  so  far  successful,  how¬ 
ever,  in  sowing  dissension  betwreen  the  states  of  the  north  and  south, 
that  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  long  regretted  the  insecure  nature 
of  the  connexion  subsisting  between  them,  was  led  to  form  the  design 
of  isolating  the  northern  provinces  from  the  rest  of  the  Low  countries, 
and  establishing  a  republic  of  which  he  should  be  the  head.  The  act 
which  realized  this  design  was  signed  at  Utrecht,  January  25,  1579, 
between  the  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Gueldres,  and 
Groningen.  Friesland  and  Overyssel  acceded  to  it  in  June  following; 
and  several  cities  of  Belgium,  including  Ghent,  Antwerp,  and  Breda, 
joined  it  somewhat  later.  William  of  Orange  was  elected  stadtholder, 
with  all  the  attributes  of  royalty. 

While  the  Seven  United  Provinces  braved  with  their  own  resources 
the  power  and  vengeance  of  Spain,  the  ten  others  had  elected  the  Duke 
32* 


878 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


of  Anjou,  brother  of  Henry  III.,  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Low  Coun¬ 
tries  ;  but  that  prince,  having  foolishly  attempted  to  tamper  with  the 
constitution  of  his  new  dominions,  was  driven  back  to  France  in  1584. 
In  the  same  year,  William  was  assassinated  at  Delft,  at  the  instigation 
of  Philip,  by  Balthasar  Gerard ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  the  prince’s  eld¬ 
est  son,  who  was  a  prisoner  in  Spain,  Maurice,  his  second  son,  was 
raised  to  his  father’s  dignities,  and  notwithstanding  his  youth,  became  a 
formidable  rival  to  the  Duke  of  Parma.  The  loss  of  William,  however, 
was  a  severe  blow  to  the  confederation ;  the  Spaniards  recovered  several 
cities,  and  reduced  the  states  to  such  extremity,  that  they  offered,  as  the 
price  of  succours,  to  resign  the  country  either  to  England  or  France. 
Elizabeth  afforded  only  a  trifling  assistance;  but  her  aid,  by  involving 
Philip  in  those  hostilities  with  England  which  led  to  the  destruction  of 
the  armada,  had  an  important  though  indirect  influence  on  the  welfare 
of  the  United  Provinces.  The  scale  was  finally  turned  in  their  favour 
by  the  death  of  the  Prince  of  Parma,  in  159*2;  and  the  battle  of  Turn- 
hout,  in  which  his  successor  was  totally  routed  by  the  allied  English 
and  Dutch  forces,  1597,  may  be  regarded  as  the  virtual  conclusion  of  the 
contest. 

The  result  of  the  protracted  struggle  between  the  sovereign  of  so  many  states 
and  the  small  republic  of  the  Seven  Provinces  appears  almost  a  miracle.  Many 
circumstances,  however,  contributed  to  thwart  the  King  of  Spain  and  to  favour 
the  Dutch.  They  would  have  been  inevitably  crushed,  if  Philip  II.  had  brought 
all  his  power  to  bear  upon  them  ;  but  his  ambition,  which  compelled  him  to 
divide  his  forces,  was  a  protection  to  his  enemies.  That  ruinous  policy  which 
kept  traitors  in  every  court  of  Europe  in  his  pay,  the  support  he  gave  to  the 
League  in  France,  the  insurrection  of  the  Moors  of  Granada,  the  conquest  of 
Portugal,  and  the  construction  of  the  magnificent  palace  of  the  Escurial,  dissi- 
pated  treasures  which  seemed  almost  inexhaustible ;  while  his  armament  against 
England  swallowed  up  the  entire  revenues  of  both  Indies,  and  proved  the 
destruction  of  the  veteran  Spanish  soldiery. 

The  situation  of  the  insurgents  was  different.  They  found  auxiliaries  in  all 
those  who,  to  escape  the  Duke  of  Alva,  had  quitted  the  southern  provinces ; 
in  all  whom  the  Huguenot  wars  had  driven  from  France;  and  in  all  whom 
religious  intolerance  had  banished  from  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  enthusiasm 
inspired  by  new  doctrines,  the  desire  of  vengeance,  and  other  motives,  attracted 
to  their  standards  the  adventurers  of  all  countries.  Thus  the  Dutch  army  was 
complete  without  the  necessity  of  withdrawing  men  from  the  cultivation  of  the 
fields,  from  commerce,  or  from  their  extensive  fisheries,  which,  in  1604,  con¬ 
tributed  five  millions  of  florins  to  the  revenue.  At  the  epoch  when  the  new 
country  was  struggling  for  existence,  it  extended  its  dominion  beyond  the  seas, 
and  laid  the  foundations  of  its  power  in  the  East  Indies.  —  Schiller’s  Revolt  of 
the  Netherlands. 


GERMANY. 

The  reign  of  Maximilian  was  ah  important  one  both  to  Germany  and 
his  hereditary  dominions.  He  reformed  the  public  law  of  the  empire, 
and  was  the  first  to  establish  a  standing  army,  with  infantry,  cavalry, 
and  artillery,  divided  into  regiments  and  companies.  In  1501,  he  insti¬ 
tuted  the  Aulic  Council,  which  gradually  acquired  extensive  jurisdic¬ 
tion,  in  some  respects  superior  to  that  of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  The 
diet  of  Treves,  besides  confirming  the  power  of  the  council,  completed 
the  subdivision  of  the  empire  into  circles,  by  adding  four  others  to  the 
six  instituted  in  1500.  He  also  secured  the  reversion  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia  to  his  posterity,  by  the  double  marriage  of  the  Archduchess 


379 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 

Maty,  his  granddaughter,  with  Louis,  only  son  of  Ladislaus,  king  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and  of  Anne,  sister  of  Louis,  with  his  grandson, 
the  Archduke  Ferdinand. 

Charles  V. — The  death  of  the  emperor,  1519,  led  to  some  of  the 
most  important  events  in  modern  history.  Three  candidates  aspired  to 
the  imperial  honours — Charles  I.  of  Spain,  Francis  I.  of  France,  and 
tfcnry  VIII.  of  England ;  the  last,  however,  speedily  withdrew.  The 
electors,  distrustful  of  the  known  ambition  of  Francis,  and  influenced, 
moreover,  by  the  consideration  that  the  dominions  of  Charles  in  Austria 
would  render  him  the  most  likely  defender  of  the  empire  against  the 
Turks,  then  under  the  warlike  Selim  I.,  decided  in  favour  of  the  Spanish 
monarch,  who  was  solemnly  inaugurated  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by  the 
title  of  Charles  V.,  15*20.  The  dissatisfaction  of  Francis  with  this 
decision,  conjoined  with  his  claims  on  Italy,  led  to  a  series  of  disastrous 
wars  between  him  and  the  Empire.  The  French  monarch,  having 
invaded  and  taken  possession  of  Navarre,  advanced  into  Spain,  where 
he  was  defeated,  compelled  to  evacuate  his  conquest,  and  driven  back 
into  his  own  country.  At  the  same  time,  the  Milanese,  disgusted  with 
the  exactions  and  insolence  of  his  troops,  rose  in  arms,  putting  them¬ 
selves  under  Francis  Sforza,  brother  of  their  late  duke;  while  Pope 
Leo  X.,  the  Emperor,  and  the  King  of  England,  formed  a  league  for 
their  assistance.  The  French  forces  were  everywhere  defeated,  and 
forced  to  abandon  nearly  the  whole  of  their  possessions  in  Italy.  Joy 
at  these  successes  having  proved  fatal  to  the  reigning  pontiff,  1522,  he 
was  succeeded  by  Adrian  VI,,  who,  with  the  Florentines  and  other 
Italian  states,  joined  in  league  against  Francis,  now  left  without  an 
ally,  1523.  The  emperor  and  Henry  VIII.  invaded  France  on  the  north, 
south,  and  east ;  but  their  forces  were  repelled ;  and  Francis,  encouraged 
by  this  partial  success,  again  essayed  the  recovery  of  the  Milanese.  In 
1525,  entering  Italy  at  the  head  of  a  large  force,  he  was  at  first  very 
successful,  and  finally  sat  down  before  Pavia,  a  town  strongly  garri¬ 
soned,  and  commanded  by  Leyva,  an  able  officer.  Every  exertion  was 
now  made  by  the  imperial  generals  to  collect  an  army  ;  while  the  French, 
exhausted  by  fatigue  and  the  rigour  of  the  season,  and  weakened  by  a 
large  detachment  sent  against  Naples,  remained  in  their  intrenchments. 
On  the  2d  February,  they  were  attacked  by  the  imperialists  and  totally 
routed ;  and  their  king,  after  beholding  the  flower  of  his  nobility  perish 
by  his  side,  was  taken  prisoner  and  carried  in  triumph  to  Madrid.  #  The 
result  of  these  signal  reverses  was  a  treaty  by  which  Francis  agreed  to 
surrender  Burgundy  to  the  emperor,  and  delivered  up  his  two  sons  as 
hostages  for  its  performance,  1526. 

The  English  sovereign  now  became  alarmed  by  the  growing  power 
of  the  empire  ;  the  states  of  Burgundy  protested  against  the  surrender 
of  their  province  ;  and  Pope  Clement  VII.  absolved  the  king  from  the 
obligations  of  the  treaty  of  Madrid.  In  these  circumstances,  an  alli¬ 
ance,  called  the  Holy  League,  was  formed  between  France,  England, 
the  Swiss,  Florentines,  Milanese,  and  the  Pope,  to  oblige  Charles  to 
give  up  the  sons  of  the  French  monarch,  and  to  restore  the  duchy  of 
Milan,  of  which  he  still  retained  possession,  to  Sforza.  Charges,  the 
ruler  of  so  vast  an  empire,  possessed  a  very  limited  revenue ;  and  the 
wants  of  his  exchequer  opposed  a  greater  obstacle  to  his  ambition  than 
tne  coalition  of  all  the  princes  of  Europe.  The  forces  of  the  empire 


380 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


were  commanded  by  the  Constable  Bourbon,  who  had  been  arbitrarily 
deprived  of  his  estates  at  home,  and  had  joined  the  cause  of  the  enemy. 
The  confederates  took  the  field  in  Italy  ;  but  not  being  sufficiently  rein¬ 
forced  by  Francis,  the  Constable  overran  the  Milanese,  and  his  troops 
beginning  to  mutiny  for  want  of  pay,  he  led  them  to  Rome,  then  one 
of  the  richest  cities  in  Europe.  In  the  assault  on  the  city,  he  himself 
was  slain ;  but  Rome  was  taken,  and  experienced  from  the  troops  3©f 
the  Catholic  monarch  calamities  surpassing  those  inflicted  by  the  bar¬ 
barians  of  former  times,  1527.  On  receiving  the  news  of  the  captivity 
of  the  pope,  Charles  ordered  prayers  to  be  offered  up  in  the  churches 
for  his  deliverance,  saying  that  his  quarrel  was  with  the  temporal 
sovereign  of  Rome,  but  not  the  spiritual  head  of  the  church.  The 
treaty  of  Cambray,  1529,  restored  peace  between  the  rival  monarchs; 
Francis  abandoning  his  claims  upon  Italy  and  Flanders.  In  the  same 
year,  Charles  and  Pope  Clement  were  also  reconciled;  and,  in  March 
1530,  the  Spanish  king  was  crowned  by  the  pope  at  Bologna  as  Empe¬ 
ror  and  King  of  Lombardy. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  had  made  rapid 
progress  in  the  empire.  Martin  Luther,  a  man  of  elevated  mind  and 
inflexible  resolution,  had  boldly  declaimed  against  the  corruptions  of 
the  papacy,  1517 ;  and  the  opinions  he  promulgated  were  readily  em¬ 
braced  by  the  thoughtful  and  speculative  people  of  Germany.  The 
policy  of  the  northern  princes  strongly  encouraged  this  natural  direction 
of  the  minds  of  their  subjects,  as  the  best  guarantee  against  the  almost 
irresistible  power  of  Charles.  From  the  year  1525,  John  the  Constant, 
who  had  succeeded  his  brother  Frederick  the  Wise  in  the  electorate  of 
Saxony ;  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse  ;  George,  marquis  of  Brandenburg; 
Ernest,  duke  of  Luneburg;  and  Wolfgang,  prince  of  Anhalt,  with  most 
rf  the  free  cities  of  the  empire,  made  a  public  profession  of  Lutheranism. 
Albert,  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  grandmaster  of  the  Teutonic  knights, 
desirous  of  sharing  in  the  political  advantages  of  the  Reformation, 
renounced  his  vow  of  chastity,  secularized  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  which 
he  placed  under  the  protection  of  Poland,  and  thus  laid  the  foundations 
of  a  monarchy  which,  two  centuries  later,  became  one  of  the  most  pow¬ 
erful  in  Christendom.  Thoroughly  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  new 
opinions,  Charles,  soon  after  his  coronation,  set  out  for  Germany,  where 
he  immediately  assembled  the  diet  at  Augsburg,  June  1530.  The  Re¬ 
formers,  who  had  now  received  the  name  of  Protestants ,  here  solemnly 
presented  to  the  emperor  the  first  public  confession  of  their  faith,  drawm 
up  by  Luther,  and  subscribed  by  the  various  princes  who  had  embraced 
the  reformed  doctrines.  Charles,  whose  disposition  was  not  naturally 
intolerant,  found  himself  compelled  to  adopt  a  temporizing  policy 
towards  this  portion  of  his  subjects.  The  Turks  were  now  menacing 
Hungary ;  and  satisfied  that  he  could  not  refuse  them  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion  without  a  war  of  extermination,  he  referred  the  whole 
matter  to  a  general  council,  which  he  urged  the  pope  to  convoke,  but 
which  did  not  meet  until  1545. 

The  emperor  now  began  to  despair  of  universal  monarchy,  and  finding 
himself  unable  alone  to  support  the  burden  of  affairs,  he  associated  his 
brother  Ferdinand  with  him  in  the  government,  and  conferred  on  him 
the  title  of  king  of  the  Romans,  1531.  This  prince,  who  administered 
the  hereditary  estates  of  Austria,  had  acquired  by  marriage  the  kingdom 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


381 


Bohemia,  and  the  sovereignty  of  Hungary  had  fallen  to  him  on  the 
death  of  Louis  II.  Thus  already  wielding  three  sceptres,  and  uniting 
under  his  authority  all  the  south  of  Germany,  he  was  one  of  the  most 
powerful  princes  in  Europe  when  he  was  nominated  to  the  imperial 
succession.  Charles  having  repelled  a  formidable  inroad  of  the  Turks 
in  Hungary,  1532,  returned  to  Spain,  whence  he  sailed  with  a  large 
army  for  Tunis,  where  Barbarossa,  the  dread  of  the  Christians  in  the 
Mediterranean,  had  fortified  himself,  1535.  During  his  absence,  the 
Anabaptists,  a  fanatical  sect  wThich  had  arisen  in  Germany  amid  the 
agitation  of  Reformed  doctrines,  seized  on  the  city  of  Munster,  and 
defended  it  courageously  against  the  troops  of  the  bishop  ;  they  were, 
however,  overcome,  and  their  leaders  executed  with  great  cruelty.  On 
the  return  of  the  emperor  from  Africa,  where  he  had  been  completely 
successful,  he  was  again  compelled  to  take  up  arms  against  Francis, 
who  once  more  revived  his  Italian  claims,  1536.  Having  expelled  the 
French  from  Italy,  Charles  invaded  their  territory,  with  the  determina¬ 
tion  of  reducing  it  to  a  province  of  his  empire ;  but  after  fruitlessly 
investing  Arles  and  Marseilles,  and  laying  waste  Provence,  he  was 
compelled  to  recross  the  Alps  with  the  loss  of  half  his  army.  Moham¬ 
med,  the  sultan’s  lieutenant,  having  at  the  same  time  invaded  Hungary, 
while  Barbarossa  was  ravaging  the  coasts  of  Southern  Italy,  he  gladly 
accepted  the  mediation  of  Paul  III.,  and  a  truce  of  ten  years  was  con¬ 
cluded  with  Francis,  1538. 

The  conquest  of  Algiers  had  long  been  a  favourite  object  with  Charles. 
Having  suppressed  a  revolt  in  Ghent,  his  native  place,  he,  in  1541, 
collected  a  large  armament,  wTith  which  he  sailed  for  Africa,  contrary  to 
the  advice  of  his  admiral,  Andrew  Doria.  Having  landed  and  com¬ 
menced  operations  against  the  city,  a  furious  storm  scattered  his  fleet 
and  destroyed  his  soldiers,  and  he  was  forced  to  reimbark  with  the  loss 
of  the  greater  part  of  his  force.  Meanwhile,  the  murder  at  Milan  of  two 
French  emissaries  on  their  way  to  Constantinople,  and  the  refusal  of 
Charles  to  call  the  perpetrators  to  account,  put  an  end  to  the  truce  be¬ 
tween  him  and  Francis,  1542.  The  latter  wras  allied  with  the  kings  of 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  had  renewed  a  treaty  he  formerly  made  with 
the  sultan.  During  two  years,  war  raged  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and 
the  Low  Countries;  but  the  only  important  engagement  took  place  at 
Cerrisoles,  in  which  10,000  imperialists  were  slain,  and  their  opponents 
gained  a  signal  victory,  1544.  This  was  followed  by  a  peace  signed 
at  Crespy,  in  which  each  party  agreed  to  restore  its  conquests,  unite 
against  the  Turks,  and  suppress  reform  in  their  respective  dominions. 

The  prime  motive  with  Charles  in  the  peace  now  mentioned  was  his 
desire  to  humble  the  Protestant  princes.  The  diet  of  Worms,  in  1545, 
passed  various  resolutions  against  them,  in  consequence  of  which  they 
rose  in  arms  under  Frederick  of  Saxony  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse. 
The  emperor  concluded  a  dishonourable  peace  with  Soliman,  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  Pope,  who  sent  him  13,000  men  under  his  illegitimate 
son,  Alexander  Farnese,  and  having  collected  an  army,  made  a  victori¬ 
ous  march  towards  Upper  Germany,  levying  contributions  in  the  disaf¬ 
fected  districts.  In  a  decisive  battle  at  Mulhausen,  1547,  the  confede¬ 
rates  were  completely  defeated,  and  the  two  princes  taken  prisoners. 
The  electorate  of  Saxony  was  conferred  on  Maurice,  a  kinsman  of  Fre¬ 
derick,  who  had  treacherously  aided  the  emperor  against  the  confederacy 


382 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


of  which  he  had  at  one  time  been  a  member.  All  opposition  seemed 
now  at  an  end ;  his  great  rival  Francis  had  recently  expired ;  and  Charles, 
thinking  himself  secure  in  his  designs  on  the  liberties  of  Germany,  and 
desirous  of  ending  dictatorially  the  disputes  on  religion,  presented  a 
formula  to  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  1548,  drawn  up  by  his  own  order,  the 
articles  of  which  were  to  serve  as  a  rule  of  faith  until  the  final  decision 
of  a  general  council.  To  this  most  of  the  Protestant  states  were  com¬ 
pelled  to  submit.  But  such  an  order  of  things  was  not  destined  to  con¬ 
tinue,  for  the  Lutherans,  though  humbled,  were  not  subdued  ;  the  princes 
were  fully  alive  to  the  ambitious  designs  of  Charles ;  and  even  Maurice, 
of  Saxony  saw  the  necessity  of  opposing  them.  That  prince,  having 
been  appointed  general  of  an  imperial  army,  retained  the  troops  in  his 
pay  under  various  pretences ;  formed  a  treaty  with  Henry  II.  of  France ; 
and,  secure  of  the  adhesion  of  the  Danish  king  and  most  of  the  northern 
potentates,  at  length  threw-  off  the  mask.  At  the  head  of  a  force  of 
20,000  foot  and  2000  horse,  he  took  the  field,  with  the  avowed  purpose 
of  defending  the  Protestant  religion  and  maintaining  the  liberties  of  Ger- 
many;  and  marched  towards  the  south,  everywhere  restoring  the  Luthe¬ 
ran  clergy  and  magistrates.  At  the  same  time  the  French  invaded 
Lorraine,  their  monarch  styling  himself  “  Protector  of  the  liberties  of 
Germany  and  its  captive  princes.”  The  emperor  in  vain  sought  to 
negotiate :  Maurice  advanced  with  all  speed  to  Innsbruck,  where  he  was 
then  residing,  and  was  so  near  surprising  him,  that  he  escaped  wTith 
difficulty  during  the  night.  Augsburg  had  been  taken,  the  Protestants 
laid  siege  to  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  and  the  haughty  spirit  of  Charles 
was  at  length  forced  to  submit.  The  treaty  of  Passau  terminated  the 
internal  disputes  of  the  empire,  and  placed  the  reformed  religion  on  a 
secure  basis,  1552. 

This  was  unquestionably  the  most  disastrous  period  in  the  reign  of 
that  great  ruler.  The  war  continued  with  the  Turks  in  Hungary  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other ;  and  on  both  the  imperialists  wTere 
almost  uniformly  unsuccessful.  Italy  was  in  commotion  from  north  to 
south;  Sienna  openly  revolted;  and  the  coast  of  Naples  was  ravaged  by 
the  Turkish  fleet,  1555.  Wearied  with  the  cares  of  government,  and 
hopeless  of  realizing  his  dreams  of  universal  dominion,  Charles  at  length 
determined  on  resigning  all  his  dignities.  For  this  purpose  he  sum¬ 
moned  his  son  Philip  to  Brussels,  wrhere  the  latter  w-as  solemnly  invest¬ 
ed  with  the  government  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  a  few  weeks  after 
with  that  of  Spain  and  the  Indies.  In  the  following  year,  1556,  he  gave 
up  the  imperial  crowTn  to  his  brother  Ferdinand  ;  and,  after  astonishing 
the  wmrld  by  this  abdication,  retired  to  the  convent  of  St.  Just,  in  Estre 
madura,  where,  at  the  end  of  two  years,  he  expired  in  the  69th  year  of 
his  age. 

Consult,  for  particulars,  Robertson’s  History  of  Charles  V. 

The  first  exertions  of  Ferdinand  I.,  on  being  invested  wfith  the  su¬ 
preme  authority,  w7ere  directed  towards  the  establishment  of  civil  and 
religious  concord.  He  opposed  the  pretensions  of  the  pope,  who  claimed 
the  right  of  conferring  the  imperial  title,  and  vindicated  the  independence 
of  the  empire  from  the  encroachments  of  the  holy  see,  1557.  Having 
re-assembled  the  coimci*  of  Trent,  which  had  been  broken  up  by  the 
disturbances  of  the  last  beign,  an  attempt  at  reconciliation  between  the 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


383 


Catholic  and  Protestant  parties  was  made  by  the  emperor ;  but  this  prov¬ 
ing  ineffectual,  this  last  of  general  councils  was  dissolved,  1563.  Maxi¬ 
milian  II.  pursued  with  greater  success  the  same  course  as  his  father, 
1564.  The  reformers  had  now  begun  to  retaliate  the  Catholic  persecu 
ions,  and  even  to  disagree  among  themselves ;  but  by  his  ability  and 
moderation,  he  was  enabled  to  hold  the  balance  between  the  contending 
parties,  and  preserve  the  tranquillity  of  the  empire.  A  Turkish  invasion 
of  Hungary  was  repelled,  and  a  truce  concluded  with  the  sultan;  while 
a  convention  with  John  Sigismund  secured  to  him  the  crown  of  Hun¬ 
gary.  Rudolph  IL  succeeded  to  the  imperial  crown  in  1576,  but  fol¬ 
lowed  a  very  different  course.  Abandoned  to  the  direction  of  favourites, 
and  naturally  intolerant,  he  suppressed  the  Protestant  worship  in  Aus¬ 
tria,  and  attempted  to  deprive  the  Hungarians  and  Bohemians  of  all  their 
immunities.  The  country  was  everywhere  embroiled  in  insurrections ; 
the  Lutherans  were  led  to  form  a  confederation,  and  to  ally  themsel  ves 
with  Holland  and  Henry  IV.  of  France;  while  the  Catholics,  on  the 
other  hand,  united  for  mutual  defence.  The  empire  was  saved  from 
open  war  by  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV.,  1610,  just  as  he  was  about 
to  pour  his  troops  into  Germany;  and  Rudolph  himself  died  in  1612. 
In  the  midst  of  these  troubles,  however,  science  flourished  ;  and  the  cele¬ 
brated  Rudolphine  Tables ,  calculated  by  Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe,  have 
rendered  this  reign  an  era  in  the  annals  of  astronomy. 

HUNGARY  AND  BOHEMIA. 

Hungary  first  attained  the  rank  of  a  kingdom  in  the  eleventh  century,  the 
reigning  prince,  whose  father,  Duke  Geysa,  had  previously  embraced  Christi¬ 
anity,  assuming  the  title  of  Stephen  I.,  1000.  Under  succeeding  monarchs, 
the  country  rose  rapidly  in  importance  ;  its  limits  were  extended ;  and  it  long 
formed  the  chief  barrier  of  Christendom  against  the  Turks.  The  sovereignty 
was  elective :  in  1437,  it  had  fallen  to  Albert,  archduke  of  Austria,  who 
perished  in  a  campaign  against  the  Turks,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  posthu¬ 
mous  son,  Ladislaus,  1440.  Under  this  monarch  and  his  successor,  the  king¬ 
dom  was  saved  from  destruction  by  the  valiant  regent,  John  Huniades,  whose 
son,  Matthias  I.,  ascended  the  throne  in  1458.  The  neighbouring  country 
of  Bohemia  became  known  as  a  kingdom  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century, 
though  still  remaining  feudatory  to  the  German  emperors,  from  whom  its  kings 
received  their  investiture  ;  they,  in  turn,  enjoying  one  of  the  seven  electoral 
votes.  The  crown,  like  that  of  Hungary,  was  elective,  passing,  however,  in 
ordinary  cases,  to  the  nearest  heir.  The  power  of  the  monarch  was  limited 
by  the  coronation  oath,  by  a  permanent  senate,  and  by  frequent  convocations 
of  the  national  diet,  composed  of  the  armed  nobility.  An  important  era  in  the 
history  of  Bohemia  dates  from  the  appearance  of  the  celebrated  John  Huss, 
and  his  pupil,  Jerome  of  Prague,  the  former  of  whom  had  translated  the  works 
of  Wickliffe,  and  openly  taught  his  doctrines  to  his  countrymen,  1400.  Both 
fell  victims  to  the  persecuting  spirit  of  the  age  ;  but  their  preaching  and  example 
had  made  a  deep  impression,  and  led  the  way  to  an  important  change  in  the 
national  faith,  preceded,  however,  by  great  internal  disorders. 

On  the  death  of  Matthias  I.  of  Hungary,  in  1490,  Ladislaus,  king 
of  Bohemia,  was  invested  with  the  crown,  thereby  uniting  the  two 
countries.  This  able  prince  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  II.,  a 
child  ten  years  of  age,  1516,  during  whose  long  minority  the  country 
was  torn  by  factions,  and  the  national  revenue  wasted.  In  1526,  the 
Sultan  invaded  Hungary  with  an  army  of  300,000  men ;  and,  in  the 
fatal  battle  of  Mohacz,  Louis  perished  with  the  flower  of  his  nobility, 


384 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


great  part  of  his  territory  becoming  a  prey  to  the  conqueror.  Ferdi¬ 
nand  I.  of  Austria,  having  married  the  sister  of  Louis,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Bohemia;  but  the  Hungarians,  refusing  to  acknowledge  his 
claim,  gave  the  crown  to  John  Zapoli,  palatine  of  Transylvania,  and  at 
his  death  to  his  son,  John  Sigismund.  This  led  to  a  long  and  bloody 
war,  which,  as  the  Turks  took  part  in  it,  lasted  during  the  whole  life 
of  Ferdinand, —  the  result,  in  a  great  measure,  of  the  unpopularity  ot 
the  house  of  Austria,  whose  religious  intolerance  and  despotic  habits 
were  offensive  to  the  Hungarian  nobles.  Maximilian  II.,  1563,  sue 
ceeded  his  father  in  the  dignities  of  Emperor  and  King  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia;  not,  however,  without  opposition  from  John  Sigismund, 
who  was  aided  by  Soliman  II.  Rudolph,  who  ascended  the  throne  in 
1572,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  enormous  expense  of  maintaining  the 
strongholds  of  Croatia,  gave  them,  as  a  fief  of  the  empire,  to  Charles, 
duke  of  Styria,  who  partitioned  the  whole  into  a  number  of  smaller 
fiefs,  which  he  bestowed  on  foreigners  of  all  nations,  of  whom  he 
formed  a  military  colony.  This  establishment,  which  gradually  extended 
along  the  frontiers  of  Sclavonia  and  Croatia,  effectually  repelled  the 
Turkish  inroads,  and  supplied  those  redoubtable  troops,  who,  under  the 
names  of  Croats  and  Pandoors,  became  the  strength  of  the  Austrian 
armies.  The  bigoted  spirit  of  this  prince  alienated  the  affections  of  his 
subjects,  particularly  of  the  Protestants,  who  rose  in  rebellion,  and 
gave  the  thrones  of  both  countries,  during  his  lifetime,  to  his  brother 
Matthias. 

POLAND  AND  RUSSIA. 

Poland. — The  Poles,  who  belonged  to  the  Sclavonian  branch  of  the  European 
family,  were  at  first  divided  into  several  petty  states,  constantly  at  war  with 
each  other ;  but  the  early  history  of  the  country  is  involved  in  much  obscurity. 
In  965,  the  people  were  converted  to  Christianity,  and  united  under  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  Duke  Mieczeslaus,  who  became,  however,  a  vassal  of  the  empire ; 
and  his  successor,  Boleslaus,  received  the  royal  crown  from  the  hands  of  the 
Emperor  Otho  III.,  1000.  During  three  hundred  years  the  country  presents 
the  usual  disorders  incident  to  a  rude  and  warlike  people.  Ladislaus  II., 
1306,  an  able  prince,  exerted  himself  to  compose  the  disturbances  of  the  king¬ 
dom,  and  firmly  established  his  authority.  His  son,  Casimir  the  Great, 
followed  in  the  steps  of  his  father  :  he  freed  the  nation  from  its  dependence  on 
the  empire,  invited  the  settlement  of  foreigners,  built  towns  and  fortresses, 
encouraged  industry  and  commerce,  and  promulgated  an  excellent  system  of 
laws.  At  his  death,  1370,  the  crown  became  elective  with  certain  limitations, 
and  was  conferred  on  his  nephew  Louis,  king  of  Hungary.  This  monarch 
secured  the  succession  to  his  daughter,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1382,  and 
married  Jagellon,  duke  of  Lithuania,  that  prince  with  his  people  agreeing  to 
embrace  the  Christian  faith.  This  important  augmentation  of  national  strength 
was  followed  by  long  and  violent  contests  with  the  Teutonic  Knights ,  who 
possessed  Prussia  and  the  neighbouring  provinces ;  these  were  not  terminated 
till  1466,  when,  after  immense  bloodshed,  the  knights  submitted  to  do  homage.* 
The  union  with  Lithuania  did  not  prevent  violent  contentions  and  animosities 
between  the  two  countries;  they  were  afterwards  repeal edly  separated  and 
again  united,  and  their  thorough  incorporation  was  not  effected  till  1569. 

The  kings  of  Poland  were  engaged  in  almost  incessant  wars  with 
the  Ottomans,  as  well  as  with  the  Tartars  and  Muscovites.  In  1501, 


♦This  order  of  military  monks  was  founded  in  Asia  during  the  Crusades,  whence  they 
removed  to  Germany  on  the  relinquishment  of  all  hopes  of  recovering  Palestine.  Here 
they  subdued  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  Prussia,  and  shortly  after  acquired  Livonia  and 
Esthonia,  1273. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


385 


Alexander  grandduke  of  Lithuania,  was  elected  to  the  Polish  crown, 
during  whose  government  the  royal  power  was  much  weakened  by  the 
encroachments  of  the  nobles.  His  successor,  Sigismund  I.,  1506,  found 
the  country  in  great  disorder;  and  his  reign  forms  one  uninterrupted 
series  of  successful  exertions  for  its  security  and  improvement.  The 
same  wise  course  of  administration  was  followed  by  his  son,  Sigismund 
II.,  1548-157*2.  During  this  interval  the  Reformed  doctrines  made 
great  progress  in  Poland,  especially  among  the  higher  classes  ;  and  this 
country  is  distinguished  as  being  the  first  to  adopt  a  complete  system 
of  toleration.  By  an  enactment  of  the  diet,  known  as  the  Confederation 
of  1573,  all  sects  were  left  at  liberty  to  follow  the  dictates  of  conscience, 
and  allowed  equal  rights  and  privileges.*  The  death  of  Sigismund  II. 
terminated  the  main  line  of  Jagellon,  and  the  throne  of  Poland  became 
open  to  the  ambition  of  various  competitors.  Henry  of  Anjou  was  first 
chosen,  but  he  clandestinely  retired  to  France,  to  the  crown  of  which  he 
succeeded  as  Henry  III.  Battori,  prince  of  Transylvania,  was  next 
elected,  and  proved  an  able  and  vigorous  monarch :  he  was  a  terror  to 
the  enemies  of  his  people,  and  greatly  promoted  their  internal  prosperity. 
Sigismund  III.,  crown-prince  of  Sweden.  1587,  reigned  forty-five  years. 
His  bigoted  attachment  to  the  Papal  church  caused  the  loss  of  his  here¬ 
ditary  dominions,  and  gave  rise  to  a  rebellion  in  Poland,  which  was 
suppressed  with  difficulty. 

Russia. — In  the  ninth  century,  the  vast  territory  now  known  by  this  name 
was  peopled  by  various  Scythian  and  Tartar  tribes,  and  divided  into  numerous 
independent  states,  the  two  principal  of  which  were  Kiew  and  Novgorod.  In 
850,  a  Scandinavian  chief,  named  Rurik,  became  master  of  the  latter  country, 
and  is  considered  the  first  of  the  Russian  sovereigns.  Under  Vladimir  the 
Great,  980-1015,  the  people  embraced  Christianity  according  to  the  forms  of 
the  Greek  church,  the  arts  of  civilisation  were  introduced,  and  some  degree  of 
stability  was  given  to  the  government.  After  his  death,  the  country  was 
partitioned  among  his  sons,  and  became  for  nearly  a  century  a  prey  to  civil 
wars  and  Polish  invasions.  In  1223,  the  whole  region  was  overrun  by  the 
Tartars,  under  a  son  of  Genghis-khan ;  the  towns  were  destroyed,  and  the 
inhabitants  massacred ;  and  during  the  space  of  two  hundred  years,  the  Rus¬ 
sian  princes  became  vassals  of  the  conquerors.  In  1462,  Ivan  III.  restored  the 
independence  of  his  country,  reunited  the  several  divisions  of  the  territory,  and 
already  aspired  to  the  possession  of  the  Byzantine  throne.  In  this  reign  the 
influence  of  Russia  first  began  to  be  recognised  in  the  politics  of  Europe. 

Vasili  IV.,  the  successor  of  Ivan,  1505,  continued  to  prosecute  the 
schemes  of  aggrandisement  formed  by  his  father.  His  son,  Ivan  IV., 
1533,  was  the  first  Russian  prince  who  assumed  the  title  of  Czar ,  and 
contributed  more  than  any  of  his  predecessors  to  the  power  of  the 
government.  In  the  early  years  of  his  reign,  he  repressed  the  incur¬ 
sions  of  the  Tartars,  instituted  the  Strelitzes ,  a  regular  body  of  infantry, 
and  published  a  code  of  laws.  The  voluntary  adhesion  of  the  Don  Cos¬ 
sacks  secured  to  him  the  services  of  these  warlike  auxiliaries,  1549; 
while  the  conquest  of  Siberia,  1581,  more  than  doubled  the  original  ter¬ 
ritories  of  the  empire.  During  this  reign,  the  discovery  of  the  passage 
to  the  White  Sea  by  some  English  merchants,  opened  a  commercial 
intercourse  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia.  The  ferocious  character 


♦  The  Arians  and  Socinians  were  at  this  time  numerous  in  Poland  —  the  latter  sect, 
ersecuted  everywhere  else,  here  found  an  asylum.  Their  chief  establishment  was  at 
tacau. 


33 


386 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


of  Ivan  procured  for  him  the  surname  of  the  Terrible  and  the  execrations 
of  his  subjects,  but  was  probably  inseparable  from  the  energy  necessary 
for  the  government  of  a  savage  people.  His  successor,  Theodore,  1584, 
proved  an  imbecile  prince  ;  and  the  government  was  actually  conducted 
by  his  minister,  Boris,  who  succeeded  him  in  1598.  Boris  prosecuted 
the  designs  of  Ivan :  he  signalized  the  commencement  of  his  reign  by 
raising  the  condition  of  the  serfs,  invited  artists  from  foreign  countries, 
promoted  commerce,  and  improved  the  military  defences  of  the  empire. 

DENMARK,  SWEDEN,  AND  NORWAY. 

Denmark  and  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  were  early  occupied  by  the  Goths, 
who  subdued  the  original  Finnish  tribes.  The  ninth  century  is  generally 
assumed  as  the  beginning  of  the  connected  history  of  Denmark,  when  Gormon, 
by  reducing  the  separate  provinces,  established  his  sovereignty  over  the  whole 
territory,  863-900.  His  son,  Harold  II.,  introduced  Christianity  about  a.  d. 
970;  and,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  Sweyne  I.,  his  grandson, 
subjugated  a  portion  of  Norway  and  the  greater  part  of  England.  Canute  ihe 
Great,  1016,  possessed  himself  of  the  whole  of  England  and  part  of  Scotland, 
and  in  1030  completed  the  conquest  of  Norway.*  The  reign  of  this  warlike 
and  enlightened  prince  was  devoted  not  merely  to  his  own  aggrandisement  hut 
to  the  establishment  of  law  and  internal  organisation,  and  to  the  general  dif¬ 
fusion  of  Christianity  throughout  his  dominions.  Under  his  imbecile  successors, 
the  history  of  Denmark  exhibits  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  of  disasters, 
terminating  with  the  death  of  Sweyne  III.,  1157.  The  ascendency  of  the 
feudal  system,  introduced  by  Canute,  had  rendered  the  sovereign  dependent 
upon  the  voice  of  the  nobles  anchsuperior  clergy,  the  peasants  were  degraded 
to  the  condition  of  serfs,  agriculture  could  hardly  be  said  to  exist,  and  nearly 
the  entire  commerce  of  the  country  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Hanse  Towns. 
Valdemar  III.  began  the  restoration  of  his  kingdom,  1333;  and  after  a  vigorous 
reign,  was  succeeded  by  Olaus  III.,  a  child  five  years  of  age,  1376.  His  mother, 
Margaret,  distinguished  by  the  title  of  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,  was 
appointed  regent ;  and  in  1387,  on  the  death  of  Olaus,  she  herself  ascended  the 
throne.  Having  acquired  Norway  by  inheritance,  and  conquered  Sweden  by 
force  of  arms,  the  grand  object  of  her  ambition  was  attained  by  the  Union  of 
Calrnar,  which  united  the  three  northern  kingdoms  into  one  monarchy,  1397. 
By  this  means  the  great  mercantile  confederacy  of  the  Hanse  Towns  was 
humbled  ;  but  the  Swedes,  to  whom  the  union  had  always  been  displeasing, 
after  a  long  series  of  contests,  renounced  it  in  1523. 

The  proximate  cause  of  Swedish  independence  is  found  in  the  tyranny 
of  Christian  II.,  surnamed  the  Wicked.  Having  vanquished  the 
patriotic  party  by  treachery  and  force,  he  was  crowned  at  Stockholm; 
and,  with  the  view  of  striking  terror  into  the  nation,  he  seized  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  to  perpetrate  a  public  massacre  of  ninety -four  nobles,  1521. 
Gustavus  Vasa,  son  of  one  of  the  murdered  chiefs,  having  escaped 
from  the  prison  in  which  he  had  been  immured,  roused  the  miners  of 
Dalecarlia  to  assume  arms  in  defence  of  their  native  land.  His  first 
attempts  proving  successful,  the  whole  people  gradually  rose  against 
the  tyrant ;  the  Danes  were  driven  from  the  country,  and  Gustavus,  by 


*  The  Norwegians  were  first  known  in  Europe  as  pirates,  frequently  visiting  and  lay¬ 
ing  waste  the  countries  bordering  on  the  North  Sea  Their  first  regular  king  was 
Harold  Haarfager,  who  subdued  and  united  the  small  principalities  into  which  the 
country  was  divided.  His  reign  was  distinguished  by  the  numerous  migrations  of  his 
subjects:  some  settled  on  the  distant  shores  of  Iceland;  others  seized  on  the  Scottish 
isles;  Rollo,  exiled  in  896,  established  himself  in  France,  911.  Norway  was  united  with 
Denmark  under  Sweyne  and  Canute  ;  but  the  countries  were  again  separated  till  1387, 
when  they  were  conjoined  under  Margaret. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


387 


universal  consent,  ascended  the  throne,  1523.  Christian,  who  was 
equally  hated  by  his  Danish  subjects,  was  in  the  same  year  superseded 
in  the  crowns  of  Denmark  and  Norway  by  his  uncle  Frederick  I., 
duke  of  Sieswick  and  Holstein.  In  1528,  the  Swedish  government 
introduced  the  Lutheran  Reformation ;  while  the  usurpations  and  vio¬ 
lence  of  the  clergy  during  the  ten  years’  interregnum  which  followed 
the  death  of  Frederick  I.,  and  their  attempts  to  set  aside  his  son  Chris¬ 
tian  111.,  on  account  of  his  religious  principles,  led  to  the  same  event 
in  Denmark  in  1536.  During  the  reign  of  Christian,  a  code  of  laws, 
entitled  the  Recess  of  Colding,  was  promulgated,  Sieswick  and  Holstein 
were  united  to  the  Danish  crown,  and  the  improvement  and  stability  of 
the  country  promoted.  The  harmony  between  Sweden  and  Denmark 
~  was  disturbed  by  a  furious  war  which  continued  seven  years,  1563,  and 
again  in  1611  ;  both  of  which  tended  to  a  more  precise  adjustment  of  the 
relations  of  the  two  rival  monarchies. 

The  long  reign  of  Gustavus,  an  interval  of  tranquillity,  allowed  full 
time  for  the  consolidation  of  Swedish  independence.  In  1560,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Erik,  a  fickle  and  violent  prince,  during  whose 
time  a  war  was  prosecuted  with  Russia;  the  Livonian  contest  followed, 
1561 ;  that  with  the  Hanse  Towns,  1562  ;  and  with  Denmark,  1563, — 
which  w  ere  almost  uniformly  unfortunate.  The  internal  administration 
of  Erik  was  stained  with  sanguinary  cruelties,  w7hich  eventually  led  to 
his  deposition,  his  brother  John,  duke  of  Finland,  wrho  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Sigismund  of  Poland,  being  raised  to  the  throne.  After 
some  successful  operations,  the  new  king  concluded  an  advantageous 
peace  with  Denmark,  1570,  the  quarrel  with  Russia  still  continuing.  In 
1592,  Sweden  was  united  to  Poland  in  the  person  of  his  son  Sigismund. 
The  vehement  efforts  of  this  prince  to  change  the  established  worship, 
led  to  a  rebellion  headed  by  his  uncle  Charles.  He  w7as  finally  deposed 
by  a  resolution  of  the  states,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  “  broken  the 
coronation  oath,  violated  the  constitution,  disregarded  the  laws,  and 
endangered  the  Protestant  religion;”  and  Charles,  endeared  to  the 
people  by  his  services,  and  as  the  last  surviving  son  of  the  great  Gusta¬ 
vus,  was  immediately  elevated  to  the  throne,  1600. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE  AND  THE  EAST. 

A  peace  concluded  with  Venice  in  1503,  and  which  was  observed 
until  1537,  left  the  Ottoman  empire  in  tranquillity  with  its  neighbours 
during  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Bajazet.  But  it  w*as  not  equally 
free  from  internal  disturbances :  two  younger  sons  of  the  sultan  rebelled 
in  their  respective  provinces,  and  wTere  immediately  strangled  by  their 
father’s  order  ;  of  the  remaining  three,  two  were  feeble  and  unwTarlike, 
the  third,  Selim,  after  compelling  Bajazet  to  abdicate,  caused  him  to  be 
poisoned,  1512.  He  commenced  his  reign  by  the  murder  of  his  brothers 
and  nephews,  and  the  massacre  of  40.000  Sheeahs,  or  dissenters  from 
orthodox  Mohammedanism.  Two  of  Achmets’s  sons,  however,  having 
escaped  to  Persia,  Selim  sent  to  demand  them  ;  and  Shah  Ismail,  the 
founder  of  the  Sophi  dynasty  in  that  country,  refusing  to  give  them  up, 
he  took  up  arms  against  him,  and  defeated  the  Persians  near  Tauris, 
but  with  a  loss  of  40,000  men.  He  acquired  Koordistan  and  Mesopo¬ 
tamia  either  by  force  or  negotiation,  and  declared  war  against  the  Mame¬ 
luke  sultan  of  Egypt,  as  an  ally  of  Ismail,  whom  he  overthrew  in  a 


388 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


sanguinary  engagement  near  Aleppo,  1516, — all  Syria  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  victor.  Selim  now  entered  Egypt,  gained  another  battle 
near  Cairo,  which  city  was  taken,  50,000  of  its  inhabitants  barbarously 
massacred,  the  brave  sultan,  Toomaun  -Beg,  hanged  at  one  of  the  gates 
of  his  capital,  and  the  country  redifeed  to  a  Turkish  province.  The  last 
caliph  of  the  house  of  Abbas  having  submitted,  and  dying  on  his  way 
to  Constantinople,  the  sultan  assumed  the  sacred  title,  which  has  ever 
since  been  borne  by  his  successors. 

Soliman  I.,  the  Magnificent,  and  the  greatest  of  the  Ottoman  sove¬ 
reigns,  succeeded  his  father  in  1520.  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  pro¬ 
fiting  by  the  troubles  of  the  West,  he  captured  Belgrade  and  other  for¬ 
tresses  from  the  Hungarians.  Satisfied  with  having  thus  secured  the 
key  to  Eastern  Christendom,  he  next  resolved  upon  the  conquest  of 
Rhodes,  which  had  been  upwards  of  two  hundred  years  the  chief  station 
of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  then  commanded  by  the  illustrious  grand¬ 
master  Villiers  de  Pile  Adam.  In  1522,  the  vizier  appeared  off  the 
island  with  a  fleet  of  400  sail,  containing  an  army  of  200,000  men;  to 
oppose  which  there  were  only  600  knights  and  5000  soldiers.  The 
place  was  defended  with  unexampled  resolution,  the  Christian  warriors 
performing  prodigies  of  valour :  Soliman  himself  arrived  to  encourage 
his  troops  ;  but  80,000  Turks  had  perished  by  the  sword  and  by  disease, 
the  fortifications  were  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  almost  every  one  of 
the  defenders  had  been  wounded,  and  their  ammunition  and  provisions 
were  exhausted,  ere  the  heroic  grandmaster  would  condescend  to  capitu¬ 
late.  The  sultan  granted  honourable  terms  to  the  survivors,  who  evac¬ 
uated  their  stronghold  on  Christmas-day  :  they  were  afterwards  settled 
in  Malta  by  Charles  V.,  1530.  Long  peace  being  incompatible  with 
the  habits  of  the  Turkish  soldiers,  who  had  already  broken  out  into 
several  serious  revolts,  Soliman  again  invaded  Hungary ;  the  king  of 
which  lost  a  battle  and  his  life  on  the  plains  of  Mohacz,  his  capital  was 
plundered,  and  the  whole  country  overrun,  1526.  Three  years  after, 
the  sultan  laid  siege  to  Vienna,  but  was  compelled  to  retire.  A  war 
with  Persia  next  followed,  by  which  Soliman  gained  possession  of 
Bagdad. 

About  this  time  the  famous  Khair  Eddin  Barbarossa  entered  the  ser¬ 
vice  of  the  sultan.  His  brother,  originally  a  pirate,  had  by  force  and 
eachery  attained  the  sovereignty  of  Algiers,  whence  he  swept  the  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean  with  his  galleys,  and  carried  the  terror  of  his  name 
even  into  the  centre  of  Africa.  On  his  death  in  1518,  the  Turks  in  that 
province  immediately  proclaimed  Khair  Eddin,  who  has  been  called 
Barbarossa  II.  He  placed  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  grand 
seignior,  repelled  the  attacks  of  the  Christians,  captured  Tunis,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  fleet,  1530, — a  dignity  which  he  held 
till  his  death,  1546.  Tunis  was  however  again  wrested  from  him  by 
Charles  V.,  who  restored  it  to  the  former  sovereign,  Muley  Hassan. 
Tbe  Turkish  arms  were  victorious  on  all  hands,  and  the  friendship  of 
Soliman  was  even  courted  by  Francis  I.,  who  formed  with  him  the  first 
alliance  between  the  Porte  and  any  Christian  power,  1536.  Repeated 
wars  with  Austria  and  Hungary  followed,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of 
Soliman,  who  eventually  succeeded  in  making  Transylvania  a  province 
of  his  empire,  1552.  A  renewed  invasion  of  Persia,  in  which  Erivan 
was  taken,  led  to  a  peace  with  the  shah  in  1554,  which  became  the 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


389 


basis  of  all  subsequent  treaties  between  the  rival  powers.  The  great 
naval  victory  at  Djerbeh,  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  over  the  combined 
Christian  fleets,  1560,  secured  the  Turkish  ascendency  in  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  ;  while  a  truce  with  the  empire  confirmed  their  Hungarian  con 
quests,  1562. 

These  brilliant  martial  triumphs  were,  however,  imbittered  by  do¬ 
mestic  dissensions.  Soliman’s  eldest  son,  Mustapha,  had  been  put  to 
death  in  1553  by  the  intrigues  of  his  stepmother  Roxalana,  who  wished 
to  secure  the  succession  for  one  of  her  own  children ;  the  jealousies  of 
the  two  surviving  princes,  Seiim  and  Bajazet,  ended  in  the  revolt  of  the 
latter,  who  was  defeated  and  executed,  1561.  An  unsuccessful  expe¬ 
dition  against  Malta,  1565,  was  followed  next  year  by  a  campaign  in 
Hungary,  in  which  he  headed  his  armies  in  person  for  the  last  time. 
He  expired  before  the  walls  of  Zigeth,  the  day  before  the  capture  of  the 
place,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  sur¬ 
viving  son,  Selim  II.,  1566. 

The  empire  now  began  to  decline  rapidly,  the  conquest  of  Cyprus 
being  more  than  neutralized  by  the  destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet  at 
Lepanto,  1571.  Under  Amurath  Ilf.,  1574,  the  turbulent  janissaries 
revolted  ten  times;  and  on  one  occasion  set  fire  to  Constantinople, 
when  15,000  houses  were  destroyed,  with  the  loss  of  50,000,000  gold 
crowns. 

Persia. — During  this  century  a  dynasty  was  formed  in  Persia  on  the 
basis  of  religion.  Sheikh  Eidar,  a  descendant  of  Ali,  having  gained  a 
number  of  adherents  by  a  reputation  for  sanctity  and  the  austerity  of  his 
life,  assumed  the  title  of  Svphi ,  and  declared  himself  commissioned  by 
Heaven  to  work  a  religious  reformation.  He  perished,  however,  in  the 
attempt;  but  his  son  Ismail,  protected  by  his  disciples,  was  removed  to 
the  province  of  Ghilan,  and  strictly  educated  in  his  principles.  In  1501, 
at  the  head  of  a  numerous  body  of  partisans,  he  revived  the  claims  of 
his  father,  whose  doctrines  he  propagated ;  and,  gradually  overcoming 
all  opposition,  he  at  length  became  the  founder  of  an  extensive  empire, 
comprehending  Persia  Proper,  Media,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Armenia 
Ulterior.  In  1514,  in  the  war  with  Selim,  his  capital,  Tauris,  w~as 
taken  and  plundered,  though  with  immense  loss  on  the  part  of  the 
Turks,  who  were  obliged  to  retreat  for  want  of  supplies.  He  afterwards 
subdued  Georgia,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Tamasp,  1523  ;  and 
though,  during  his  reign,  the  Turks  several  times  invaded  Persia,  they 
were  unable  to  maintain  their  conquests.  The  succession  was  disputed 
by  his  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  proclaimed  by  the  title  of  Moham¬ 
med  Mirza,  1576.  This  prince  was  deposed  by  the  Sultan  of  Khoras- 
san,  who  placed  Mirza’s  youngest  son,  Abbas,  on  the  throne,  1585,  by 
far  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Sophi  dynasty.  He  recovered  from  the 
Turks  and  Tartars  several  provinces  they  had  taken  from  his  father, 
recaptured  from  the  Portuguese  the  island  and  town  of  Ormuz,  destroyed 
the  janissaries,  and  legislated  wisely  for  his  people.  He  gave  way, 
however,  to  the  natural  cruelty  of  his  character,  causing  his  eldest  son 
to  be  murdered,  and  depriving  both  the  others  of  sight,  on  suspicion  of 
their  designs  upon  the  throne.  During  this  reign  Isphahan  became  the 
capital  of  Persia,  where  the  shah  erected  the  royal  palace,  the  great 
mosque,  and  othei  celebrated  buildings.  A  quarter  of  the  city  was  set 

33  * 


390 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


apart  for  the  Armenians,  and  the  resort  of  Christians  encouraged.  He 
died  in  16*28. 

India. — The  early  history  of  this  fertile  and  extensive  country,  which  seems 
to  have  been  among  the  first  inhabited  parts  of  the  globe,  is  necessarily  involved 
in  great  obscurity.  The  invariable  traditions  of  the  Hindoos  point  to  the 
northern  provinces  of  the  peninsula  as  the  primeval  residence  of  their  race,  and 
of  the  Braliminical  faith ;  and  powerful  empires  existed  in  Hindostan  many 
centuries  anterior  to  the  Christian  era. 

About  a.  d.  1000,  the  celebrated  Sultan  Mohammed,  a  Tartar  sovereign  of 
Ghizni,  turned  his  arms  against  Lahore,  the  key  of  Northern  Hindostan. 
Twelve  times  he  penetrated  into  the  very  centre  of  the  peninsula,  overthrow¬ 
ing  the  temples  of  Brahma,  and  by  his  murderous  ravages  changing  fertile 
countries  and  populous  cities  into  dreary  solitudes.  At  his  death  in  1030,  his 
kingdom  extended  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  and  from 
the  Tigris  to  the  Ganges.  His  successors,  despoiled  by  the  Seljukian  Turks 
of  nearly  all  the  provinces  they  possessed  beyond  the  Indus,  still  preserved  the 
empire  founded  by  Mohammed  westward  of  that  river  until  the  year  1182,  at 
which  epoch  the  Ghorian  dynasty  was  founded,  and  reigned  at  Delhi  till  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Subsequent  monarchs  extended  their  dominion 
over  the  Punjaub,  Bengal,  and  Malwa,  and  contributed  to  the  greater  civilisa¬ 
tion  of  their  subjects  by  a  generous  patronage  of  literature.  In  later  years,  the 
Mongols  made  frequent  irruptions  into  India  ;  and  on  two  occasions  placed  the 
capital  in  imminent  danger.  The  invasion  of  Tamerlane  inflicted  a  terrible 
blow  on  the  empire  of  Delhi ;  but  it  gradually  revived,  without  however  being 
able  to  regain  its  ancient  frontiers.  Mussulman  and  Hindoo  princes,  while 
owning  a  nominal  subjection  to  the  emperor,  founded  independent  states  in 
Oude,  Bengal,  Malwa,  and  Gujerat.  The  Decan  also  formed  a  kingdom, 
which  remained  long  divided  between  the  Mohammedans  and  Hindoos. 

The  utmost  confusion  continued  to  prevail  throughout  India,  till  at 
length  Baber,  a  descendant  of  Tamerlane,  became  master  of  Delhi,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  Afghan  dynasty,  1525.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Tartar  or  Mogul  power,  and  his  dominion  extended  from  the  Indus  to 
the  Ganges.  In  1556,  the  celebrated  Akbar  ascended  the  throne,  and 
firmly  established  the  Mogul  eritpire.  This  prince  w~as  honourably  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  his  toleration  and  love  of  justice  ;  under  his  reign  the 
Hindoos  enjoyed  greater  prosperity  than  they  had  experienced  since  the 
Mohammedan  invasion ;  and  the  memory  of  his  virtues  is  even  yet 
cherished  by  all  classes  of  the  people.  He  divided  his  empire  into 
soubahs  or  provinces,  and  caused  the  land  to  be  regularly  assessed. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  he  appears  to  have  favoured  the  religious 
opinions  of  the  Hindoos  and  Parsees ;  he  encouraged  literature,  and  by 
his  order  the  Vedas  were  translated  from  Sanscrit  into  Persian.  He 
died  in  1605.  During  this  reign  the  Europeans  first  obtained  a  footing 
in  India. 

China.. — The  annals  of  this  vast  country  extend  over  a  period  of  upwards  of 
4000  years,  from  an  era  coeval  with  the  rise  of  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
monarchies,  and  exhibit  an  empire  ascending  from  the  rudiments  of  the  social 
state  to  a  high  pitch  of  civilisation  and  refinement. 

What  may  be  called  the  modern  history  of  China  begins  with  the  great 
dynasty  of  Han,  which  existed  about  four  centuries  and  a  half.  It  was  over¬ 
thrown  a.  d.  266  ;  and,  amid  the  disturbances  that  ensued,  arose  those  epheme¬ 
ral  races  which  have  been  designated  by  the  Chinese  historians  as  the  six  petty 
dynasties,  265-608.  During  this  period,  the  empire,  desolated  and  enfeebled 
by  civil  wars  and  revolutions,  lost  the  ascendency  which  it  had  formerly  main¬ 
tained  over  great  part  of  Asia.  These  troubles  were  at  length  terminated  by 
the  elevation  of  the  royal  house  of  Tang,  618-907,  under  whom  the  nation 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


391 


/ 


attained  a  high  degree  of  power  and  opulence.  The  most  illustrious  prince  of 
this  family  was  Tai-tsong,  in  whose  reign  the  frontiers,  or  at  least  the  influence 
of  China,  were  extended  far  into  Western  Asia,  and  even  to  Persia;  the 
sovereign  of  the  latter  country  having  solicited  the  aid  of  his  soldiers  to  repel 
the  Mohammedan  Arabs.  The  Tang  was  followed  by  ho  fewer  than  five  suc¬ 
cessive  lines  of  monarchs,  which  lasted  only  fifty-three  years,  under  whom  the 
empire  was  again'  split  among  a  number  of  independent  chiefs.  In  960,  the 
Song  dynasty  was  founded,  and  lasted  319  years,  presenting  during  that  long 
period  a  succession  of  able  and  virtuous  monarchs.  The  last  sovereign  of  the 
race,  however,  was  compelled  to  become  tributary  to  the  Tartars  ;  and,  in 
1279,  China  fell  under  the  Mongol  yoke.  Kublai-Khan,  a  grandson  of  Genghis, 
was  the  founder  of  this  new  line  of  monarchs,  and  extended  his  authority  from 
the  Frozen  Ocean  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  He  possessed  also  Pegu,  Thibet, 
Tartary,  and  Turkestan:  Siam,  Cochin-China,  Tonquin,  and  Corea  paid  him 
tribute ;  and  he  was  regarded  by  the  other  chiefs  of  the  family  as  the  head  of 
their  race.  Several  of  the  princes  after  Kublai  seem  to  have  been  able  and 
even  enlightened  rulers  ;  but  under  their  degenerate  successors  the  ruin  of  the 
dynasty  was  consummated.  The  Chinese  took  advantage  of  the  dissensions 
of  their  conquerors,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  revolts 
everywhere  broke  out.  The  last  Mongol  emperor  retired  in  1368  into  Tar¬ 
tary,  abandoning  his  throne  to  the  founder  of  the  glorious  dynasty  of  Ming, 
1368-1644.  The  new  sovereign  immediately  attacked  the  princes  of  the  fugitive 
race,  when  Thibet  and  other  Tartar  dependencies  were  subdued  by  his  arms. 

COLONIES  AND  DISCOVERIES. 

The  fifteenth  century  had  closed  with  the  discovery  of  a  new  world 
and  a  new  route  to  India.  Between  1508  and  1510,  the  Spaniards  set¬ 
tled  in  Hayti,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica;  but  the  revenue  they  drew  from  the 
West  Indies  was  at  first  inconsiderable. 

Mexico.  —  In  1517,  Mexico  was  discovered  by  Francisco  Cordova  ; 
and,  two  years  later,  the  celebrated  Hernan  Cortez  landed  with  an  arma¬ 
ment  for  the  conquest  and  settlement  of  the  country.  The  invaders  found 
the  empire  at  this  period  governed  by  Montezuma,  a  powerful  prince, 
whose  subjects  were  considerably  advanced  in  civilisation  and  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  mechanical  arts.  The  cruelties  that  disgraced  the 
conquest  of  Mexico  can  scarcely  be  imagined.  A  great  number  of  the 
people  were  branded  in  the  forehead  and  sent  to  work  in  the  mines;  and 
the  successor  of  the  vanquished  monarch  was  burnt  to  death  over  a  slow 
fire  by  the  orders  of  Cortez.  The  Spaniards,  however,  derived  immense 
riches  from  this  acquisition. 

Peru. — This  country  was  invaded  by  Francis  Pizarro,  once  a  shep¬ 
herd  of  Estremadura,  in  1526.  Intestine  dissensions  facilitated  his  suc¬ 
cess;  and,  after  putting  the  sovereign  to  a  violent  death,  the  principal 
provinces  were  divided  among  the  conquerors.  Peru,  at  the  epoch  of 
its  discovery,  was  under  the  theocratic  government  of  the  Incas  or  “  chil¬ 
dren  of  the  sun,”  the  object  of  religious  worship.  The  great  mass  of 
.he  people  were  enslaved  ;  and,  although  they  had  constructed  roads  and 
built  cities,  they  were  but  little  advanced  in  the  arts ;  for  they  had  no 
iron,  no  coined  money,  nor  any  beast  of  burden  except  the  llama. 

Brazil  was  approached  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  last  year  of  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century,  bux  was  not  settled  till  about  1530.  Its  history  was  not 
remarkable  until  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards  in  1580;  and 
the  revolution  which  placed  the  family  of  Braganza  on  the  throne,  ter¬ 
minated  their  dominion  in  1640. 


392 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


North  America.  —  The  English,  before  1588,  had  advanced  little 
farther  towards  their  maritime  and  colonial  dominion  than  by  making 
repeated  attacks,  not  avowed  by  government,  on  the  rich  home-bound 
cargoes  of  Spain.  Between  1576  and  1610,  vain  attempts  were  made 
by  Frobisher,  Davis,  Hudson,  and  others,  to  discover  a  northeast  or  a 
northwest  passage  to  India.  The  unfortunate  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  founded 
a  colony  in  Southern  Virginia,  1584:  but  the  affairs  of  North  America 
remained  in  the  hands  of  a  company  until  the  reign  of  James  I.  France 
made  a  few  unsuccessful  attempts  at  colonisation,  important  chiefly  for 
their  consequences.  Cartier,  a  mariner  of  St.  Malo,  took  possession  of 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  in  1534. 

[DISCOVERIES  AND  SETTLEMENTS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 

[The  honour  of  discovering  the  continent  of  North  America  belongs 
to  John  Cabot,  a  Venetian  merchant  resident  at  Bristol,  and  his  son, 
Sebastian  Cabot,  a  native  of  the  latter  place.  The  brilliant  success  of 
Columbus  had  awakened  a  zeal  for  discovery  throughout  Europe.  Under 
the  influence  of  this  feeling,  Henry  VII.  of  England,  in  1495,  readily 
granted  to  Cabot  and  his  sons  a  commission  to  make  a  voyage  of  dis¬ 
covery,  and  to  take  possession  of  the  regions  discovered  in  the  name  of 
the  king  of  England.  Their  first  voyage  commenced  in  1496.  Its  object 
was  to  find  a  northwest  passage  to  China,  and  it  resulted  in  the  disco¬ 
very  of  the  north  coast  of  Labrador,  in  June  1497.  The  fame  of  this 
expedition  led  to  the  immediate  fitting  out  of  a  second  for  commercial 
purposes  by  the  merchants  of  Bristol,  in  which  the  king  himself  became 
an  interested  partner.  This  second  expedition,  which  was  under  the 
command  of  Sebastian,  sailed  early  in  1498,  and  after  reaching  New¬ 
foundland,  proceeded  in  a  southerly  direction  along  the  coast  as  far  as 
Albemarle  Sound.  Sebastian  Cabot,  afterwards  known  in  England  as 
the  Great  Seaman,  lived  to  an  extreme  old  age,  and  was  much  distin¬ 
guished  for  his  naval  skill  and  enterprise. 

[Florida  wras  discovered  in  1512  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  gallant  soldier, 
and  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus.  This  noble-minded  Spaniard 
attempted  in  1521  to  settle  the  country  which  he  had  discovered ;  but 
his  little  colony  was  expelled  by  the  natives,  and  he  himself  died  of  a 
wound  received  from  one  of  their  poisoned  arrows. 

[The  French  w*ere  the  first  to  derive  any  commercial  advantage  from 
the  discoveries  of  the  Cabots.  As  early  as  1504,  the  hardy  mariners  of 
Brittany  and  Normandy  w*ere  found  engaged  in  the  fisheries  off  New7- 
foundland.  In  1524,  Francis  I.  employed  John  Verrazzani,  an  adven¬ 
turous  Florentine,  to  explore  the  new  regions.  Sailing  westerly  from 
the  coast  of  Spain,  in  a  single  small  vessel,  Verrazzani  reached  the  coast 
of  North  Carolina,  near  where  Wilmington  now  is,  a  portion  of  the  con¬ 
tinent  never  before  seen  by  any  European.  From  this  point  he  sailed 
north  along  the  coast  as  far  as  latitude  50,  trafficking  with  the  natives 
and  exploring  the  regions,  particularly  the  New  Jersey  shore,  New  V  ork 
harbour,  New*  Port,  New*  England,  and  Nova  Scotia. 

[In  the  following  year,  1525,  Stephen  Gomez,  a  Spanish  navigator, 
sailed  northward  along  the  coast  of  North  America  for  the  purpose  of 
discovering  a  northwest  passage  to  China,  wffiich  Cabot  had  attempted. 
Hence  New  England  and  the  Middle  States  are  marked  in  old  Spanish 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  393 

maps  as  the  land  of  Gomez.  The  expedition  of  Gomez,  however,  was 
without  any  practical  result. 

[The  continued  success  of  the  French  fishermen  led  Francis  I.  in 
1534,  to  fit  out  another  exploring  expedition  for  the  New  World,  undei 
the  command  of  James  Cartier,  a  mariner  of  St.  Malo  in  France.  Car- 
tier,  in  this  voyage,  sailed  around  Newfoundland,  entered  the  bays  of 
Chaleurs  and  Gaspe,  and  explored  the  bay  and  river  of  St.  Lawrence. 
In  the  following  year,  1535,  Cartier  led  a  second  expedition,  whose 
object  was  to  colonize  the  newly-discovered  regions.  He  followed  the 
same  route  as  in  the  previous  year,  sailed  some  distance  up  the  St. 
Lawrence,  gave  name  to  Montreal,  learned  from  the  natives  something 
of  Vermont  and  New  York,  and  having  wintered  in  the  country,  returned 
in  the  spring  to  France,  leaving  no  settlement  behind  him.  A  third  but 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  by  Cartier  in  1541,  in  conjunction  writh 
Roherval,  a  nobleman  of  Picardy.  Some  other  attempts  to  settle  Ca¬ 
nada  w7ere  made  by  the  French  during  the  present  century,  but  without 
success. 

[Ferdinand  de  Soto,  a  companion  of  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico, 
became  dazzled  with  the  accounts  which  he  had  received  of  the  wealth 
and  magnificence  of  Florida.  Accordingly,  under  the  auspices  of  Charles 
V.,  he  set  on  foot  an  expedition  similar  in  its  design  to  those  conducted 
by  Cortez  in  Mexico  and  Pizarro  in  Peru.  De  Soto  reached  the  bay  of 
Spiritu  Santo  in  Florida  in  1539 ;  and  dismissing  his  ships,  commenced 
his  march  into  the  interior.  His  followers,  six  hundred  in  number,  were 
mostly  men  of  wealth  and  distinction ;  some  of  them  were  nobles,  and 
the  very  flow7er  of  Spanish  chivalry,  De  Soto  continued  for  three  years 
to  traverse  in  various  directions  the  States  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico ;  and  after  encountering  almost  incredible  hardships,  he  died  on 
the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  in  1542,  and  lies  beneath  the  river  which 
he  discovered.  He  crossed  a  continent  in  search  of  gold,  and  found 
nothing  so  remarkable  as  his  burial-place.  His  followers  attempted  to 
penetrate  the  country  westward  to  Mexico ;  but  failing  in  this,  returned 
to  the  Mississippi,  and  passed  downward  through  its  mouth  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

[In  1562,  a  colony  of  French  Pluguenots,  under  command  of  John 
Ribault,  made  several  discoveries  along  the  coast  of  Florida  and  the 
Carolinas,  and  effected  a  settlement.  The  infant  colony  struggled  on 
with  various  success  for  three  years,  when  it  w7as  exterminated  by  a 
general  massacre,  conducted  with  remorseless  cruelty  by  Melendez  and 
a  body  of  Spaniards  from  St.  Augustine. 

[To  the  bigoted  Melendez  belongs  the  honour  of  establishing  the  first 
permanent  settlement  in  the  United  States.  The  foundations  of  St.  Au¬ 
gustine  were  laid  by  him  in  September  1565;  and  houses  in  it  are  yet 
standing,  w7hich  are  said  to  have  been  built  many  years  before  the  colo¬ 
nization  of  Virginia. 

[English  mariners  appear  very  early  to  have  been  attracted  to  the 
fisheries  off  Newfoundland.  No  formal  expedition  however  was  made 
into  these  regions  after  the  time  of  the  Cabots  until  1576,  when  Martin 
Frobisher  renewed  the  design  of  accomplishing  a  north wTest  passage  to 
China.  In  three  successive  voyages,  undertaken  by  the  authority  and 
partly  at  the  expense  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  for  the  double  purpose  of 
colonization  and  discovery,  Frobisher  made  no  settlement,  and  penetrated 


394 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Hudson’s  Straits  only  to  see  regions  visited  by  Cabot  seventy  years 
before. 

[Sir  Francis  Drake,  an  English  navigator,  who  had  acquired  great 
notoriety  and  immense  treasures,  as  a  freebooter  in  the  Spanish  harbours 
on  the  Pacific,  sailed  in  1579  northward  alone*  the  coast  of  California  as 
far  as  the  43d  degree  of  latitude,  or  about  one  decree  north  of  the  south- 
ern  boundary  of  the  Oregon  territory.  This  whole  coast  however  had 
been  previously  explored  by  an  expedition  of  Spaniards  in  1542,  who 
traced  the  continent  as  far  as  the  44th  degree  of  latitude,  or  within  about 
two  and  a  half  degrees  of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river. 

[In  1583,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  a  member  of  the  English,  parliament, 
and  step-brother  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  under  a  liberal  charter  from 
queen  Elizabeth,  made  a  vigorous  but  unsuccessful  attempt  to  establish 
a  colony  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  Gilbert  himself  and  a  large 
part  of  the  colonists  perished  on  the  voyage. 

[Nothing  daunted  by  the  melancholy  fate  of  his  step-brother,  Raleigh 
in  1584  obtained  a  new  patent  from  Elizabeth,  and  sent  out  another 
expedition,  consisting  of  two  ships  well  laden  with  men  and  provisions. 
The  colonists  visited  the  islands  in  Ocracock  inlet,  explored  Pamlico 
and  Albemarle  Sounds,  and  trafficked  with  the  natives ;  but  wantino*  the 
courage  to  make  a  settlement,  they  returned  to  England,  where  they 
gave  a  glowing  account  of  the  regions,  which  in  honour  of  the  Virgin 
Queen  were  named  Virginia. 

[Raleigh,  however,  pursued  his  plan  for  colonizing  the  New  World, 
and  in  1585  set  on  foot  a  second  expedition,  composed  of  seven  vessels, 
and  carrying  out  108  colonists.  Among  these  were  Lane,  Grenville, 
Cavendish  and  Hariot,  all  men  of  distinction.  Lane,  the  governor  of 
the  colony,  proved  to  be  not  equal  to  his  station.  After  remaining  on 
the  island  of  Roanoke  little  more  than  a  year,  and  making  a  few  incon¬ 
siderable  excursions  into  the  interior,  he  returned  with  his  wfiiole  colony 
to  England  in  the  fleet  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,  which  had  stopped  to  visit 
the  colonists  on  a  homeward  voyage  from  the  West  Indies. 

[Raleigh  was  not  dismayed  by  ill  success.  In  1587  he  sent  out  at 
his  own  expense  a  third  company  of  emigrants,  with  their  wives  and 
children,  108  in  all.  The  poor  colonists  of  Roanoke  were  however  for¬ 
gotten  in  the  panic  of  the  Invincible  Armada ;  and  when,  after  its  signal 
discomfiture,  vessels  were  sent  to  inquire  after  and  supply  their  wants, 
no  traces  of  them  could  be  found.  Whether  they  perished  of  hunger,  or 
were  massacred  by  the  savages,  is  a  matter  of  conjecture. 

[Thus  ended  for  the  present  all  attempts  to  settle  this  country.  North 
America,  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  had  many  English  graves 
but  no  Encrlish  towns.  Raleigh  himself,  the  illustrious  author  of  colo- 
nization  in  the  United  States,  after  expending  more  than  fifty  thousand 
pounds  upon  his  favourite  project,  lived  to  see  it  apparently  entirely 
abandoned ;  and  he  was  himself  reduced  to  beggary  by  the  English 
government,  and  finally  beheaded  by  order  of  James  I.] 

Colonial  System. — The  conquered  kingdoms  of  America  became  colonies 
of  Spain,  under  a  constitution  framed  by  Charles  V.,  1542.  All  the  external 
apparatus  of  Christianity  was  carried  across  the  Atlantic ;  there  were  arch¬ 
bishops,  bishops,  vicars,  and  monks,  dependent  entirely  on  the  king  ;  nor  was  the 
Inquisition  forgotten,  1570.  The  political  affairs  were  managed  by  the  Council 
of  the  Indies  in  Spain,  and  in  America  by  two  viceroys,  aided  by  boards  and 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


395 


municipalities.  By'this  imitation  of  European  forms,  the  national  spirit  of  the 
natives  was  extinguished.  The  trade  was  rendered  a  complete  monopoly. 
Vera  Cruz,  Portobello,  and  Carthagena,  in  America;  Seville,  and  afterwards 
Cadiz,  in  Europe,  were  the  only  ports  which  were  allowed  to  be  used  by 
colonial  ships.  Little  advantage  was  derived  from  these  extensive  acquisitions 
beyond  the  supply  of  precious  metals,  the  mining  operation  connected  with 
which  gave  rise  to  the  African  slave-trade ,  the  aboriginal  population  being 
found  unable  to  undergo  the  exhausting  labour  demanded  by  their  taskmasters. 

During  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Portuguese  dominion,  strengthened  by  the 
genius  of  its  governors,  Almeida  and  Albuquerque,  extended  in  the  East  from 
the  African  coast  to  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  the  Spice  Islands.  Every¬ 
where  they  established  factories  or  marls ;  but  although  their  commerce  was 
not  restricted  to  a  company,  as  in  England  and  Holland,  it  could  not  be  carried 
on  without  permission  of  the  government.  A  connexion  was  formed  with 
China,  1517  ;  and  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the  Indians,  was  the  means  of  establish¬ 
ing  a  regular  communication  with  Japan.  In  Brazil  also,  the  Portuguese  pos¬ 
sessions  were  widely  extended;  and  the  sugar-cane,  transplanted  from  Madeira, 
was  largely  cultivated.  A  dispute  between  this  nation  and  Spain  about  the 
possession  of  the  Moluccas,  was  the  cause  of  the  voyage  of  Magellan,  whose 
fleet  first  circumnavigated  the  globe,  1520. 

The  ruin  of  the  Portuguese  dominion  in  the  East  was  accelerated  by  the 
decline  of  morality  among  the  higher  class  of  colonists,  and  more  especially  by 
their  avarice.  The  tyranny  of  the  Inquisition  at  Goa  has  never  been  equalled. 
Spain,  between  1560  and  1620,  considerably  augmented  her  commerce  and 
maritime  power  by  acquiring  the  East  Indian  colonies  of  Portugal  and  the  pos¬ 
session  of  the  Philippines  England  and  Holland  entered  into  rivalry  with  her; 
and  the  latter,  while  combating  for  the  liberty  of  Europe,  became  mistress  of 
the  commerce  of  the  world.  The  first  charter  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Com¬ 
pany  was  granted  in  1602,  making  it  a  political  as  well  as  a  mercantile  body, 
governed  by  a  board  of  directors  at  home  and  a  governor-general  in  India. 
Establishments  were  made  at  Amboyna,  Ternate,  and  other  places,  1607;  an 
intercourse  was  opened  with  Japan,  1611  ;  and  Batavia  was  founded  in  1619. 

England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  extended  her  views  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  After  having  penetrated  into  Persia  and  even  to  India  by  the  Caspian 
Sea.  she  founded  her  great  agricultural  colonies  in  North  America.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  branches  of  foreign  commerce  were  conferred  on  chartered  companies ; 
that  of  the  East  Indies  was  organized  in  1600,  but  its  traffic  was  long  very 
inconsiderable.* 


THE  CHURCH. 

The  Reformation. — Many  circumstances,  widely  separated  in  respect  of 
time,  seem  to  have  contributed  to  the  great  ecclesiastical  revolution  which 
distinguished  this  century.  The  introduction  of  image  worship  had  been 
strenuously  resisted  ;  and  many  of  the  principles  of  Protestantism  can  be  re¬ 
cognised  so  far  back  as  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  Waldenses  or 
Vaudois  had  ever  maintained  a  stronsr  opposition  to  the  grosser  corruptions  of 
Rome  ;  but  the  isolated  position  which  long  ensured  them  an  immunity  from 
persecution  was  ill  suited  for  the  birthplace  of  wide  religious  changes.  In  990, 
Gerbert  declared  the  Pope  to  be  antichrist ;  and  Berenger  of  Tours,  in  the  next 
age.  attacked  the  great  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  In  the  Greek  church, 
the  liturgy  was  read  in  the  vernacular  tongue  of  each  country  which  received 
its  tenets,  and  the  communion  dispensed  to  the  laity  in  both  kinds.  Wickliffe, 
in  1360,  had  preached  against  the  corruptions  of  Rome;  and  his  opinions, 
spreading  over  the  Continent,  were  eagerly  embraced  by  Huss  and  Jerome  of 
Prague.  Interior  causes  of  decay  were  also  undermining  the  colossal  fabric  of 
popery.  The  tiara  had  been  contested  by  two  or  three  pontiffs  at  a  time  ;  and 
the  attachment  of  the  secular  clergy  to  the  court  of  Rome  was  weakened  by 
its  partiality  for  the  mendicant  orders,  its  usurpation  of  the  rights  of  ecclesias- 


*  For  the  substance  of  this  and  the  subsequent  sketches  of  colonial  history,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Heeren’s  work  on  that  subject. 


396 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


tical  patronage,  and  its  oppressive  pecuniary  exactions.  The  temporalities  of 
the  papacy  brought  forward  base  and  unworthy  men,  eager  to  gratify  an  in¬ 
triguing  ambition ;  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  triple 
crown  was  dishonoured  by  the  extreme  profligacy  of  the  popes,  especially  of 
the  notorious  Alexander  VI.  1'he  necessity  of  a  reformation,  in  discipline  at 
least,  was  generally  felt  even  by  those  best  disposed  to  the  church  of  Rome ; 
while  the  spirit  of  inquiry  awakened  by  the  invention  of  printing  was  ominous 
of  more  important  doctrinal  changes. 

Luther. — The  immediate  cause  of  the  Reformation  was  the  cross 

O 

abuse  of  indulgences.  Mitigations  of  the  penalties  of  the  church  had 
been  introduced  as  early  as  the  third  century,  but  they  were  not  employed 
as  an  engine  of  power  until  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  The  indulgences 
then  granted  to  the  opposers  of  the  infidels  were  afterwards  extended  to 
those  who  aided  in  the  suppression  of  heresy  :  they  were  also  transformed 
into  remissions  of  the  pains  of  purgatory.  Leo  X.,  who  had  been  elected 
in  1513,  discovered  that  his  finances  were  inadequate  to  his  great  expen¬ 
diture,  and  to  complete  the  magnificent  church  of  St.  Peter.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  in  1517,  a  sale  of  indulgences  was  proclaimed,  as  the  most  effec¬ 
tual  means  of  replenishing  his  exhausted  treasury,  their  disposal  being 
intrusted  to  the  monks  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic.  By  these,  absolution 
was  given  for  future  sins,  as  well  as  for  the  past ;  and  they  were  con¬ 
verted  into  licenses  for  violating  the  most  sacred  moral  obligations.  This 
darinor  infringement  of  the  law  of  God  roused  the  indignation  of  Luther, 
and  he  resolutely  determined  to  oppose  it.  As  confessor,  he  had  enjoined 
penance  for  some  atrocious  crimes,  and  refused  to  accord  absolution  until 
his  directions  were  complied  with,  although  the  party  had  pleaded  a 
remission  in  the  form  of  a  plenary  indulgence.  His  firmness  was  threat¬ 
ened  with  the  terrors  of  the  Inquisition  and  the  stake ;  but  he  determined 
to  appeal  to  the  reason  of  his  countrymen,  and,  on  the  31st  October  1517, 
he  began  the  Reformation  by  submitting  ninety-five  propositions  to  be 
discussed  before  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  in  which  he  was  professor 
of  divinity.  Adopting  the  opinions  of  St.  Augustine  on  predestination 
and  grace,  and  denying  the  efficacy  of  indulgences  and  the  intercession 
of  the  saints,  he  proceeded  to  contest  the  doctrines  of  auricular  confes¬ 
sion,  purgatory,  celibacy  of  the  priesthood,  transubstantiation,  and, 
finally,  the  supreme  authority  of  the  pope.  Erasmus,  who  ridiculed  the 
monastic  orders,  and  even  the  court  of  Rome  itself,  by  his  writings  ma¬ 
terially  assisted  the  efforts  of  Luther.  His  translation  of  the  New  Tes¬ 
tament  appeared  in  1516;  but  he  was  too  timid  to  enter  into  the  views 
of  his  great  contemporary,  hoping  that  the  advancing  reform  in  literature 
would  gradually  effect  a  corresponding  change  in  religion. 

Leo  X.  was  little  qualified  to  combat  the  energy  of  Luther;  and  he 
did  not  proceed  to  condemn  the  new  tenets  until  the  year  1520,  yielding 
at  length  to  the  importunity  of  his  ministers.  Charles  V.,  having  need 
of  the  Pope’s  services,  declared  against  the  reformer,  who,  with  his 
followers,  was  proscribed  by  the  edict  of  Worms,  1521.  He  was  not, 
however,  dismayed  :  in  the  castle  of  W’artenburg,  to  which  he  had  been 
conveyed,  he  continued  to  write  in  defence  of  his  principles ;  and,  in 
1522,  executed  a  German  translation  of  the  New  Testament.  The  new 
doctrines  spread  rapidly  through  all  parts  of  the  empire,  particularly 
Hesse  and  Saxony.  A  diet  was  held  at  Spires  in  1529,  where,  as  the 
Lutherans  protested  against  the  decree  that  would  have  crushed  the  new 
opinions,  they  acquired  their  name  of  Protestants.  The  diet  of  Augs- 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


397 


burg,  in  1530,  which  elicited  a  confession  of  their  faith,  proved  that  all 
hope  of  reconciling  the  two  parties  was  futile.  In  1532,  the  emperor 
for  the  first  time  agreed  to  conclude  a  religious  peace  at  Nuremberg; 
but,  not  long  after,  his  opponents  were  so  much  reduced,  as  to  submit 
to  accept  a  re-establishment  of  nearly  all  the  abuses  they  had  renounced, 
1548.  This  was  the  crisis  of  the  German  reformation.  A  peculiar 
combination  of  circumstances  induced  Maurice  of  Saxony  to  declare 
for  the  Protestant  cause;  and,  in  1555,  Charles  was  compelled  to  grant, 
in  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  a  complete  toleration  of  the  Lutheran  doctrines. 

The  Helvetic  reformation,  commenced  by  Zuingle  in  1518,  wras  com¬ 
pleted  by  Calvin  in  1541.  A  separation  from  those  who  adopted  the 
articles  of  Augsburg  grew  out  of  a  difference  of  opinion  respecting  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord’s  Supper.  The  tenets  of  the  reformers  began  to 
make  way  in  France  in  1519.  They  were  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne 
in  1521,  but  still  found  advocates  in  every  class  of  society,  particularly 
among  the  members  of  the  learned  professions.  The  views  of  Calvin, 
as  proclaimed  by  his  celebrated  Institutes,  1536,  were  generally  adopted. 
The  progress  of  ecclesiastical  reform  in  England  and  Scotland  has  been 
described  elsewhere.  In  Poland,  the  freedom  of  the  government  allowed 
the  adversaries  of  the  Trinitarian  doctrine  to  form  a  church,  which  has 
received  its  name  from  Socinus.  In  Spain  and  Italy  the  Reformation 
was  crushed  with  the  most  unrelenting  severity. 

The  Council  of  Trent. — The  Protestants,  on  their  condemnation 
by  the  bull  of  Pope  Leo  X.,  had  appealed  to  a  general  council,  which 
was  prevented  from  assembling  by  the  troubled  state  of  Europe.  At 
length  Paul  III.  convoked  the  long-wished-for  assembly,  which  met  at 
Trent  in  1545,  and  did  not  close  till  1563,  in  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IV. 
As  might  have  been  anticipated,  the  decisions  of  this  convocation  were 
far  from  allaying  the  religious  differences.  Doctrines  depending  on  the 
credit  of  tradition  alone  wTere  there  sanctioned  and  defined ;  and  cere¬ 
monies,  venerable  only  from  their  antiquity,  were  pronounced  essential 
parts  of  worship.  Among  the  articles  decreed  by  this  council  to  he 
implicitly  believed,  are: — The  celibacy  of  the  clergy;  the  equal 
authority  of  Scripture  and  tradition,  including  the  apocryphal  and  cano¬ 
nical  books;  confession  and  absolution;  communion  in  one  kind  only; 
the  continuance  of  miracles ;  the  worship  of  images  and  relics ;  the 
intercession  of  saints ;  the  adoration  and  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  ;  purgatory,  or  the  intermediate  state  of  punishment  between 
death  and  judgment,  from  which  the  souls  of  men  can  be  delivered  by 
the  prayers,  alms,  or  penance  of  the  faithful ;  and  transubstantiation,  or 
a  belief  that  the  consecrated  wafer  (or  host)  is  absolutely  changed,  in 
the  Lord’s  Supper,  into  the  real  and  substantial  body  and  blood  of 
Christ. 

The  Jesuits. — The  rapid  dissemination  of  Protestantism  throughout 
Europe  gave  rise  to  a  great  increase  of  zeal  among  the  adherents  of  the 
ancient  wmrship.  Several  monastic  orders  were  established  at  this 
period,  solely  to  combat  the  spirit  of  innovation ;  and  of  these  the  most 
celebrated  arose  in  Spain.  By  the  chivalrous  enthusiasm  of  Ignatius 
Loyola,  a  Biscayan  gentleman,  the  society  of  Jesuits  was  founded  in 
1534,  and  sanctioned  by  Rome  in  1540.  At  his  death  in  1556,  the  order 
had  diffused  itself  over  most  of  the  Catholic  countries  of  Western 
34 


398 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Europe,  and  its  missionaries  were  scattered  throughout  India,  Ethiopia, 
and  Brazil.  The  object  of  this  association  was  the  control  of  public 
opinion,  by  which  power  they  hoped  to  oppose  the  new  doctrines  and 
the  freedom  of  the  intellect,  supporting  at  the  same  time  the  highest 
assumptions  of  the  papacy.  Their  principles  were  diffused  by  means 
of  missions,  confessionals,  and  the  instruction  of  youth  in  seminaries 
under  the  control  of  the  order.  The  good  done  by  them  in  the  propaga¬ 
tion  of  religion,  and  in  various  branches  of  science,  is  not  to  be  depre¬ 
ciated  ;  but  the  political  historian  has  not  much  to  say  in  their  favour. 
The  order  was  suppressed  in  1773  by  a  papal  bull,  and  revived  by 
another  in  1814. 

LETTERS,  ARTS,  AND  SCIENCES. 

The  invention  of  printing,  in  the  preceding  century  was  followed  almost  as 
a  consequence  by  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  the  present ;  and  these  two 
great  events  communicated  an  incalculable  impulse  to  the  cause  of  literature 
and  science.  The  study  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue  by  the  mass  of 
the  people,  and  by  scholars  in  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek,  was  the  initia¬ 
tory  step  to  various  other  departments  of  knowledge,  and  led  to  investigations 
in  history,  laws,  geography,  and  antiquities,  not  less  than  in  theology.  Amid 
the  intellectual  excitement  thus  occasioned,  principles  were  evolved  destined  to 
change  the  face  of  society,  to  lead  science  forward  to  the  great  discoveries  of 
modern  times,  and  to  impart  to  literature  a  degree  of  vigour  and  originality 
rivalling  the  models  of  classic  genius,  as  well  as  an  influence  on  the  progress 
of  society  hitherto  unexampled. 

England.  —  During  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  England  could 
only  boast  of  two  distinguished  poets, — Thomas  Wyatt  (d.  1541),*  who  com¬ 
posed  sonnets  in  the  style  of  Petrarch ;  and  the  unfortunate  Surrey,  1547,  the 
first  English  writer  who  made  use  of  blank  verse.  Under  Elizabeth  flourished 
that  accomplished  soldier  and  patron  of  letters,  Sir  Philip  Sydney,  1586,  the 
author  of  the  Arcadia  ;  Raleigh,  1618,  at  once  historian  and  statesman,  poet 
and  navigator;  Dorset,  whose  political  cares  did  not  render  him  averse  to  the 
Muses,  and  who,  in  1561,  caused  Gordubuc  to  be  played,  the  first  piece  in 
verse  that  had  been  represented  in  London;  Daniel,  1619,  an  historian  and  the 
poet  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  ;  Southwell,  1595,  whose  verses  are  quoted  for 
their  elegance  and  noble  sentiment ;  Davies,  1626,  whose  poem  on  the  Immor¬ 
tality  of  the  Soul  was  the  type  of  the  Essay  on  Man;  Drayton,  1631,  whose 
elegiac,  historical,  and  religious  essays  have  been  a  great  storehouse  for  suc¬ 
ceeding  writers ;  Spenser,  1599,  whose  Faery  Queen  has  placed  him  in  the 
foremost  rank  of  English  literature;  and  a  greater  genius  still,  the  “  honey- 
tongued”  Shakspeare,  1616  ;  with  Gascoigne  and  Marlow,  1577  and  1593,  his 
predecessors;  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  1616  and  1625,  Massinger,  1640,  and 
Ben  Jonson,  1637,  his  contemporaries,  rivals,  and  sometimes  his  equals.  The 
Ecclesiastical  Polity  of  Hooker,  1600,  has  been  justly  famed;  and  the  cele¬ 
brated  Institutes  of  Coke,  1634,  are  still  the  standard  authority  on  English  law. 
The  first  document  in  the  form  of  a  newspaper  is  believed  to  have  been  pub¬ 
lished  by  Elizabeth’s  order,  23d  July  1588. 

France. — The  age  of  Francis  I.  is  the  first  of  the  three  literary  eras  of  his 
country.  The  Italian  expeditions  had  increased  his  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  and 
he  invited  to  his  court  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  Rosso.  Las- 
caris,  a  learned  Greek,  was  employed  to  form  the  king’s  library  at  Fontaine¬ 
bleau,  and  to  introduce  professors  of  his  language  into  the  university  of  Paris. 
At  the  solicitation  of  the  learned  Budaeus,  1540,  the  king  established  the  Col¬ 
lege  of  France  for  the  study  of  the  sciences  and  of  those  recently  cultivated 
languages  which  had  no  professor  in  the  university.  Literature  was  also 


*  The  year  of  decease  will  be  always  given,  as  serving  to  mark  more  exactly  the  period 
at  which  the  individual  may  be  supposed  to  have  flourished. 


SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


399 


adorned  by  the  names  of  Marot,  1544,  the  inventor  of  the  rondeau  ;  Rabelais, 
1553,  the  witty  but  impure  author  of  the  adventures  of  Pantagruel  and  Gar- 
gantua;  Ronsard,  1585,  an  elegant  poet  and  sonnetteer,  especially  distinguished 
by  Francis  I. ;  Montaigne,  1592,  the  garrulous  but  sceptical  essayist ;  and 
Malherbe,  1628,  some  of  whose  poems  are  the  most  touching  in  the  whole 
range  of  French  literature.  Philology  was  honoured  by  the  printers  and  cri¬ 
tics,  Robert  and  Henry  Stephens,  1559  and  1598 ;  by  the  learned  Scaliger, 
1609;  and  by  Casaubon,  1614.  The  names  of  Calvin,  1564,  and  the  correct 
Beza,  1605,  have  distinguished  the  theology  of  France. 

Italy — This  century  was  the  famous  Medician  era  of  Italian  literature.  In 
it  flourished  the  poets  Ariosto,  1533,  author  of  Orlando  Furioso;  Vida,  1566, 
who  wrote  the  Christiad  in  Latin  verse  ;  Tasso,  1595,  celebrated  for  the  epic 
of  Jerusalem,  Delivered Guarini,  1612,  the  author  of  the  Pastor  Fido  ;  and 
Tassoni,  1635,  the  witty  writer  of  the  Pape  of  the  Bucket.  History  was  adorned 
by  the  acute  Machiavelli,  1527,  whose  name  has  passed  into  a  proverb  ;  by 
Guicciardini,  1540;  by  the  Latin  history  of  Venice  by  Bembo,  1547,  who  oc¬ 
casionally  strayed  into  the  field  of  poetry  ;  and  by  Sarpi,  1623,  better  known 
as  Father  Paul,  the  historian  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Scholars  and  critics  still 
respect  the  names  of  the  printer  Manutius  Aldus,  1516,  whose  editions  of  the 
classics  are  highly  prized  ;  of  Sannazarius,  1530,  whose  poem  De  Partu  Vir- 
ginis,  is  said  to  have  occupied  him  twenty  years;  and  of  the  learned  Joseph 
Scaliger,  1609.  The  unequalled  paintings  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1520;  of 
Raphael,  1520;  of  Corregio,  1534;  of  Titian,  1576;  and  of  the  two  Caracci, 
1609  and  1618,  adorn  the  churches  of  Italy  and  the  galleries  of  Europe ;  while 
Michael  Angelo,  1564,  courted  with  equal  success  the  rival  muses  of  painting, 
sculpture,  and  architecture.  Cardan,  1576,  facilitated  the  operations  of  algebra, 
by  his  method  for  the  solution  of  equations  of  the  third  degree. 

Spain. — The  great  exploits  of  Spain  were  celebrated  by  various  eminent 
writers.  The  Jesuit  Mariana,  1624,  wrote  a  general  history  of  that  country; 
Herrera,  1625,  was  the  chronicler  of  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  and  of  the  Castilian 
conquests  in  the  Western  World;  Garcilasso,  1536,  revived  the  lyric  poetry 
of  the  nation ;  Ercilla,  1596,  the  most  celebrated  epic  poet  of  the  peninsula, 
composed,  in  1590,  the  Araucana,  in  which  he  describes  the  wars  he  had 
shared  in  the  New  World.  John  de  la  Cueva,  Christoval  de  Virues,  Father 
Ojeda,  and  Zorate,  each  wrote  an  epic  poem.  Lope  de  Vega,  the  greatest  poet 
of  this  era,  1635,  also  composed  an  epic  on  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem ;  but  it 
was  in  the  drama  that  he  unfolded  the  full  resources  of  his  genius.  Calderon, 
1687,  who,  with  the  poet  just  mentioned,  scarcely  belongs  to  this  century,  ranks 
in  the  very  first  class  of  tragic  writers.  The  romance  of  Don  Quixoto,  by 
Cervantes,  1616,  has  become  part  of  the  standard  literature  of  every  civilized 
nation.  Mendoza,  Boscan,  Louis  de  Leon,  and  Quevedo,  have  attained  a 
European  celebrity. 

Portugal.  —  The  first  Portuguese  writer  of  merit  was  Ribeyro,  1521. 
Camoens,  at  once  the  glory  and  shame  of  his  native  land,  died  a  year  before 
Portugal  was  subjected  to  the  Spanish  crown,  1579.  His  great  poem,  the 
Lusiad,  was  written  during  his  exile  at  Macao  :  it  is  a  description  of  the  dis¬ 
coveries  and  exploits  of  his  countrymen  in  the  East. 

Germany  and  Holland.  —  Albert  Durer,  1528,  the  father  of  the  German 
school  of  painting  and  engraving,  after  studying  the  Italian  models,  formed  his 
style  in  the  school  of  Bruges.  Luke  of  Leyden,  1533,  founded  the  Dutch 
school.  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  1536,  prepared,  by  the  freedom  of  his  popular 
writings,  for  a  considerable  change  in  the  opinions  of  Europe.  In  poetry,  the 
Minnesingers,  the  popular  troubadours  of  Germany,  were  distinguished. 
Luther  himself  was  no  contemptible  poet,  and  one  of  the  chief  writers  of  the 
day,  1546;  and  Zuingle  the  Swiss,  1531,  and  Melancthon,  1560,  also  adorned 
theology.  Paracelsus  alone,  1541,  was  conspicuous  in  natural  philosophy,  and 
Mercator,  1594,  in  geography  ;  Lipsius,  1606,  and  Buxtorf,  1629,  were  cele¬ 
brated  for  their  learning  and  philological  studies.  Almost  all  that  was  pro¬ 
duced  in  this  century,  of  whatever  is  elevated  and  precious,  arose  from  the 
inspiration  of  Germany.  Copernicus  of  Thorn  in  Poland,  1543,  by  comparing 


400 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


he  ancient  notions  of  astronomy,  hypothetically  discovered  that  system  of  the 
planets  which  was  afterwards  demonstrated  by  Newton.  Tycho  Brahe,  1601, 
even  when  rejecting  the  suppositions  of  Copernicus,  contributed  to  the  advance¬ 
ment  of  astronomical  science  by  the  improvement  of  his  optical  instruments  and 
his  accurate  observations,  1546-1601.  Kepler,  1630,  united  the  speculations  of 
Copernicus  with  the  method  of  Brahe,  and,  by  his  immortal  labours,  established 
the  foundations  of  modern  astronomy.  In  Switzerland,  the  physician  Gesner 
introduced  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  1516-1565. 


Table  to  be  filled  up  by  the  pupil  with  notes  on  any  personage  the 

tutor  may  select. 


Name. 

Born  and  Died. 

Where. 

Performances. 

j 

Critical  Opinion  or 
Remarks. 

• 

i 

N.  B. — The  other  literary  periods  may  be  studied  according  to  this  model. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Great  Britain. — 1603,  The  Stuarts:  James  I. — 1605,  Gunpowder  Plot. — 
1621  Whigs  and  Tories. — 1625,  Charles  I. — 1638,  Solemn  Covenant;  Long 
Parliament.  —  1641,  Irish  Rebellion.  —  1643,  Episcopacy  abolished.  —  Civil 
War. — 1649,  The  Commonwealth. — 1653,  Cromwell  Protector. — 1660,  The 
Restoration:  Charles  II.  —  1665,  1666,  Plague  and  Fire  of  London.  —  1679, 
Habeas  Corpus  Act.  — 1688,  Revolution  :  House  of  Orange.  — 1694,  Trien¬ 
nial  Act. 

France.  —  1610,  Louis  XIII.  —  Richelieu  and  Mazarin. — 1643,  Louis  XIV.— 
1659,  Peace  of  Pyrenees.  —  1668,  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  — 1685,  Edict 
of  Nantes  revoked. — 1697,  Peace  of  Ryswick. 

Spain  and  Portugal. — 1610,  Moors  expelled. — 1621,  Philip  IV. — Decline  of 
Spain. — 1640,  Revolution  of  Portugal. — Braganza  Dynasty. — 1668,  Indepen¬ 
dence  of  Portugal. 

Italy. — 1647,  Massaniello. — 1645,  Candian  War. 

Germany.  —  1618,  Thirty  Years’  War.  — 1648,  Treaty  of  Westphalia. — 1682, 
Insurrection  of  Tekeli. — ■  1683,  Siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks. — 1687,  Hun¬ 
gary  becomes  hereditary  in  the  Austrian  Family. 

Holland. — 1609,  Truce  with  Spain. — 1618,  Synod  of  Dort. — 1648  Treaty  of 
Munster. — 1678,  Treaty  of  Nimeguen. — 1689,  William  III.  of  Holland  be 
comes  King  of  England. 

Denmark. — 1588,  Christian  IV. — 1611,  Swedish  War. — 1648,  Frederick  III 

Sweden.  —  1611,  Gustavus  Adolphus.  —  1632,  Battle  of  Lutzen  ;  Christiana* 
Abdicates  in  1654. — 1697,  Charles  XII. 

Poland. — 1632,  Ladislaus  IV. — 1647,  Cossack  War. — 1674,  John  Sobiesky ; 
Raises  the  Siege  of  Vienna,  1683. — 1686,  Treaty  ot  Leopol. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  401 

Russia. — 1613,  Romanof  Dynasty  :  Michael. — 1645,  Alexis. — 1667,  Revolt 
of  the  Cossacks. — 1689,  Peter  the  Great;  Turkish  War. 

Ottoman  Empire.  —  1645,  Candian  War.  —  1669,  Conquest  of  Candia  ;  Mo¬ 
hammed  IV. — 1699,  Treaty  of  Carlowitz. 

The  East. — Shah  Abbas. — 1694,  Hussein  Mirza. — 1644,  Tartar  Dynasty  in 
China. —  1611,  Dutch  Trade  with  Japan.  —  1659,  Aurengzebe  ;  The  Mah- 
rattas. 

Colonies. — 1600,  East  India  Company. — 1623,  Dutch  Cruelties  at  Amboyna. 
— 1648,  Factories  at  Madras  and  Hoogly;  1699,  Fort-William  at  Calcutta. 
— 1674,  Colonies  on  Guinea  Coast. — 1625,  Barbadoes  and  St.  Kitt’s. — 1641, 
Sugar-cane  planted  in  West  Indies.  —  1655,  Conquest  of  Jamaica.  —  1627, 
Boston  founded. — 1630,  Rhode  Island. —  1632,  Maryland. —  1680,  Carolina. 
1682,  Pennsylvania. — 1664,  French  West  India  Company;  Buccaneers. — 
1650,  Dutch  settle  at  Cape  of  Good  Hope. — 1656,  Ceylon. 

Church. — 1638,  Jansenism. — 1709,  Port  Royal  suppressed. — 1650,  Quakers. 
Inventions,  &c.  —  1602,  Decimal  Arithmetic. —  1610,  Thermometer;  Satel¬ 
lites  of  Jupiter.  —  1614,  Logarithms. —  1625,  Barometer. — 1628,  Circulation 
of  Blood  demonstrated;  Tea,  Coffee,  Chocolate,  and  Sugar  introduced. — 
1658,  Pocket  Watches. — 1686,  Newtonian  Philosophy. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

The  Stuarts,  1603. — The  death  of  Elizabeth  terminated  the  main 
line  of  the  Tudors,  who  had  now  filled  the  throne  of  England  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  eighteen  years.  The  popular  voice  declared  James  VI.  of 
Scotland  heir  to  the  crown,  notwithstanding-  the  claims  of  other  com- 
petitors;  and  the  new7  sovereign  accordingly  removed  from  Edinburgh 
to  London,  and  quietly  assumed  the  sceptre  by  the  title  of  James  I. 
England  and  Scotland  w’ere  thus  at  length  united  under  one  sovereign; 
and,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  king,  wfiio  wished  to  obliterate  all  distinc¬ 
tion  between  them,  the  tw7o  countries  henceforth  received  the  common 
designation  of  Great  Britain.  The  character  of  James  was  in  many 
respects  singular.  To  great  capacity  for  learning,  and  abilities  by  no 
means  contemptible,  he  united  a  degree  of  meanness,  pusillanimity,  and 
vanity,  which  accorded  but  ill  w  ith  his  lofty  ideas  of  the  divine  rights 
and  authority  of  sovereigns.  He  was  equally  disposed  with  his  prede¬ 
cessor  to  govern  despotically  ;  but  he  wTas  signally  deficient  in  the 
vigour  and  tact  w7hich  enabled  Elizabeth  to  rule  in  the  hearts  as  much 
as  over  the  persons  of  her  subjects.  At  the  same  time,  the  discontents 
of  the  Catholics,  the  fears  of  the  church  party,  and  the  energy  of  the 
popular  spirit,  manifested  particularly  in  the  acts  of  the  Puritans ,  ren¬ 
dered  the  position  of  the  monarch  by  no  means  an  easy  one.  The  latter 
party  desired  to  make  great  alterations  in  the  government  and  w  orship 
of  the  church ;  and,  in  the  strictness  of  their  manners  and  the  fervour  of 
their  devotions,  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  Scottish  Presbyterians. 
While,  therefore,  the  nation  w^as  making  rapid  advances  in  wealth  and 
intelligence,  and  trade  and  maritime  enterprise  flourished,  causes  w7ere 
at  work  which  threatened  the  stability  of  regal  government,  and  led  to 
the  great  national  convulsions  in  the  next  reign. 

Gunpowder  Plot. — Soon  after  the  accession  of  James,  a  plot  had 
been  discovered  to  place  Arabella  Stuart,  lineally  descended  from  Henry 
34  * 


402 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


VII.,  upon  the  throne  ;  but  the  conspirators,  who  were  in  correspondence 
with  the  Pope  and  Spain,  were  arrested  and  executed.  In  1605,  some 
disappointed  Roman  Catholics,  at  the  head  of  whom  were  Robert  Catesby 
and  Thomas  Percy,  formed  a  conspiracy  to  destroy  by  gunpowder  the 
king  and  assembled  Parliament ;  and  sixty-four  barrels  of  powder  had 
been  actually  deposited  in  the  cellars  beneath  the  house.  This  atrocious 
scheme  was  happily  discovered,  and  the  principals  were  severely 
punished.  The  famous  Oath  of  Allegiance,  1606,  was  drawn  up  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  this  attempt;  it  asserted  the  supremacy  of  the  sovereign 
relative  to  ecclesiastical  matters,  denying  the  Pope’s  right  to  depose  him 
or  absolve  his  subjects  from  their  allegiance.  The  timidity  of  the 
monarch’s  temper,  however,  prevented  him  from  taking  further  advan¬ 
tage  of  this  circumstance  to  increase  the  persecution  of  the  Catholic 
party. 

The  most  laudable  act  of  James’  reign  was  the  settlement  and  planta¬ 
tion  of  the  north  of  Ireland.  Previously,  the  legislative  authority  of 
England  had  been  circumscribed  within  a  small  district  called  “  the 
Pale,” — the  rest  of  the  country  being  abandoned  to  the  sway  of  lawless 
native  chiefs.  The  king  extended  the  English  law  over  the  whole 
country,  passed  an  act  of  indemnity  for  former  offences,  and  procured 
the  settlement  in  Ulster  of  thousands  of  English,  Scotch,  and  well- 
disposed  Irish,  who  contributed  greatly  to  the  pacification  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  1609. 

While  in  Scotland,  James  had  been  governed  by  favourites,  and  he 
did  not  change  his  habits  in  England.  He  raised  a  Scotchman  of  the 
name  of  Carr  from  obscurity  to  the  earldom  of  Rochester ;  but  he  was 
subsequently  neglected  for  the  handsome  George  Villiers,  who  rapidly 
passed  through  every  grade  of  nobility,  and  became  Duke  of  Bucking¬ 
ham,  invested  with  many  of  the  principal  offices  of  the  kingdom.  In 
1621,  the  king  summoned  a  parliament,  in  vffiich  already  were  seen  the 
two  parties  known  as  Whigs  and  Tories , — the  former  for  the  people,  the 
latter  for  the  king.  His  last  moments  were  disturbed  by  war.  The 
Princess  Elizabeth  had  been  married  in  1613  to  Frederick,  Elector  Pa¬ 
latine  ;  this  prince  had  afterwards  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  dominions, 
in  consequence  of  his  having  accepted  the  sovereignty  of  Bohemia,*  not¬ 
withstanding  the  aid  of  his  father-in-law,  who  took  part  in  his  favour 
against  Austria  and  Spain.  King  James  died  in  1625. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Charles  I.  w^as  to  marry  the  Princess  Henri¬ 
etta  Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  a  Catholic.  The  war 
with  Spain  still  continuing,  the  king  applied  to  parliament  for  aid  ;  but 
was  there  met  with  so  keen  a  spirit  of  liberty,  and  so  many  complaints 
as  to  his  government,  that  he  was  led  to  revive  a  practice  of  former 
sovereigns  of  levying  taxes  called  benevolences  and  ship-money ,  by  his 
own  authority.  These  acts,  coupled  with  his  arrogant  assertion  of  the 
arbitrary  principles  held  by  his  father,  excited  a  universal  spirit  of  dis¬ 
content  throughout  the  nation.  In  1628,  the  Commons  presented  to  him 
an  act  called  a  Petition  of  Right ,  limiting  the  powers  of  the  crowrn, 
wffiich  not  without  difficulty  he  was  prevailed  on  to  sanction ;  but  the 
disputes  with  Parliament  soon  after  ran  to  such  a  height,  that  he  dis- 


*  Sophia,  youngest  daughter  of  this  dethroned  pair,  having  married  the  Duke  oi 
Brunswick,  was  the  ancestress  of  the  family  which  now  reigns  in  Britain. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  1>. 


403 


solved  it  in  a  fit  of  indignation,  resolving  never  again  to  call  another. 
About  this  time  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  was  assassinated  ;  and  Laud, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  together  with  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  became 
the  chief  advisers  of  the  king.  The  Petition  of  Right  was  now  alto¬ 
gether  disregarded,  great  numbers  of  persons  were  dragged  before  an 
arbitrary  court,  called  the  Star-chamber,  and  frequently  subjected  by  its 
sentence  to  the  greatest  indignities  and  tortures  for  the  most  trifling 
offences. 

In  1037,  the  attempts  of  Charles  to  introduce  into  Scotland  the  Epis¬ 
copalian  form  of  worship,  as  more  favourable  to  royalty  than  Presbyte¬ 
rianism,  drove  the  Scots  to  rebellion.  In  1638,  they  framed  the  cele¬ 
brated  Covenant  to  maintain  their  ecclesiastical  liberties,  and  took  up 
arms  ao-ainst  the  king.  A  dreadful  rebellion  about  the  same  time  broke 

out  in  Ireland,  in  which  thousands  of  Protestants  were  barbarously  mas- 

'  %/ 

sacred.  Under  these  circumstances  the  Long  Parliament  assembled, 
and  declared  its  sittings  permanent  until  the  popular  grievances  were 
redressed.  This  act,  which  deprived  the  king  of  one  of  his  highest  pre¬ 
rogatives,  was  fatal  to  the  monarchy.  The  ministers,  Strafford  and 
Laud,  were  impeached  and  beheaded,  the  one  in  1641,  the  other  in  1644. 
The  Presbyterians, -who  were  a  majority  in  the  Commons,  procured  the 
exclusion  of  the  bishops  from  the  Upper  House,  1641  ;  an  act  which  was 
followed  up  in  1643  by  the  entire  abolition  of  Episcopacy. 

Civil  War. — The  differences  between  the  king  and  parliament  had 
now  come  to  a  crisis.  The  former  was  generally  supported  by  the  no¬ 
bility  and  landed  gentry,  the  Catholics,  and  the  high  church  party ; 
while  the  latter  found  its  chief  strength  in  the  mercantile  and  middle 
classes,  and  the  lower  orders  of  the  great  towns.  Both  parties  resolved 
on  an  appeal  to  arms.  In  August  1642,  the  royal  standard  was  raised 
at  Nottingham ;  and  for  three  years  numerous  engagements  took  place 
between  the  forces  of  the  king  and  the  parliament,  the  latter  aided  by 
the  Scottish  army.  At  length  his  majesty  received  a  final  overthrow  at 
Naseby,  1645;  and,  unable  longer  to  keep  the  field,  he  threw  himself 
upon  the  protection  of  the  Scots,  then  encamped  at  Newark,  by  whom 
he  was  soon  after  surrendered  to  the  English  parliamentary  leaders,  1647. 
The  whole  pSwer  of  the  state  had  now  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Inde¬ 
pendents,  a  fanatical  sect,  who  declared  for  democratic  government  both 
in  church  and  state.  At  the  head  of  this  party  was  Oliver  Cromwell, 
general  of  the  army,  a  man  of  great  talent  and  address,  and  who  seems 
now  to  have  formed  the  design  of  obtaining  supreme  power.  Having 
forcibly  succeeded  in  excluding  from  parliament  about  two  hundred 
members  of  the  Presbyterian  party  who  were  supposed  favourable  to 
royalty,  Cromwell  and  his  associates  resolved  on  the  death  of  the  king, 
1648.  He  was  accordingly  brought  to  trial,  condemned,  and  executed, 
1649  ;  an  act  which  struck  Europe  with  amazement,  and  has  been 
generally  condemned  as  alike  illegal,  sanguinary,  and  impolitic. 

The  Commonwealth. — The  parliament,  known  by  the  appellation  of 
the  Rump ,  now  administered  the  affairs  of  the  country ;  but  all  real 
power  lay  in  the  hands  of  Cromwell  and  the  army.  During  the  progress 
of  the  civil  war,  an  attempt  had  been  made  in  Scotland  to  produce  a 
diversion  in  the  king’s  favour  by  the  chivalrous  Marquis  of  Montrose, 
who  gained  several  victories,  but  w^as  eventually  defeated  and  forced  to 
quit  the  kingdom.  The  royalists  were  still  in  considerable  force  in 


404 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Ireland  under  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  and  a  large  body  of  Catholic  insur* 
gents  were  not  indisposed  to  join  them  ;  but,  before  any  such  union 
could  be  effected,  Cromwell  repaired  thither  with  an  army,  defeated  all 
his  opponents,  and  rapidly  overran  the  whole  country,  1649.  In  the 
following  year,  the  Scots  having  proclaimed  Charles  II.,  he  crossed  the 
Tweed,  and  gained  a  signal  victory  at  Dunbar;  and,  though  the  young 
prince  afterwards  led  a  Scottish  army  into  England,  he  was  defeated  at 
Worcester,  and  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  France,  1651.  The  victo¬ 
rious  general  now  dissolved  the  Long  Parliament,  and  governed  by  his 
own  authority  under  the  title  of  Lord  Protector .  The  struggle  for  popu¬ 
lar  rights  had  therefore  ended  in  a  military  despotism,  distinguished, 
however,  for  great  vigour  and  ability.  On  the  seas,  the  fleets  of  Crom¬ 
well  were  successful  against  the  Dutch,  whom  he  compelled  to  strike 
their  flag  to  the  English,  1653.  Uniting  with  France  against  Spain, 
1655,  he  took  the  valuable  island  of  Jamaica ;  and,  in  1658,  the  port  of 
Dunkirk  was  delivered  to  him.  Under  the  Protector,  England  became 
both  respected  and  feared  throughout  Europe ;  but  his  power  at  home 
was  crumbling  to  pieces,  and  he  eventually  sank  under  the  anxieties  of 
his  position,  in  September  1658. 

The  Restoration. — Cromwell  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Richard  in 
his  dignity  of  Protector;  but,  finding  himself  incapable  of  resisting  the 
intrigues  of  the  various  parties  and  the  cabals  of  the  army,  he  quietly 
abdicated,  and  retired  into  private  life.  The  dissensions  that  followed 
were  terminated  by  General  Monk,  commander  of  the  forces  in  Scotland, 
who  marched  with  his  army  to  London,  and  assembled  a  free  parlia¬ 
ment,  which  unanimously  invited  King  Charles  to  return  to  the  throne 
of  his  ancestors.  Accordingly,  on  the  29th  May  1660,  the  anniversary 
of  his  thirtieth  birthday,  the  monarch  entered  London. 

Charles  II.,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  used  every  method  to  con¬ 
ciliate  his  subjects,  forming  his  council  indiscriminately  of  men  of  all 
parties.  A  general  amnesty  which  had  been  promised  was  confirmed, 
those  only  being  excepted  who  were  considered  as  the  promoters  of  the 
late  king’s  death,  ten  of  whom  suffered  capital  punishment.*  Charles 
then  disbanded  the  army  of  Cromwell,  restored  the  Episcopal  clergy  to 
their  benefices,  and  rewarded  those  who  had  contributed  to  his  return. 
In  1662,  he  married  Catherine  of  Portugal,  an  unhappy  union,  contracted 
with  interested  views.  In  personal  character  the  king  was  licentious, 
indolent,  and  careless  of  religion ;  and  he  spent  his  time  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  in  the  indulgence  of  the  basest  appetites.  The  liberal  civil  list 
afforded  him  by  parliament  proved  altogether  insufficient  for  his  expen¬ 
diture  ;  and  he  basely  accepted  4B40,000  from  Louis  XIV.,  as  the  price 
of  the  surrender  of  Dunkirk,  and  even  condescended  to  receive  a  secret 
pension  from  that  prince.  With  the  view  of  obtaining  parliamentary 
subsidies,  he  also  engaged  in  a  naval  war  with  Holland,  which,  though 
generally  favourable  to  the  British,  had,  in  1667,  nearly  led  to  the  de¬ 
struction  of  London  by  the  Dutch  fleet. 

Plague  and  Fire  of  London.— In  the  summer  of  1665,  London  was 
visited  by  a  dreadful  pestilence,  which  swept  off  about  100,000  people, 
and  abated  little  till  the  approach  of  winter.  Houses  were  rendered 

*The  most  illustrious  victim  was  the  Marquis  of  Argyle  in  Scotland,  who  had  placed 
the  crown  on  the  king’s  head  at  Scone  in  1651. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


405 


tenantless,  grass  grew  in  the  streets,  and  the  whole  city  presented  one 
wide  scene  of  misery  and  desolation.  This  was  succeeded  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  autumn  by  a  conflagration,  which  raged  a  whole  week,  destroy¬ 
ing  13,200  houses  and  eighty -nine  churches.  The  night  was  as  clear 
as  day  to  the  distance  of  ten  miles  round ;  and  even  on  the  Scottish 
border  its  strange  effect  upon  the  sky  was  perceptible.  In  the  end, 
however,  this  latter  calamity  was  advantageous  to  London ;  the  city  has 
never  since  been  visited  by  pestilence ;  and  the  widening  of  the  streets, 
improved  drainage,  and  stricter  police  regulations,  now  render  it  one  of 
the  healthiest  capitals  in  the  world. 

Persecution  in  Scotland — Popish  Plot. — The  great  object  of 
Charles  was  the  re-establishment  of  Popery  and  arbitrary  power ;  and 
though  still  himself  professing  adherence  to  the  Reformed  doctrines,  his 
brother  James,  duke  of  York,  openly  affiliated  with  the  Jesuits.  An 
iniquitous  attempt  had  been  made  to  force  Episcopacy  upon  the  people 
of  Scotland,  and  upwards  of  300  Presbyterian  ministers  were  expelled 
from  their  livings.  The  people  then  began  to  hold  conventicles  in  the 
fields,  where  they  attended  the  services  of  their  expelled  pastors ;  but 
the  execrable  barbarities  employed  to  overcome  their  opposition  to  the 
new  arrangements  at  length  drove  them  to  insurrection,  which  was  sup¬ 
pressed  by  a  war  of  extermination.*  The  prejudices  and  fears  of  the 
English  people  began  now  to  be  effectually  aroused.  In  1673,  the  Test 
Ad  was  passed,  imposing  a  religious  oath  upon  all  who  entered  the  pub¬ 
lic  service.  This  was  followed  in  1678  by  a  panic  equally  foolish  and 
deplorable.  The  infamous  Titus  Oates  succeeded  in  propagating  a 
general  belief  in  a  pretended  Popish  Plot  for  the  massacre  of  the  Pro¬ 
testants  ;  and,  in  the  midst  of  the  ferment  thus  occasioned,  many  inno¬ 
cent  Catholics  were  judicially  massacred.  The  Parliament  now  became 
more  and  more  intractable :  they  passed  the  celebrated  Haheus  Corpus 
Ad;  and  the  Commons  even  prepared  a  bill  for  the  exclusion  of  the 
Duke  of  York  from  the  succession.  This  latter  measure  seems  to  have 
produced  a  temporary  reaction  in  the  king’s  favour,  who  dissolved  the 
houses,  and  reigned  by  his  own  arbitrary  authority,  1681.  A  plan  was 
now  formed  by  the  late  majority  to  raise  simultaneous  insurrections  in 
London,  the  west  of  England,  and  Scotland.  This  was  discovered  ;  and 
the  leaders,  Russel,  Sydney,  and  others,  becoming  implicated  also  in 
the  Rye-house  Plot  for  murdering  the  king,  perished  on  the  scaffold, 
1683.  Charles  II.  died  in  1685. 

The  Revolution,  1688. — The  commencement  of  the  reign  of  James 
II.  was  sufficiently  favourable:  the  Commons  voted  him  an  ample  reve¬ 
nue;  the  university  of  Oxford  and  the  Scottish  Parliament  recognised 
his  “  sacred,  supreme,  and  absolute  authority.”  The  character  of  the 
new  king  was  much  more  respectable  than  that  of  his  brother ;  but  he 
was  deficient  in  those  popular  and  showTy  qualities  by  which  Charles, 
notwithstanding  his  tyranny  and  vices,  had  succeeded  in  making  him¬ 
self  agreeable  to  his  subjects.  James  had  all  along  been  an  avowed 
Catholic  ;  and,  though  he  began  his  reign  by  professing  an  intention  to 
govern  according  to  the  laws,  it  soon  became  apparent  that  he  had  set 


*  On  a  monumental  stone  in  the  Greyfriars  Churchyard,  Edinburgh,  may  be  seen  an 
inscription,  which  states  that,  between'  1661  and  1688,  18,000  persons  are  computed  to 
have  suffered  death  for  their  faith. 


406 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


his  heart  on  overthrowing  the  established  religion.  An  unfortunate 
expedition  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  natural  son  of  the  late  king,  to 
effect  a  rising  in  the  west  of  England,  and  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle  in 
Scotland,  which  ended  in  the  execution  of  both,  gave  him  additional 
confidence  in  the  prosecution  of  his  design.  He  proceeded  to  dispense 
with  the  Test  Act,  by  proclaiming  a  general  toleration  in  favour  of  the 
Catholics ;  and  six  bishops  who  opposed  his  proceedings  were  impri¬ 
soned,  but  subsequently  liberated  on  trial.  The  Romanists  were  now 
openly  admitted  to  the  royal  councils,  chapels  being  everywhere 
erected  ;  and  he  even  held  a  correspondence  with  the  pope  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  placing  England  once  more  under  the  dominion  of  the  holy  see. 
The  fears  of  the  people  were  excited  to  the  highest  pitch  by  the  birth 
of  a  Prince  of  Wales  ;  and  all  ranks  uniting  with  the  clergy  and  nobility, 
William,  prince  of  Orange,  who  had  married  the  Princess  Mary,  was 
invited  to  England  to  defend  the  Protestant  cause.  On  the  5th  of  No¬ 
vember,  the  prince  landed  at  Torbay  wTith  an  armament;  soon  after 
which,  the  chief  persons  in  the  kingdom  flocked  to  his  standard,  and 
the  troops  of  James  went  over  to  him.  His  majesty  himself,  deserted 
on  all  hands,  made  his  escape  to  France,  leaving  the  crown,  without  a 
struggle,  in  the  hands  of  his  son-in-law. 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  HOUSES  OF  ORANGE  AND  BRUNSWICK. 

24.  James  I.,  b.  1560;  k.  Gr.  B.  1603;  d.  1625. 

/ - A - - - * - "V 

t  Elizabeth ,  b.  1596.  25  Charles  I.  k.  1625;  beh.  1649. 

/ - A - 

26.  Charles  II.,  Mary,  m.  William  27.  James  II.,  k.  1685 ;  Henrietta  Maria. 

k.  1660,  d.  1685.  II.  of  Orange,  dep.  1689  :  m.  1.  Anne 

1641,  d.  1661.  Hyde  ;  2.  Mary  of 

Modena. 

- - A - ,  / - A - S 

28.  William  III.,  p.  of  Orange,  b.  1650  ==  28.  Mary,  29.  Anne,  James  Edward , 

q.  1689.  1702.  the  Pretender. 

t  Elizabeth,  m.  Frederick  V.,  elect,  pal.,  1613,  d.  1661. 

/ - A - \ 

Sophia ,  dec.  heiress  to  throne,  1700,  m.  Ernest  Augustus,  el.  of  Hanover,  1658,  d.  1714. 

- - A - \ 

HOUSE  OF  HANOVER. 

30.  George  I.,  k.  1714. 

House  of  Orange. — The  bloodless  revolution  of  1688  established 
the  great  principle,  that  “  when  a  government,  by  its  aggravated  abuses, 
has  ceased  to  command  the  support  of  the  people  and  to  be  an  instru¬ 
ment  of  good,  it  is  no  longer  entitled  to  obedience.”  The  accession  of 
William  terminated  the  persecution  in  Scotland;  the  Presbyterian 
church  was  established  by  law ;  and,  excepting  among  the  Highland 
clans,  who  made  some  resistance  under  Viscount  Dundee,  the  new 
government  was  at  first  very  popular.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Catholics 
in  Ireland  made  common  cause  with  the  deposed  monarch,  who  landed 
in  that  country  in  the  spring  of  1689,  and  soon  found  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  large  but  undisciplined  army.  He  was  defeated  by  his 
antagonist  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and  immediately  returned  to 
France;  while  his  adherents  acceded  to  the  new  order  of  things  by  the 
treaty  of  Limerick,  signed  soon  after.  William’s  great  operations  against 
Louis  XIV.  prevented  him,  had  he  been  so  disposed,  from  impeding  the 
liberal  measures  of  Parliament,  and  the  Triennial  Ad  was  accordingly 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


407 


passed,  1694.  In  1691,  for  a  merely  legal  offence,  an  atrocious  massacre 
was  perpetrated  in  the  Highlands  on  the  clan  of  Macdonald  of  Glencoe, 
from  wrhich  the  sovereign  was  never  able  altogether  to  clear  himself; 
and  the  affections  of  the  Scottish  people  were  further  alienated  by  the 
obstacles  thrown  in  the  way  of  their  commerce  at  the  instigation  of  the 
English  merchants,  particularly  in  regard  to  an  expedition  fitted  out  to 
colonize  the  isthmus  of  Darien,  in  which  many  hundred  persons  lost 
their  lives,  and  a  large  capital  was  irrecoverably  lost,  1699.  The  Jaco¬ 
bite  party  consequently  became  strong  in  Scotland,  wffiile  not  a  little 
dissatisfaction  prevailed  in  the  south ;  and,  though  the  peace  of  Rys- 
wick,  1697,  enabled  the  king  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  days  in 
peace,  he  wTas  subjected  to  much  domestic  inquietude. 

FRANCE. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  in  1610,  the  crown  of  France  descended 
to  his  son  Louis  XIII.,  a  minor,  under  the  regency  of  the  queen,  Mary 
of  Medici.  In  October  1614,  the  prince  was  declared  to  be  of  age  ;  and 
in  the  year  following,  he  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain. 
Sully  having  retired,  an  Italian  named  Concini,  a  creature  of  the  queen- 
mother,  possessed  the  direction  of  affairs.  The  nobility,  disgusted  by 
his  insolence,  began  a  civil  war,  headed  by  the  Prince  of  Conde,  but 
were  appeased  by  concessions,  1615.  The  king  himself,  become  im¬ 
patient  of  the  rule  of  his  parent  and  the  favourite,  by  the  advice  of  a 
young  courtier  named  Luines,  procured  his  assassination ;  his  w  ife  was 
condemned  to  death  on  a  charge  of  magic ;  and  the  queen-dowager  was 
sent  to  Blois  under  arrest,  1617.  Louis,  who,  during  the  whole  of  his 
reign,  was  altogether  incapable  of  conducting  affairs,  now  became  a 
passive  instrument  in  the  hands  of  Luines,  who  wras  raised  to  the 
highest  rank  and  offices  in  the  state. 

Richelieu. —  Some  years  after,  Mary  escaped  from  Blois,  and  being 
supported  by  the  Duke  of  Epernon  and  other  nobles,  a  civil  w’ar  broke 
out;  but  it  w'as  composed  by  the  mediation  of  Armand  du  Plessis, 
bishop  of  LuQon,  known  afterw  ards  as  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  effected 
a  reconciliation  between  Louis  and  his  mother.  In  1620,  an  attempt 
having  been  made  to  invade  the  liberties  of  the  Protestants,  they  flew 
to  arms ;  and  in  the  hostilities  that  followed,  Luines,  now  Constable, 
lost  his  life,  wffien  a  peace  was  concluded,  confirming  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  1622.  The  haughty  Richelieu  now  became  prime-minister, 
and  soon  displayed  the  possession  of  abilities  of  the  highest  order,  w  ith 
an  unscrupulous  perseverance  in  the  prosecution  of  his  designs.  There 
were  three  parties  whom  he  resolved  to  humble; — the  nobility,  the 
Huguenots,  and  the  house  of  Austria.  With  these  views,  he  concluded 
a  marriage  between  Charles,  prince  of  Wales,  and  the  king’s  sister, 
Henrietta,  and  effected  an  alliance  between  the  two  monarchs  and  Hol¬ 
land.  A  w*ar  wfith  Spain  was  the  consequence,  1625,  wffiich,  how'ever, 
led  to  no  important  results.  The  Protestants  having  rebelled,  he  laid 
siege  to  Rochelle,  their  oreat  stronghold,  which  vTas  forced  to  surrender, 
1628;  and  they  w^ere  eventually  compelled  to  yield  all  their  fortified 
towns. 

The  French  dissenters  were  now  effectually  subdued,  and  the  whole 
kingdom  brought  under  the  supreme  authority  of  the  crow-n.  Richelieu 


408 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


ruled  the  country  with  a  rod  of  iron ;  he  negotiated  with  the  King  of 
Sweden,  and  aided  the  German  Protestants  against  Austria;  attacked 
the  latter  power  in  Italy ;  and  assisted  in  re-establishing  the  indepen¬ 
dence  of  Portugal.  But  his  ambition  was  of  an  exalted  kind:  to  him 
France  was  indebted  for  the  establishment  of  the  Academy ;  he  liberally 
encouraged  literature  and  the  arts,  and  promoted  the  revival  of  national 
commerce,  ruined  by  two  centuries  of  domestic  war.  In  spite  of  all 
enemies,  the  cardinal  retained  the  administration  of  affairs  till  his  death, 
1642,  at  the  very  time  when  the  combined  forces  of  Sweden  and  France 
had  utterly  humbled  the  pride  of  the  house  of  Austria.  Louis  XIII. 
died  a  few  months  after. 

Mazarin  and  the  Fronde. — The  subtle  policy  of  the  Italian  Mazarin 
succeeded  the  energetic  rule  of  Richelieu,  and  was  continued  during  the 
minority  of  the  young  king,  Louis  XIV.,  1643.  The  new  minister  had 
the  satisfaction  of  concluding  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  which  termi¬ 
nated  the  thirty  years’  war,  France  gaining  thereby  several  important 
acquisitions,  1648.  The  early  part  of  this  reign  was  however  disturbed 
by  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde,  as  they  were  called,  headed  by  the  Car¬ 
dinal  de  Retz.  A  war  was  begun  against  the  minister,  while  the  rebels 
proclaimed  their  unbroken  attachment  to  the  crown.  These  disorders, 
which  served  only  to  embroil  the  nation,  without  leading  to  any  decisive 
result,  were  terminated  by  the  king’s  majority,  1653;  and  during  the 
nine  succeeding  years,  Mazarin’s  attention  to  the  finances  prepared  the 
way  for  great  military  exertions. 

The  Spaniards,  in  the  war  terminating  1648,  had  been  severely 
defeated  at  Rocroi  by  the  Duke  d’Enghien,  and  near  Gibraltar  by  the 
French  fleet  under  the  Duke  de  Breze;  besides  which  they  lost  many 
strong  places.  But  they  did  not  accede  to  the  treaty  of  Westphalia, 
and  the  war  still  continued  in  the  Low  Countries,  Turenne  commanding 
the  French  troops,  while  the  Prince  of  Conde,  who  had  been  exiled 
during  the  late  troubles,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Spaniards.  At  Arras 
and  Valenciennes,  the  talents  of  the  rivals  vvere  alike  conspicuous,  1656. 
Mazarin  now  formed  an  alliance  with  Cromwell,  and  Turenne  gained 
the  famous  victory  of  Dunes,  1658.  This  led  to  a  pacification  in  the 
ensuing  year,  known  as  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  by  which  France 
gained  Artois,  Roussillon,  part  of  Flanders,  Hainault,  and  Luxem¬ 
bourg;  Louis  at  the  same  time  married  the  Infanta  Maria  Theresa,  and 
agreed  to  pardon  Conde. 

In  1667,  six  years  after  the  death  of  Mazarin,  began  those  aggres¬ 
sions  which  alarmed  all  Europe.  In  1657,  that  minister  had  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  get  Louis  elected  emperor,  which  led  to  a  long 
and  bitter  animosity  between  Leopold  and  the  French  king.  The 
minister,  Colbert,  had  largely  multiplied  the  resources  of  the  country, 
and  the  war  department  was  systematized  and  brought  to  a  high  state 
of  efficiency  by  Louvois.  On  the  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  Louis 
laid  claim  to  the  duchy  of  Brabant  in  right  of  his  wife,  and  entered 
Flanders  with  40,000  men.  His  success  led  to  a  triple  alliance  between 
Britain,  Sweden,  and  Holland,  which  compelled  him  to  accede  to  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1668  ;  but  having  resolved  to  revenge  himself 
on  Holland,  he  succeeded  in  breaking  up  the  confederacy,  by  securing 
the  alliance  of  Charles  II.  Under  the  most  frivolous  pretences,  both 
monarchs  declared  war  against  the  United  Provinces,  1672 ;  a  combined 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


409 


fleet  of  nore  than  one  hundred  sail  put  to  sea,  while  the  French  king 
invaded  the  frontiers  with  an  army  of  120,000  men.  The  Dutch  de¬ 
termined  to  make  a  vigorous  resistance  :  the  Prince  of  Orange  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  land  forces,  and  the  gallant  De  Ruyter  com¬ 
manded  130  ships. 

The  hostile  fleets  came  in  sight  of  each  other  in  Southwold  Bay, 
where  a  desperate  engagement  was  fought,  with  no  decisive  advantage 
to  either  party.  The  French  army,  however,  commanded  under  Louis 
by  Turenne,  Conde,  and  Luxembourg,  was  more  successful.  Having 
passed  the  Rhine,  Nimeguen  and  Utrecht  opened  their  gates,  and  all 
the  provinces,  except  Holland  and  Zealand,  were  forced  to  submit. 
The  former  broke  down  the  sluices  and  laid  the  country  under  water; 
the  Prince  of  Orange  was  declared  stadtholder;  and  all  idea  of  submis¬ 
sion  was  abandoned.  The  prospects  of  the  Dutch  now  began  to 
brighten.  The  combined  fleets  were  driven  from  the  coast  of  Holland 

<_5 

by  violent  storms,  and  three  naval  actions,  vigorously  contested,  termi¬ 
nated  rather  in  favour  of  De  Ruyter  and  Van  Tromp.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  troops  of  the  empire  having  united  with  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
the  electorate  of  Cologne  was  conquered;  and  the  communication 
between  France  and  Holland  being  thus  cut  off,  Louis  was  forced  to 
recall  his  army  and  abandon  his  conquests,  1673.  The  King  of  Spain 
now  declared  war  against  France,  and  Charles  II.,  unable  to  get  sup¬ 
plies  from  his  parliament,  made  peace  with  the  United  Provinces.  Five 
bloody  but  indecisive  campaigns  followed  ;  the  preponderance  of  success 
by  land,  however,  lay  on  the  side  of  the  French,  while  the  Dutch  and 
Spanish  fleets  were  defeated  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  peace  of  Nime¬ 
guen  put  an  end  to  the  contest,  Louis  obtaining  Franche-Comte  and 
sixteen  fortresses  in  the  Low  Countries,  1678. 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  1685. — The  character  of  the 
French  monarch  was  essentially  absolute.  His  favourite  expression  was, 
“  I  am  the  state  and,  on  this  principle,  having  determined  that  nothing 
should  oppose  his  supreme  authority,  he  stript  the  parliament  of  their 
privileges,  and  regarded  the  body  of  the  nation  as  the  mere  instruments 
of  his  ambition.  He  hated  the  Protestants  from  religious  bigotry,  but 
still  more  because  he  regarded  them  as  rebellious  subjects.  Influenced 
by  these  motives,  and  instigated  by  Louvois,  Madame  de  Maintenon, 
whom  he  had  privately  married,  and  the  Jesuits,  he  resolved  on  the 
wicked  and  disastrous  measure  of  revoking  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  This 
act,  by  proscribing  Protestantism  in  France,  deprived  that  country  of 
thousands  of  its  most  industrious  and  enterprising  subjects,  and  produced 
general  alarm  throughout  Europe.  Children  at  the  age  of  seven  years,  by 
apostatizing,  were  declared  independent  of  their  parents  ;  military  execu¬ 
tions  were  employed  to  enforce  uniformity  of  worship  ;  voluntary  exile  was 
prohibited  ;  and  the  declaration  of  the  illegality  of  Protestant  marriages 
rendered  the  issue  illegitimate. 

Consequences. — The  terrible  effects  of  this  measure  are  not  easily  described, 
and  they  are  such  as  France  has  never  recovered.  Before  the  revocation,  from 
14,000  to  15,000  persons  had  removed  to  the  commercial  cities  of  Hamburg  and 
Amsterdam,  most  of  whom  were  wealthy  and  respectable,  and  engaged  in 
commerce.  But  the  number  of  refugees  was  alarmingly  increased  by  the  recall 
of  the  edict.  Within  a  few  years,  nearly  one  million  of  individuals  went  into 
exile ;  in  one  season,  the  Prince  of  Orange  raised  three  regiments  and  manned 

35 


410 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


three  ships  of  war  with  French  Protestants.  Not  less  than  twenty  millions 
sterling  of  property  left  the  country  ;  and.  in  the  loss  of  her  active  and  enter¬ 
prising  population,  France  suffered  the  worst  consequences  of  civil  war.  In  the 
course  of  five  years,  the  inhabitants  of  Tours  had  dwindled  away  from  eighty 
to  thirty  thousand.  The  silk  manufacturers,  so  hospitably  received  in  England, 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  great  works  of  Spitalfields  ;  and  Picardy  Place  in 
Edinburgh  still  marks  the  site  of  the  factories  there  established. 

Louis  was  at  this  time  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Europe,  and  the 
necessity  of  restraining  his  encroachments  was  felt  by  every  surrounding 
state.  The  Grand  Alliance  of  1689,  the  result  of  the  elevation  of  Wil¬ 
liam  of  Orange  to  the  English  throne,  included  the  Emperor,  Holland, 
Spain,  the  northern  powers,  and  Savoy.  The  French  king  sent  two 
large  armies  into  Flanders;  a  third  was  opposed  to  the  Spaniards  in 
Catalonia;  reinforcements  were  given  to  James  II.  in  Ireland ;  while  his 
troops  in  Germany  perpetrated  one  of  the  most  barbarous  deeds  on 
record,  in  the  wanton  destruction  of  the  Palatinate.  In  1691,  his  fleet 
defeated  the  combined  English  and  Dutch  off  Beachy-head ;  but  the 
conquerors  in  their  turn  were  vanquished  near  La  Hogue  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  year.  The  forces  of  the  allies,  commanded  by  the  King  of  England, 
were  worsted  by  Luxembourg  at  Landen,  1693  ;  while  Catinat  overthrew 
the  Duke  of  Savoy  near  the  river  Cisola.  Meanwhile,  the  resources 
of  France  were  becoming  exhausted;  agriculture  and  commerce  lan¬ 
guished  ;  and  the  two  following  campaigns  were  indecisive.  All  parties 
being  now  tired  of  hostilities,  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  was  at  length  con¬ 
cluded,  Louis  acknowledging  the  title  of  William  III.,  and  restoring  his 
principal  conquests,  1697. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 

Spain. — Philip  III.,  1598,  was  not  destitute  of  amiable  qualities,  but 
he  was  excessively  indolent,  and  fully  equalled  *his  father  in  intolerance. 
The  chief  circumstances  of  his  reign  were  the  virtual  recognition  of  the 
independence  of  the  United  Provinces  by  a  truce  of  twelve  years,  1609, 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain.  The  former  event  was 
brought  about  not  less  by  the  heroic  resistance  of  the  Netherlanders,  than 
by  the  absolute  exhaustion  of  his  resources.  As  if  desirous  of  consum¬ 
mating  the  ruin  of  his  kingdom,  he  yielded  so  far  to  the  Inquisition  and 
the  advice  of  his  feeble  and  bigoted  minister,  the  Duke  of  Lerma,  as  to 
issue  an  edict  commanding  all  his  Mohammedan  subjects  to  leave  it 
within  thirty  days,  1610.  The  Moors,  in  despair,  flew  to  arms  ;  they 
were  subdued,  and  a  million  of  industrious  subjects  driven  into  exile. 

Philip  IV.,  1621,  possessed  even  less  energy  than  his  predecessor, 
and  was  entirely  controlled  by  his  minister  Olivarez,  a  man  of  some 
ability,  but  conceited  and  ambitious.  While  the  resources  of  the  coun¬ 
try  were  daily  declining,  and  agriculture  and  trade  suffered  from  exces¬ 
sive  imposts,  this  politician  resolved  upon  plunging  into  war,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  discontent  of  all  classes  of  the  people.  His  intrigues  were 
among  the  causes  which  led  to  the  sanguinary  contests  in  Germany  ter¬ 
minated  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  and  to  the  struggle  with  France 
till  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  ten  years  later.  All  his  measures  were 
eminently  disastrous.  The  English  took  Jamaica  and  Dunkirk;  while 
the  French  signally  defeated  his  forces  on  the  plains  of  Rocroi.  A  dan¬ 
gerous  insurrection  in  Catalonia  was  followed  in  1640  by  the  revolt  of 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


411 


Portugal.  In  consequence  of  this  vicious  administration,  the  country 
became  so  poor  that  the  government  was  compelled  to  have  recourse  to 
copper  money,  to  which  a  value  was  attached  equal  to  that  of  silver.  To 
complete  the  humiliation  of  Philip,  the  independence  of  Holland  was 
fully  acknowledged,  1643. 

Portugal. — The  revolution  which  restored  the  independence  of  Por¬ 
tugal  was  brought  about  mainly  by  the  weakness  of  Spain.  The  people 
had  Ion  g  been  exasperated  by  the  despotism  of  their  foreign  rulers  ;  the 
want  of  troops  had  compelled  Olivarez  to  withdraw  great  part  of  the 
garrison  from  Lisbon;  and  the  country  at  'large  was  occupied  by  a  very 
small  force.  When  the  revolt  took  place  in  Catalonia,  orders  came  from 
Madrid  for  the  Portuguese  nobility  to  take  arms  for  its  suppression.  But 
a  plot  which  had  long  existed  now  broke  out.  The  conspirators,  headed 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Lisbon,  met  in  st  cret,  and  resolved  on  the  eleva- 
ion  of  their  legitimate  prince,  the  duke  of  Braganza,  to  the  throne.  He 
was  accordingly  proclaimed  king  by  the  title  of  John  IV.,  1640,  the 
whole  nation  at  once  eagerly  acknowledging  him.  A  similar  revolution 
was  accomplished  with  equal  facility  in  all  the  colonies  in  India  and 
Africa. 

The  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  1659,  left  Spain  free  to  attempt  the  reco¬ 
very  of  Portugal,  which  was  obliged  to  form  a  defensive  alliance  with 
England.  Alphonso  VI.  had  succeeded  his  father  in  1656.  and  strength- 
ened  his  position  by  marrying  his  sister,  the  Infanta  Catherine,  to  Charles 
the  Second.  France  also  felt  it  to  be  her  interest  to  support  the  cause 
of  the  Portuguese  against  Spain.  In  the  course  of  the  war,  which  was 
vigorously  conducted  on  both  sides,  Alphonso  was  forced  to  abdicate  in 
favour  of  his  brother,  Peter  II.,  who  immediately  concluded  a  peace 
with  the  Spanish  monarch,  by  which  the  independence  of  his  own  coun¬ 
try  was  acknowledged,  1668.  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  was  succeeded  by 
his  infant  son,  Charles  II.,  in  1665,  the  queen-mother  being  appointed 
regent.  During  this  reign,  the  same  vicious -administration  prevailed 
which  had  already  been  so  disastrous  to  the  nation ;  its  internal  affairs 
were  reduced  to  the  most  miserable  condition,  and  its  arms  abroad 
were  exposed  to  continual  reverses.  Three  successive  wars  with  France 
ended  severally  in  the  treaties  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1668;  Nimeguen, 
1678;  and  Ryswick,  1697,  at  each  of  which  Spain  was  compelled  to 
resign  some  portion  of  her  territories  in  Flanders  to  her  powerful  and 
ambitious  neighbour. 


ITALIAN  PENINSULA. 

The  Reformation  entirely  destroyed  the  political  importance  of  Italy. 
Vhe  Pope  was  no  longer  a  sovereign  whose  alliance  could  turn  the  fate 
>f  a  campaign;  and  Spain,  mistress  of  the  Two  Sicilies  and  of  the  Mi¬ 
lanese,  dictated  to  the  other  petty  states  of  the  peninsula.  In  1647, 
Naples  was  the  scene  of  a  remarkable  event.  It  was  governed  by  depu¬ 
ties  appointed  by  the  court  of  Madrid,  whose  cruelties  and  extortions  at 
length  drove  the  people  to  insurrection.  A  fisherman,  named  Massa- 
niello,  who  put  himself  at  their  head,  was  raised  to  the  supreme  power; 
but,  intoxicated  or  maddened  by  his  elevation,  he  indulged  in  such  ex¬ 
cesses  as  led  to  his  speedy  abandonment  by  his  own  partisans,  and  he 
was  assassinated  by  the  viceroy’s  orders.  The  Neapolitans  then  placed 


412 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  Duke  of  “Guise,  who  was  not-— 
expelled  without  difficulty.  Similar  causes  led  to  a  rebellion  at  Messina 
in  1674,  the  citizens  proclaiming  Louis  XIV.  king  of  Sicily.  A  naval 
war  followed  in  the  Mediterranean;  but,  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen, 
1678,  the  Messenese  were  abandoned  to  the  mercy  of  their  former  mas¬ 
ters. 

Venice. — In  1624,  a  law  was  passed  in  this  republic,  bestowing  the 
exclusive  jurisdiction  over  patricians,  in  criminal  matters,  on  the  Council 
of  Ten.  The  senate  made  a  vigorous  resistance  to  the  claims  of  Paul 
V.,  by  forbidding  the  erection  of  additional  monasteries,  or  the  alienation 
of  property  for  spiritual  purposes  without  the  consent  of  government ; 
they  also  successfully  vindicated  their  sovereignty  over  the  Adriatic, 
which,  with  the  connivance  of  Austria,  had  been  infested  by  Dalmatian 
pirates.  In  the  latter  half  of  this  century,  the  republic  carried  on  two 
wars  with  Turkey.  The  first,  in  Candia,  was  protracted  twenty-five 
years,  and  closed  in  1669  by  the  capitulation  of  the  chief  city,  after  a 
heroic  resistance,  and  the  loss  of  the  island.  In  the  second  contest,  how¬ 
ever,  commencing  in  1684,  the  commonwealth  reconquered  the  Morea; 
and  in  1699,  that  province,  with  the  isles  of  Egina  and  Santa  Maura, 
and  several  fortresses  in  Dalmatia,  were  secured  to  her  by  the  peace  of 
Carlowitz.  But  the  resources  of  Venice  were  exhausted,  and  the  affec¬ 
tions  of  the  Greeks  alienated  by  an  unseasonable  zeal  against  the  Eastern 
church.  The  Turks  took  advantage  of  the  dissatisfaction  thus  created; 
and  a  war  commenced  in  1715,  ending  with  the  peace  of  Passarowitz, 
1718,  whereby  Greece  once  more  returned  to  its  Mohammedan  masters. 

GERMANY. 

Rudolph  II.  was  succeeded,  in  161*2,  by  his  brother  Matthias,  who 
had  already  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  This 
prince  had  hitherto  favoured  the  Lutherans;  but  the  liberal  spirit  gene¬ 
rated  by  their  principles  being  opposed  to  the  despotic  maxims  of  the 
house  of  Austria,  he  now  resolved  to  curb  them ;  and,  with  this  view,  a 
family  compact  was  formed  with  Spain,  while  his  cousin  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Styria,  was  chosen  successor  to  the  crowns  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia.  The  subjects  of  the  latter  w*ere  soon  in  open  insurrection,  in 
consequence  of  the  intolerant  proceedings  of  the  Bishop  of  Prague,  who 
had  demolished  several  Protestant  places  of  worship ;  and  a  general 
feeling  of  distrust  was  excited  throughout  Germany.  This  was  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  a  sanguinary  and  protracted  conflict. 

Thirty  Years’  War. — Ferdinand  II.  succeeded  Matthias  in  the 
imperial  dignity,  1619.  The  Bohemians,  however,  having  been  refused 
satisfaction  for  the  outrages  committed  on  their  churches,  declared  theii 
crown  vacant,  and  offered  it  to  Frederick  V.,  elector-palatine,  who,  con¬ 
trary  to  the  advice  of  his  father-in-law,  James  I.  of  England,  agreed  to 
accept  it.  He  was  supported  by  most  of  the  Protestant  princes  of  the 
empire,  by  a  body  of  British  and  Dutch  auxiliaries,  and  by  Bethlehem 
Gabor,  prince  of  Transylvania ;  while  the  Catholic  electors  and  the  King 
of  Spain  were  ranged  on  the  side  of  Ferdinand.  Spinola,  then  com¬ 
manding  the  Spanish  forces  in  the  Low  Countries,  led  24,000  men  into 
the  palatinate;  and  Frederick  himself  was  defeated  at  the  White  Moun¬ 
tain,  near  Prague,  by  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  1620.  He  and  his  adherents 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


413 


were  put  to  the  ban  of  the  empire ;  and  his  dominions  having  been  en¬ 
tirely  overrun  by  Count  Tilly,  the  Bavarian  prince  received  the  dignity 
of  elector.  Another  Protestant  confederacy,  1625,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  having  in  viewr  the  restoration  of  the 
palatinate,  was  equally  unfortunate.  In  two  successive  campaigns,  the 
imperial  troops,  led  by  Tilly  and  Wallenstein,  were  everywhere  triumph¬ 
ant;  Christian  was  driven  into  his  hereditary  dominions,  and  forced  to 
sue  for  peace,  1629. 

The  emperor,  flushed  with  success,  now  conceited  that  he  had  found 
a  favourable  opportunity  for  reducing  the  German  princes  to  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  nobles  in  other  countries  ;  but  he  resolved  to  begin  with  the  Pro¬ 
testants.  He  accordingly  abolished  the  exercise  of  their  religion  in 
Bohemia,  exiled  or  put  to  death  their  leaders,  confiscating  their  property  ; 
seven  hundred  noble  families  were  proscribed,  while  the  common  people 
were  forced  to  conform  to  the  Romish  worship.  In  Germany,  however, 
he  proceeded  more  cautiously.  He  began  by  excluding  the  Calvinists 
from  the  benefits  of  the  general  toleration  formerly  granted,  and  passed 
an  edict  commanding  the  restoration  of  the  church  lands  seized  by  the 
Protestant  princes  subsequently  to  the  treaty  of  Passau.  Even  the 
Catholic  electors  opposed  the  execution  of  this  edict,  having  themselves 
also  obtained  no  small  amount  of  ecclesiastical  property ;  and  the  diet 
held  at  Ratisbon  insisted  that  the  emperor  should  reduce  his  army  and 
dismiss  his  commander  Wallenstein,  who  had  become  hateful  by  his 
arrogance  and  the  disorders  of  his  troops. 

Meanwhile,  the  Protestants  had  formed  a  secret  alliance  with  Gusta- 
vus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  who  resolved  to  take  up  arms  in  defence 
of  religious  toleration,  1630.  Cardinal  Richelieu  engaged  to  furnish 
him  with  an  annual  subsidy  of  1,200,000  livres;  he  was  joined  by  6000 
men  under  the  Marquis  of  Hamilton ;  and  numerous  volunteers  from 
Britain  repaired  to  his  standard.  On  the  first  appearance  of  Gustavus  in 
Pomerania,  the  Protestant  princes  hesitated  to  join  him ;  but  the  energy 
and  success  of  his  operations  speedily  secured  their  adherence.  In  the 
course  of  eight  months,  he  had  taken  eighty  fortified  places  ;  and,  being 
joined  by  the  troops  of  Saxony,  he  advanced  towards  Leipsic,  and  pre¬ 
pared  to  encounter  the  imperialists  under  Tilly.  The  hostile  armies 
met  on  the  7th  December  1631 ;  the  battle  was  long  and  obstinately 
contested  ;  but  at  length  the  skill  of  the  Swedish  monarch  and  the  valour 
of  his  soldiers  gained  a  complete  victory.  The  whole  country  was  now 
rapidly  overrun  :  Tilly,  disputing  the  passage  of  the  Lech,  was  killed, 
1632;  and  Gustavus  entered  Munich  in  triumph.  Wallenstein  was 
again  put  at  the  head  of  the  imperial  forces;  he  succeeded  in  recovering 
several  places  taken  by  the  enemy,  and  eventually  engaged  Gustavus  at 
Lutzen,  where  the  Swedes  gained  another  victory,  too  dearly  bought 
with  the  life  of  their  heroic  sovereign,  1632. 

Notwithstanding  the  dismay  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Gustavus,  the 
contest  continued  to  be  prosecuted  with  vigour  till  1634,  when  the  severe 
defeat  of  the  Swedes  at  Nordlingen  revived  the  hopes  of  Austria.  The 
German  princes  now  made  a  separate  treaty  with  Ferdinand,  in  which 
he  departed  from  his  former  demands  as  to  the  church  property ;  and  the 
weight  of  the  war  fell  upon  the  Swedes  and  French.  Ferdinand  III. 
succeeded  his  father  in  1637 ;  and,  though  naturally  a  wise  and  temper¬ 
ate  prince,  he  felt  himself  under  the  necessity  of  pursuing  the  same 

35* 


414 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


policy.  In  the  four  following  campaigns,  the  fortune  of  war  was  de¬ 
cidedly  against  the  imperialists;  and  in  1641,  the  Swedish  general, 
Banier,  had  nearly  taken  the  emperor  prisoner  while  holding  a  diet  at 
Ratisbon.  Ferdinand’s  armies  were  defeated  one  after  another;  his 
family  were  forced  to  flee  from  Vienna ;  and  at  length  the  victory  of 
Zummerhausen,  gained  by  Turenne  and  Vrangel,  compelled  him  to 
think  seriously  of  terminating  the  contest.  This  was  finally  brought 
about  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  1648,  which  secured  some  important 
advantages  to  France  and  Sweden.  By  this  celebrated  treaty,  the  Lu¬ 
therans  and  Catholics  were  placed  on  a  footing  of  equality ;  six  Pro¬ 
testants  were  to  be  admitted  into  the  Auiic  Council,  and  equal  numbers 
of  each  party  were  to  be  summoned  to  the  diet  and  to  have  seats  in  the 
Imperial  Chamber. 

The  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  was  spent  in  tranquillity  ;  his 
death  took  place  in  1657.  His  son,  Leopold  I.,  had  been  proclaimed 
King  of  Hungary  in  1655;  of  Bohemia  in  1657  ;  and  notwithstanding 
the  rivalry  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  chosen  emperor  in  1659.  The  Turks, 
having  made  an  inroad  into  the  former  country,  were  defeated,  and  a 
truce  of  twenty  years  concluded.  But  the  intolerance  of  the  Austrian 
court  constantly  furnished  matter  of  irritation  to  the  Hungarians;  and, 
in  168*2,  the  malcontents  broke  out  into  open  insurrection,  under  Count 
Tekeli,  whose  father  had  previously  been  executed  for  a  conspiracy, 
along  with  some  other  noblemen.  The  rebel  was  immediately  acknow¬ 
ledged  by  the  Porte  as  Prince  of  Hungary,  tributary  to  the  sultan ;  and, 
regardless  of  the  truce,  the  vizier  joined  him  with  an  army  of  150,000 
men.*  The  confederates,  having  defeated  the  imperial  troops  near 
Raab,  advanced  to  Vienna,  which  was  invested  on  the  15th  July  1683 ; 
a  long  and  desperate  siege  was  nearly  terminated  by  its  loss,  when  at 
length  the  Poles,  under  John  Sobieski,  appeared  for  its  deliverance. 
On  the  l*2th  September,  the  Turks  were  defeated  under  the  walls  of  the 
city  ;  two  or  three  well-fought  campaigns  drove  them  out  of  Hungary ; 
and,  with  the  view  of  humbling  the  nobility  of  that  country,  the  crown 
was  declared  no  longer  elective,  but  hereditary  in  the  house  of  Aus¬ 
tria,  Joseph,  Leopold’s  son,  being  ordained  king,  1687.  The  Turkish 
contest  was  at  length  concluded,  after  a  complete  victory  gained  by 
Prince  Eugene  near  Zenta,  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  1697. 

During  this  century  Leopold  took  part  in  two  wars  against  Louis 
XIV.,  which  have  already  been  noticed  under  the  head  France.  The 
last  of  these,  disgraced  by  the  most  atrocious  cruelty  on  the  part  of  the 
French  generals,  was  ended  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  1697.  The  reign 
of  this  emperor  was  signalized  by  the  establishment  of  a  ninth  electorate 
in  favour  of  Ernest  Augustus,  duke  of  Brunswick  and  Luneburg,  who 
became  the  first  Elector  of  Hanover,  1692;  and  by  the  assumption  of 
the  regal  title  by  Frederick,  elector  of  Brandenburg  and  Duke  of  Prus¬ 
sia,  in  1701.  A  permanent  diet  was  also  established,  attended  not  by 
the  electors  in  person  hut  by  their  representatives. 

HOLLAND. 

After  the  battle  of  Tumhout,  Philip  II.,  who  had  begun  to  suspect  the 
hopelessness  of  the  contest,  transferred  the  sovereignty  of  the  Low 


*  It  came  to  be  known  afterwards  that  Louis  XIV.,  imitating  his  predecessor,  Francis 
was  the  chief  instigator  of  this  Turkish  invasion  of  Austria. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


415 


Countries  to  his  daughter  Isabella,  and  her  husband  the  Archduke  Al¬ 
bert;  but,  as  the  northern  states  refused  to  acknowledge  these  new  rulers, 
the  war  continued  to  be  prosecuted  with  vigour  both  by  sea  and  land. 
Great  part  of  the  Portuguese  East  India  trade  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  who  had  become  at  least  the  second  maritime  state  in  Europe. 
Prince  Maurice  of  Orange,  acknowledged  to  be  the  first  captain  of  his 
day,  defeated  the  forces  of  the  archduke  near  Ostend,  1600;  and  the 
siege  of  that  city,  four  years  after,  cost  the  Spaniards  nearly  70,000  men. 
Spinola,  now  made  commander-in-chief,  after  two  fruitless  campaigns, 
at  length  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  conquest  of  the  United  Provinces 
was  impracticable ;  and  Philip  III.  agreed  to  sign  a  truce  of  twelve 
years,  1609. 

Synod  of  Dort,  1618.  —  The  republic  had  hardly  secured  external 
peace,  ere  it  began  to  be  troubled  with  domestic  dissensions ;  religion 
being,  as  elsewhere  in  this  age,  the  ostensible  matter  of  dispute.  The 
disagreements  in  question  arose  out  of  a  difference  of  opinion  between 
two  professors  of  divinity  at  Leyden,  Francis  Gomar  and  James  Armi- 
nius ;  the  former  of  whom  maintained  the  tenets  of  Calvin  in  their  most 
rigorous  form,  while  the  latter  advocated  a  milder  system.  But  this 
religious  schism  was  not  unconnected  with  political  motives.  The 
Prince  of  Orange,  with  the  established  church  and  the  majority  of  the 
people,  were  Gomarists ;  the  Arminian  party  wras  chiefly  supported  by 
the  Grand  Pensioner  Barneveldt  and  the  higher  classes,  who  suspected 
the  ambitious  designs  of  Maurice;  and  both  parties  sought,  under  colour 
of  these  polemical  contests,  to  forward  their  respective  views.  Riots 
and  disorders  broke  out  in  various  places,  and  the  Gomarists  loudly 
clamoured  for  a  national  synod  to  settle  the  differences;  which  accord¬ 
ingly  met  at  Dort  in  November  1618.  This  body,  as  might  be  expected, 
secured  the  triumph  of  the  prince  and  his  party  :  the  Arminian  preachers 
were  banished ;  the  patriotic  Barneveldt,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two,  was 
brought  to  the  block,  Grotius  and  others  wTere  thrown  into  prison,  and 
their  followers  were  in  general  treated  with  great  cruelty  and  injustice. 

The  decisions  of  this  assembly  excited  the  utmost  horror  and  disgust 
throughout  Protestant  Europe ;  and  the  reaction  in  Holland  itself  might 
have  proved  fatal  to  the  ascendency  of  Maurice,*  had  not  the  resumption 
of  hostilities  with  Spain  rendered  his  military  services  indispensable  to 
the  safety  of  the  republic,  1621.  The  prince  was  opposed  to  his  old 
rival,  Spinola,  and  conducted  the  warlike  operations  with  great  skill  till 
his  death  in  1625.  Frederick  Henry  succeeded  to  all  his  brother’s 
titles  and  employments,  and  commenced  his  career  by  exercising  various 
acts  of  clemency  in  favour  of  the  persecuted  Arminians,  while  he  nobly 
sustained  in  the  field  the  high  military  reputation  of  his  family.  Plis 
son,  William  II.,  became  stadtholder  in  1647;  and,  in  the  following 
year,  this  long  contest  was  brought  to  a  termination.  By  a  treaty  signed 
at  Munster,  Spain  fully  recognised  the  independence  of  the  United  Pro¬ 
vinces,  and  abandoned  all  the  places  she  possessed  in  Brabant  and 
Flanders.  Ever  regardful  of  commercial  interests,  the  Dutch  insisted 
upon  closing  the  Scheldt,  by  which  Antwerp  was  ruined  and  the  com¬ 
merce  of  the  remaining  Spanish  provinces  excluded  fiom  the  sea. 

After  a  brief  and  inglorious  rule,  distinguished  merely  by  an  abortive 
attempt  to  render  his  power  absolute,  William  II.  died  in  1650,  leaving 
the  state  without  a  stadtholder  and  the  army  without  a  chief.  The  birth 


416 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


of  a  son  by  the  widowed  princess,  a  week  after,  did  not  prevent  a  resump¬ 
tion  of  most  of  the  sovereign  prerogatives  by  the  people ;  and  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  military  force  now  devolved  on  the  states-general.  About 
this  time  the  English  parliament  passed  the  celebrated  Navigation  Act, 
which,  though  expressed*  in  general  terms,  was  specially  directed  against 
the  commerce  of  Holland,  and  gave  rise  to  a  sanguinary  naval  war  be¬ 
tween  the  two  republics,  in  which  Van  Tromp  and  De  Ruyter  were 
compelled  to  yield  to  Blake,  Dean,  and  Monk,  1652,  1654.  In  the  paci¬ 
fication  which  followed,  the  Dutch,  besides  consenting  to  strike  their 
flag  to  the  English,  were  compelled  to  promise  that  neither  the  infant 
Prince  of  Orange  nor  any  of  his  family  should  ever  be  elevated  to  the 
dignity  of  stadtholder.  In  1664,  after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  the 
national  jealousy  of  Holland,  and  the  cupidity  of  the  monarch,  again 
plunged  the  two  countries  into  war.  The  Pensioner  De  Witt,  who  now 
directed  the  affairs  of  the  republic,  foreseeing  the  designs  of  England, 
had  formed  an  alliance  with  France;  several  desperate  sea-fights  took 
place,  with  varied  success;  in  1665,  Admiral  Opdam  was  totally  de¬ 
feated  by  the  Duke  of  York,  while,  in  1667,  a  Dutch  fleet  sailed  up  the 
Thames,  and  burned  several  ships  of  war  at  Chatham.  The  treaty  of 
Breda,  concluded  the  same  year,  at  length  terminated  this  absurd  and 
fruitless  war. 

The  general  alarm  excited  by  the  invasion  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1672, 
effected  an  immediate  revolution  in  Holland.  In  a  paroxysm  of  popular 
phrensy,  the  great  and  good  De  Witt  and  his  brother  were  torn  to  pieces, 
and  William  III.,  now  twenty -two  years  of  age,  and  conspicuous  for 
the  abilities  which  had  distinguished  his  race,  was  raised  to  his  father’s 
dignities,  with  even  greater  powers.  The  heroic  defence  conducted  by 
the  young  prince  has  already  been  noticed  under  the  head  of  France. 
Peace  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  1678;  and,  in  1689, 
William,  who  was  nephew  of  James  II.,  and  the  husband  of  his  daugh¬ 
ter  Mary,  became  King  of  England,  and  brought  the  great  resources  of 
his  new  sovereignty  to  restrain  the  renewed  encroachments  of  the  French 
monarch. 

DENMARK. 

Christian  IV.,  1588,  reigned  several  years  in  profound  tranquillity; 
but  his  warlike  disposition  displayed  itself  in  a  contest  with  Sweden 
about  the  right  to  the  barren  soil  of  Lapland,  1611-1613.  For  some 
time  after  the  conclusion  of  peace,  the  king  applied  his  talents  to  pro¬ 
mote  the  commercial  interests  of  his  country;  but,  in  1625,  he  was  in¬ 
duced  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Protestant  league  for  the  rein¬ 
statement  of  the  elector-palatine.  After  some  temporary  successes,  the 
fortune  of  war  turned  so  decidedly  against  him,  that  he  was  obliged  to 
sign  a  humiliating  peace,  1629.  During  the  course  of  hostilities  in 
Germany,  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  certain  unfriendly 
demonstrations  on  the  part  of  this  king  led  to  a  contest  with  Sweden. 
In  a  naval  engagement  near  the  Isle  of  Laaland,  the  combined  Swedish 
and  Dutch  fleets  defeated  his  armament  with  great  loss,  1644;  and  next 
year,  after  some  farther  operations  by  land,  a  peace  was  concluded, 
exempting  Sweden  from  the  payment  of  the  Sound  dues,  and  securing 
other  important  advantages  to  that  country. 

Frederick  III.,  1648,  engaged  in  a  contest  with  Sweden,  whose 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


417 


sovereign,  Charles  Gustavus,  invaded  and  overran  his  dominions ;  and 
he  was  at  length  forced,  by  the  treaty  of  Copenhagen,  1660,  to  cede 
several  important  districts.  He  was  consoled  for  these  reverses  by  an 
act  of  the  three  estates  of  the  realm,  who,  in  the  same  year,  proclaimed 
him  and  his  successors  absolute  sovereigns  of  Denmark,  and  established 
the  fundamental  law  of  settlement  which  still  prevails.  Christian  V. 
succeeded  his  father  in  1670,  and  shortly  after  joined  in  a  league  against 
the  Swedes,  which  led  to  a  sanguinary  war,  the  rival  princes  frequently 
heading  their  troops  in  person.  The  treaty  of  Fontainebleau,  1679,  led 
to  the  re-establishment  of  peace  ;  and,  in  1689,  the  convention  of  Altona 
settled  a  long-pending  dispute  between  Denmark  and  the  Duke  of  Hol¬ 
stein.  During  this  reign,  a  West  India  Company  was  established,  and 
settlements  made  in  the  West  Indies  and  Tranquebar  in  Hindostan, 
while  the  attention  of  the  monarch  to  manufactures  and  commerce,  and 
the  improvement  effected  by  him  in  the  condition  of  the  humbler  classes, 
contributed  even  more  than  his  military  talents  to  render  him  the  idol 
of  his  people.  Frederick  IV.,  1699,  renewed  hostilities  with  Sweden, 
which  were  brought  to  a  successful  close  by  the  peace  of  Stockholm, 
1720, — the  claim  of  Denmark  to  the  sovereignty  of  Sleswick  being  fully 
recognised,  and  the  right  of  exemption  from  the  Sound  dues  abandoned 
by  the  others. 

SWEDEN. 

Charles  IX.  expired  in  1611,  leaving  the  sceptre  to  his  son,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  then  only  seventeen  years  of  age.  A  war  with  Denmark,  in 
which  his  father  had  been  engaged,  was  terminated  by  the  young  prince 
in  1613  at  Knaerod,  to  the  satisfaction  of  both  parties.  Meanwhile,  he 
restored  the  exhausted  finances,  filled  his  ports  with  ships,  disciplined 
the  army,  and  already  gave  promise  of  the  highest  political  and  military 
genius.  The  deposed  monarch,  Sigismund  of  Poland,  had  not  ventured, 
during  the  lifetime  of  his  uncle,  to  disturb  the  settlement  in  Sweden  ; 
but  the  inexperience  of  the  youthful  ruler  encouraged  him  to  renew  his 
claims  on  the  crown.  He  accordingly  invaded  the  country  in  behalf  of 
his  son  Ladislaus,  then  a  minor ;  but  this  war  only  served  to  develop  the 
great  talents  of  Gustavus  and  the  bravery  and  attachment  of  his  people. 
He  defeated  the  Czar  of  Russia,  who  had  taken  up  arms  as  the  ally  of 
his  rival,  and  also  Sigismund  himself ;  and  at  length,  by  the  mediation 
of  England  and  Holland,  a  peace  was  concluded  in  1629,  by  which  the 
right  of  the  young  monarch  w^as  secured,  and  the  important  town  of 
Riga,  with  great  part  of  Livonia,  annexed  to  his  territory.  The  high 
character  acquired  by  Gustavus  in  these  operations  now  fixed  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  Europe  ;  and  the  persecuted  Protestants  of  Germany  looked  to 
him  eagerly  for  support  and  protection.  He  had  a  rational  attachment 
for  the  reformed  doctrine,  and  regarded  with  horror  the  atrocious  cruel¬ 
ties  inflicted  on  its  professors  in  Bohemia  ;  while  the  arrogant  ambition 
of  Ferdinand,  w’ho  did  not  conceal  his  intention  of  subjugating  Scandi¬ 
navia  itself,  added  the  motive  of  personal  interest  to  his  dislike  to  the 
house  of  Austria.  He  accordingly  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Lu¬ 
therans,  1630,  and  began  that  career  of  victor}7  which  has  been  noticed 
under  Germany,  terminated  by  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  1632,  where  he  fell 
at  the  very  moment  when  the  army  of  the  empire  recoiled  before  the 
valour  of  his  troops. 


418 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


The  crown  now  devolved  on  his  daughter  Christiana,  a  child  five 
years  of  age.  During  her  minority,  the  government  was  administered 
by  a  regency,  at  the  head  of  which  was  the  Chancellor  Oxenstiern,  an 
experienced  and  enlightened  statesman,  by  whom  the  war  in  Germany 
was  carried  on  sixteen  years  longer.  The  queen  took  affairs  into  her 
own  hands  in  1644,  when  she  speedily  brought  the  hostilities  with  Den¬ 
mark  to  a  successful  termination,  and,  though  contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
her  minister  and  others,  pressed  on  a  peace  with  the  emperor.  She 
eventually  became  a  chief  party  in  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  1648,  by 
which,  in  consequence  of  the  victories  of  her  troops,  she  received  several 
millions  of  dollars,  the  cession  of  Pomerania,  Bremen,  Verden,  and  Wis- 
mar,  and  three  votes  in  the  Germanic  diet.  The  character  of  this  prin¬ 
cess  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  on  record  :  she  possessed  but  little 
of  the  gentler  qualities  of  her  sex,  affecting  the  society  of  scholars  and 
learned  men,  and  displaying  almost  a  mania  for  the  collection  of  books, 
medals,  and  philosophical  instruments.  Grotius,  Descartes,  the  fore¬ 
runner  of  the  modern  philosophy,  as  also  D'Herbelot  and  Bochart,  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  their  oriental  studies,  experienced  her  protection.  In  her 
twenty-eighth  year,  with  the  wish,  apparently,  of  indulging  her  tastes 
or  caprices  at  perfect  liberty,  she  formed  the  singular  resolution  of  re¬ 
signing  her  crown  and  retiring  into  private  life  ;  and  this  event  took  place 
with  great  solemnity  in  May  1654,  her  cousin  Charles  Gustavus  be¬ 
coming  her  successor  by  the  title  of  Charles  X. 

The  Swedes  were  now  gradually  losing  much  of  their  warlike  cha¬ 
racter,  and,  with  the  view  of  sustaining  the  military  reputation  of  his 
kingdom,  the  new  monarch,  after  putting  the  finances  in  a  better  condi¬ 
tion,  resolved  on  a  war  with  Poland,  the  sovereign  of  which  had 
offended  him  by  a  reassertion  of  his  right  to  the  Swedish  throne.  At 
the  head  of  the  veteran  bands  of  Adolphus,  he  rapidly  overran  that  coun¬ 
try,  the  terrified  Casimir  being  compelled  to  take  flight;  but  the  Poles, 
aided  by  Russia,  speedily  rallied  in  defence  of  their  national  independ¬ 
ence.  Frederick  III.  of  Denmark  having  at  the  same  time  taken  up 
arms  against  him,  Charles  effected  a  retreat  through  Pomerania,  invaded 
Holstein,  and  speedily  subdued  the  whole  peninsula  of  Jutland.  The 
Dane  was  forced  to  conclude  a  humiliating  peace  at  Roskilde,  1658  ;  but 
Charles,  who  seems  to  have  been  bent  on  the  entire  subjugation  of  that 
country,  again  invaded  it  in  the  following  year.  In  the  midst  of  these 
ambitious  schemes,  however,  he  was  suddenly  cut  off,  1660,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  son  Charles  XI.,  th,en  a  minor.  Peace  was  now  con¬ 
cluded  on  all  hands  :  that  of  Oliva  terminated  the  feud  between  the  Ca¬ 
tholic  and  Protestant  branches  of  the  house  of  Yassa;  the  negotiation 
of  Kardis  put  an  end  to  the  war  with  Russia ;  while  the  contest  with 
Denmark  was  closed  by  the  treaty  of  Copenhagen,  which  mainly  con¬ 
firmed  the  previous  conditions,  of  1658.  On  attaining  majority,  Charles 
became  a  member  of  the  triple  alliance  for  restraining  the  encroachments 
of  Louis  XIY. ;  but  being  speedily  detached  from  it  by  the  intrigues  of 
the  latter  monarch,  he  found  himself  again  involved  in  a  war  with  Den 
mark  and  with  Holland,  which  was  terminated  in  1679,  by  the  compact 
at  Fontainebleau,  the  Swedish  monarch  receiving  in  marriage  the 
Danish  Princess  Ulrica  Eleanora.  Charles  now  applied  himself  to 
the  internal  affairs  of  his  government,  reforming  the  abuses  which  had 
crept  into  the  administration,  and  adjusting  the  imposts  and  burdens  to 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


419 


which  so  long  a  period  of  military  conflict  had  subjected  the  people. 
Some  of  these  measures  gave  great  offence  to  the  nobility,  and  they 
attempted  to  remonstrate  against  them  ;  but  their  opposition  only  tended 
to  hasten  the  downfall  of  the  aristocratic  order,  an  act  being  passed  by 
the  states  in  1693  declaring  the  king  absolute.*  The  remainder  of  this 
monarch’s  life  was  passed  in  the  praiseworthy  endeavour  to  establish 
peace  in  Europe,  the  congress  of  Ryswick  being  brought  about  in  a 
great  degree  by  his  mediation.  He  was  succeeded  in  1697,  by  his  son 
Charles  XII.,  the  extraordinary  events  of  whose  career,  however,  be¬ 
long  to  the  next  century. 

POLAND. 

The  reign  of  Sigismund  III.  was  a  uniform  succession  of  errors,  re¬ 
sulting  from  the  intense  religious  bigotry  which  he  carried  into  all  his 
transactions.  Taking  advantage  of  troubles  in  Russia,  his  general  Zol- 
kiewski  invaded  that  country,  and  succeeded  in  having  his  son  Ladislaus 
proclaimed  czar,  1610;  but  the  Polish  monarch  having  refused  to  ratify 
the  liberal  conditions  then  granted,  the  Muscovites  flew  to  arms  and  ex¬ 
pelled  the  invaders,  allowing  them,  however,  to  retain  Smolensk  and 
other  provinces,  1618.  When  the  Bohemian  insurrection  broke  out, 
which  paved  the  way  for  the  thirty  years’  war,  he  naturally  sided  with 
Austria,  sending  a  force  into  Hungary  against  the  Prince  of  Transylva¬ 
nia  ;  but  this  interference  involved  Poland  in  hostilities  with  Turkey,  in 
which  General  Zolkiewski  was  slain,  1620.  In  a  peace  concluded  the 
following  year,  Moldavia  was  ceded  to  the  Moslem;  while  the  war  with 
Sweden,  carried  on  with  little  interruption  since  1618,  was  terminated 
by  the  cession  of  Livonia  to  that  country,  1629.  The  reign  of  this  sove¬ 
reign  sowed  the  seeds  of  future  calamities  for  Poland  :  the  free  spirit  of 
the  Reformation  was  stifled  by  his  intrigues ;  the  adherents  of  the  Greek 
church,  numerous  in  the  south-eastern  provinces,  were  exposed  to  much 
persecution ;  and  the  best  interests  of  the  country  sacrificed  to  the  endea¬ 
vour,  in  which  he  was  sufficiently  successful,  of  establishing  the  absolute 
ascendency  of  Popery.  Ladislaus  IV.,  1632,  was  elected  without  oppo¬ 
sition.  Immediately  after  his  coronation,  he  took  arms  against  the 
Muscovites,  who  had  invaded  his  frontiers,  defeated  them  in  battle,  and 
reduced  .several  towns.  These  successes  led  to  a  treaty  in  1634,  by 
which  the  terms  of  the  truce  in  1618  were  confirmed  ;  peace  was  also 
concluded  with  the  Turks,  and  the  suspension  of  hostilities  with  Sweden 
prolonged  for  twenty-six  years.  The  country,  therefore,  enjoyed  tran¬ 
quillity  during  the  remainder  of  his  reign,  while  his  virtuous  and  en¬ 
lightened  character,  and  aversion  to  religious  intolerance,  seemed  to 
promise  a  settlement  of  intestine  disorders. 

But  the  Jesuits  had  become  too  firmly  established  during  the  long 
administration  of  his  father,  to  enable  him  to  put  a  stop  to  their  persecu¬ 
tion  of  the  followers  of  the  Eastern  church  ;  and  the  results  of  this  un¬ 
happy  circumstance  were  soon  apparent  in  an  insurrection  which  broke 

*  It  is  a  striking  fact,  that  both  in  Sweden  and  Denmark  the  legal  establishment  of 
despotism  was  brought  about  by  the  deliberate  suffrages  of  the  people  stimulated  by  a 
hatred  of  the  aristocracy.  In  each  country  the  tyranny  of  this  class  seems  to  have  been 
carried  to  the  highest  pitch,  the  burghers  and  peasants  being  little  better  than  slaves  ; 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  changes,  though  different  from  the  course  pursued 
in  constitutional  states,  really  contributed  to  the  improvement  and  happiness  of  tho 
people  at  large. 


420 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


oat  among  the  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine  a  short  time  before  his  death, 
1648.*  Under  his  brother  and  successor,  John  Casimir,  this  rebellion 
raged  with  increased  fury,  the  Cossacks,  aided  by  the  Tartars  of  the 
Crimea,  committing  great  ravages  in  his  dominions;  and  in  1654  Alexis 
of  Muscovy  sent  a  numerous  army  to  their  assistance.  In  the  midst  of 
these  troubles  the  king  had  been  so  foolish  as  to  protest  at  Stockholm 
against  the  right  of  Charles  Gustavus  to  the  Swedish  crown;  and  that 
prince,  who  only  wanted  a  pretext  for  invading  Poland,  and  being  more* 
over  encouraged  by  some  discontented  noblemen,  speedily  made  himself 
master  of  the  distracted  country,  the  king  being  forced  to  take  refuge  in 
Silesia.  This  acquisition  might  have  been  permanent,  but  for  the  arro¬ 
gance  of  Charles,  who,  affecting  to  hold  the  territory  by  right  of  con¬ 
quest,  refused  to  convoke  the  diet  for  his  election.  In  consequence,  the 
people  exerted  themselves  vigorously  for  the  restoration  of  their  monarch ; 
and  the  Czar  of  Muscovy  having  concluded  a  truce  with  them,  the 
Swedes  were  compelled  to  evacuate  the  country.  The  Elector  of  Bran¬ 
denburg,  who  had  at  first  aided  this  invasion,  now  made  terms  with 
John,  and  turned  his  arms  against  his  former  allies ;  in  return  for  which 
he  was  declared  independent  of  the  Polish  crown,  1657.  Peace  was  at 
length  confirmed  in  1660,  by  which  the  king  resigned  his  claims  on 
Sweden,  and  matters  otherwise  were  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  be¬ 
fore  the  war. 

Meanwhile,  the  Cossacks  had  returned  to  their  duty  on  receiving 
ample  guarantees  for  their  religious  and  political  liberties ;  and  the 
hostilities  with  Muscovy,  renewed  in  1658,  were  terminated  in  1667  by 
a  treaty  which  deprived  Poland  of  the  acquisitions  she  had  made  during 
the  reign  of  Sigismund.  This  was  one  of  the  most  unfortunate  epochs 
in  the  history  of  that  country :  incessant  war  and  pestilence  depopulated 
the  land,  and  thousands  were  driven  into  exile  by  a  fanatical  persecution. 
John  Casimir  having  abdicated  in  1668,  was  succeeded  by  Michael, 
prince  Wisniowietzki,  who  was  reluctantly  compelled  to  accept  the 
crown,  and  whose  reign  was  constantly  disturbed  by  faction. j"  The 
Turks  at  this  time  invaded  Poland  with  an  immense  army;  and,  not¬ 
withstanding  prodigies  of  valour  and  military  skill  performed  by  the 
heroic  John  Sobieski,  they  succeeded  in  obtaining  possession  of  the 
Ukraine,  with  the  promise,  besides,  of  an  annual  tribute  of  *22,000  ducats, 
1672.  The  diet  were  indignant  at  these  humiliating  conditions;  the 
war  still  continued  ;  and,  in  1673,  Sobieski  gained  a  brilliant  victory  at 
Choczim.  Michael  died  the  following  year,  and  the  gallant  leader,  who 
had  stept  in  for  the  salvation  of  the  country,  was  unanimously  elected 
his  successor,  by  the  title  of  John  III.  This  truly  great  man  now  set 


*  This  people  were  of  Scythian  origin,  and  dwelt  on  both  sides  of  the  Dnieper,  below 
Kiev,  where,  distributed  into  military  companies  under  a  hetmann  or  commander-in¬ 
chief,  they  had  served  Poland  as  a  frontier  guard  against  the  Turks  and  Tartars. 

t  The  throne  of  Poland  was  indeed  no  very  desirable  possession:  the  turbulent  and 
factious  character  of  the  nobles,  the  almost  independent  jurisdiction  they  possessed  in 
their  respective  estates,  and  the  rivalry  of  the  different  orders,  rendered  the  royal 
authority  little  better  than  nominal,  while  the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  exposed  to 
all  the  evils  of  feudal  oppression  and  anarchy.  At  each  recurring  vacancy  of  the  throne, 
the  electoral  diets  became  more  ungovernable:  the  nobles  assembled,  armed  and  on 
horseback,  in  the  order  of  their  palatinates,  and  each  king  was  compelled  to  grant  new 
immunities  to  the  privileged  classes;  and  thus,  with  a  show  of  liberty,  the  country 
actually  suffered  under  evils  more  intolerable  than  could  have  been  inflicted  by  the  worst 
hereditary  despotism. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


421 


himself  to  complete  the  work  he  had  begun ;  by  extraordinary  exertions, 
he  contrived  to  augment  the  military  force,  and,  in  a  series  of  brilliant 
achievements,  succeeded  in  reconquering  two-thirds  of  the  Ukraine, 
1676.  In  1683.,  he  riveted  the  attention  of  all  Europe  by  the  total  defeat 
given  to  the  enemies  of  Christendom  under  the  walls  of  Vienna, — a  blow 
from  which  the  Ottomans  never  altogether  recovered.  But  these  efforts 
served  but  to  throw  a  temporary  splendour  over  the  waning  destinies  of 
Poland.  All  the  exertions  made  by  him  for  the  internal  improvement 
of  his  kingdom  were  frustrated  by  the  turbulent  nobility,  by  means  of 
the  veto  which  each  possessed,  and  whereby  the  most  useful  measures 
could  be  opposed  by  the  dissent  of  a  single  chief.  The  treaty  of  Leopol, 
1686,  by  which  the  aid  of  Russia  was  secured  against  the  Turks  and 
Tartars,  was  only  purchased  by  considerable  cessions  of  territory ;  and 
at  the  close  of  a  stormy  diet  in  1688,  he  confessed  with  tears  in  his  eyes 
his  inability  to  save  his  country  from  the  ruin  which  he  foresaw  was  but 
too  surely  overtaking  her.  He  died  in  1696,  and  with  him  the  greatness 
of  his  native  land  may  be  said  to  have  ended. 

RUSSIA. 

During  the  preceding  centuries,  this  hitherto  barbarous  empire  had 
acted  a  very  unimportant  part  in  European  politics.  In  1605,  during 
the  reign  of  Boris,  an  individual  assuming  to  be  the  late  king’s  brother 
Demetrius,  who  had  been  assassinated,  as  was  supposed,  by  the  conni¬ 
vance  of  the  existing  monarch,  succeeded  in  seating  himself  on  the 
throne.  But  he  was  himself  slain  in  a  popular  tumult  a  year  after, 
when  various  pretenders  and  impostors  aspired  to  the  sovereignty ;  the 
Swedes  and  Poles  simultaneously  invaded  the  country,  and  the  latter 
actually  succeeded  in  placing  the  crown  on  the  head  of  their  young 
prince  Ladislaus,  1610.  But  the  bigotry  of  the  Polish  ruler,  who  refused 
to  confirm  the  conditions  by  which  his  son  had  gained  this  elevation, 
and  the  dread  that  their  territories  would  be  seized,  roused  the  national 
spirit  of  the  Russians;  the  invaders  were  expelled  from  Moscow,  after  a 
sanguinary  conflict,  1613  ;  and,  in  the  year  following,  Michael  Roma- 
nof,  a  descendant  by  the  female  line  from  the  house  of  Rurik,  was  placed 
on  the  throne  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  whole  people. 

The  accession  of  this  dynasty  was  the  true  commencement  of  the 
European  greatness  of  Russia,  which  henceforth  began  to  assume  a 
growing  importance  among  the  monarchies  of  Christendom.  Michael, 
however,  was  obliged  to  purchase  peace  from  Sweden  by  the  cession  of 
the  whole  of  the  Baltic  coast,  Archangel  on  the  White  Sea  being  now 
his  only  port;  while  Smolensk  was  delivered  to  Poland  as  the  price  of 
a  fourteen  years’  truce,  1618,  and  which  was  again  ceded  in  1634,  after 
a  fruitless  effort  to  recover  it  by  force  of  arms.  But  the  prudent  admi¬ 
nistration  of  this  prince  more  than  compensated  for  these  serious  losses : 
he  erected  fortresses,  invited  foreign  officers  to  enter  his  service,  formed 
his  army  upon  the  European  model,  and  gave  a  new  impulse  to  trade  by 
concluding  advantageous  treaties  with  France  and  England.  The  early 
years  of  his  son  and  successor,  Alexis,  1645,  were  disturbed  by  an  in¬ 
surrection  of  the  nobles,  in  consequence  of  the  unpopularity  of  the  regent; 
but  these  disorders  were  composed  when  the  prince  attained  majority, 
1648.  In  1654,  he  aided  the  Ukraine  Cossacks  in  their  revolt  against 


422 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Poland;  and,  by  the  truce  of  Wilna,  1656,  succeeded  in  recovering 
Smolensk  from  that  country ;  while  a  renewal  of  the  contest  ended  by 
securing  to  him  additional  advantages,  1686.  Meanwhile  the  internal 
peace  of  his  dominions  was  disturbed  by  seditions  arising  from  various 
causes ;  and  in  1667,  a  revolt  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  under  a  chief  named 
Razin,  threatened  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire.  Having  proclaimed 
liberty  to  the  serfs,  immense  numbers  flocked  to  the  rebel  standard,  and 
their  leader,  seizing  on  Astracan,  assumed  the  style  of  an  independent 
sovereign  ;  but  he  was  at  length  defeated  and  put  to  death,  along  with 
many  of  his  followers.  The  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Alexis  was  de¬ 
voted  to  improving  the  condition  of  his  subjects.  He  promulgated  a 
revised  code  of  laws,  established  manufactories  of  linen,  silk,  and  iron, 
and  endeavoured  to  open  a  communication  with  China.  He  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  his  eldest  son  Theodore,  1676,  whose  short  reign  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  first  war  between  Russia  and  the  Ottomans,  which 
terminated  in  1682  by  the  final  cession  of  the  Ukraine  to  the  former. 

In  1689,  Peter,  surnamed  the  Great,  a  younger  son  of  Alexis,  and 
then  seventeen  years  of  age,  became  sole  monarch,  his  brother  Ivan, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  along  with  him,  being  set  aside  from  incapa¬ 
city.  The  first  exertions  of  this  prince  were  directed  to  the  disciplining 
of  the  army  and  the  improvement  of  his  resources;  and  in  1694,  he  took 
Azof  from  the  Turks,  aided  by  a  flotilla  on.  the  Don,  which  was  the  first 
Russian  navy.  Three  years  after,  he  quitted  his  dominions,  and  travelled 
through  Holland,  England,  and  other  countries,  with  the  view  of  gaining 
a  knowledge  of  shipbuilding  and  mechanical  science,  and  engaging 
artisans  to  aid  him  in  the  great  designs  he  had  already  begun  to  form. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 

The  Turkish  power,  though  manifestly  declining,  was  still  very  for¬ 
midable.  The  janissaries  were  at  once  the  cause  of  its  strength  and  its 
weakness,  for  this  irregular  but  warlike  militia  usurped  over  the  throne 
an  authority  equalling  that  possessed  in  Rome  by  the  praetorian  guards. 
Five  successive  sultans  reigned  during  the  first  half  of  this  century,  and 
with  two  exceptions,  Osman  and  Murad,  were  sunk,  during  their  short 
periods  of  authority,  in  pleasure  and  sensual  indulgence.  Achmet,  1603, 
was  succeeded  by  Mustapha  in  1617 ;  and  he  being  next  year  deposed 
by  the  janissaries,  gave  place  to  Osman,  who,  when  defeated  by  the 
Poles  in  1621,  was  strangled  a  year  after  by  his  merciless  troops.  Mus¬ 
tapha  was  again  restored,  only  to  suffer  the  same  fate  in  1623;  and  his 
successor  Murad,  a  warlike  prince,  who  conquered  Bagdad  from  the 
Persians,  1638,  was  sacrificed  soon  afterwards.  The  next  sovereign, 
Ibrahim,  was  equally  unfortunate,  being  in  turn  strangled  in  1648. 
Three  years  before  this  event,  a  rich  Turkish  vessel,  that  had  put  into  a 
Candian  port,  was  captured  by  Maltese  cruisers ;  and  Ibrahim  conse¬ 
quently  commenced  hostilities  against  Venice,  which  were  continued  by 
his  abler  and  more  fortunate  successor,  Mohammed  IV.  Twenty-three 
languid  campaigns,  however,  elapsed  before  the  contest  was  brought  to 
a  consummation  by  the  siege  of  the  capital  of  Candia,  1667.  On  its 
capitulation,  two  years  after,  only  2500  survived  of  the  original  garrison 
of  30,000  men,  while  the  loss  to  the  besiegers  amounted  to  118,000. 
This  conquest  was  mainly  due  to  the  famous  vizier,  Achmet  Kouprili. 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


423 


^  The  reign  of  Mohammed  presents  little  else  than  one  unvaried  series 
of  wars,  of  which  that  in  Hungary  proved  in  the  end  most  disastrous  to 
the  Ottomans.  In  1672,  he  accepted  the  sovereignty  of  the  Cossacks, 
and  maintained  it  against  Poland,  but  was  forced  to  resign  it  to  Russia 
in  1682.  A  powerful  league  formed  between  Austria,  Poland,  Russia, 
and  Venice,  followed  upon  the  defeat  of  the  Turkish  forces  under  the 
walls  of  Vienna  by  John  Sobieski ;  and  in  1687,  they  were  again  van¬ 
quished  at  Mohacz,  and  finally  driven  out  of  Hungary  with  immense 
loss,  while  great  part  of  Southern  Greece  became  the  possession  of  V e- 
nice.  Mohammed  having  been  deposed  in  1687,  was  succeeded  by 
Soliman  III.,  by  whom  the  war  was  continued,  the  fortress  of  Belgrade 
twice  changing  masters,  but  remaining  finally  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 
Under  Achmet  II.,  1691,  the  fortress  of  Great  Waradein  surrendered  to 
the  Austrians:  and  his  successor,  Mustapha  II.,  1695,  after  being  forced 
to  yield  the  town  of  Azof  to  Russia,  sustained  a  final  overthrow  from 
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  at  Zenta,  1697.  The  treaty  of  Carlowitz,  1699, 
at  length  terminated  this  disastrous  war,  and  completed  the  humiliation 
of  the  Porte  ;  Transylvania,  Sclavonia,  and  Hungary,  were  preserved 
to  the  emperor;  Podolia,  with  part  of  the  Ukraine,  remained  in  the 
possession  of  Poland;  Russia  retained  her  conquests  on  the  Black  Sea; 
and  the  Morea  was  ceded  to  Venice. 

THE  EAST. 

Persia. — The  great  Shah  Abbas  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson 
Saffi,  a  sanguinary  tyrant,  who  reigned  from  1627  to  1641,  under  whom 
Persia  lost  the  acquisitions  gained  from  Turkey  by  his  predecessor. 
The  rule  of  the  two  next  monarchs,  Abbas  II.,  1641,  and  Saffi  II.,  1666, 
was  uniformly  peaceful,  and  the  arts  and  commerce  flourished ;  but  the 
court  was  enervated  by  luxury,  and  the  martial  spirit  of  the  people  suf¬ 
fered  from  inaction.  In  1694,  Hussein  Mirza,  a  weak  and  bigoted 
prince,  ascended  the  throne.  After  reigning  nearly  twenty  years  in 
peace,  his  kingdom  was  invaded  and  taken  from  him  by  the  Afghans 
(f.  e.  destroyers),  a  warlike  people  on  the  confines  of  India,  he  himself 
being  forced  to  place  the  royal  diadem  on  the  head  of  their  chief  Mah¬ 
moud,  1722. 

China.  —  The  Mongols,  who  had  been  expelled  from  China  by  the 
founder  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  took  refuge  among  the  Tartars  of  the  north¬ 
east;  and  this  union  eventually  gave  rise  to  the  Mantchoos,  who  were 
destined  at  length  to  expel  the  native  line  of  princes,  and  establish  a 
permanent  dominion.  The  ability  of  the  earlier  monarchs  long  averted 
this  catastrophe,  and  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  to  Pekin, 
apparently  with  the  view  of  restraining  their  encroachments ;  but  the 
usual  degeneracy  seems  to  have  overtaken  their  successors,  and  the 
country  becoming  involved  in  great  disorders,  these  warlike  enemies, 
first  called  in  to  assist  in  the  settlement  of  internal  differences,  succeeded 
in  seizing  the  throne  for  themselves,  1644.  Happily  for  the  country, 
however,  Chun-tchi,  the  new  Tartar  emperor,  guided  by  experienced 
counsellors,  showed  himself  a  generous  and  enlightened  monarch,  ab¬ 
staining  from  all  interference  with  the  prejudices  of  his  subjects,  and 
exerting  himself  vigorously  for  their  improvement.  His  son  and  suc¬ 
cessor,  Kang-hi,  1661,  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious  sovereigns  that 


424 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


ever  ruled  in  China,  having  been  conspicuous  for  almost  every  virtue 
drat  can  adorn  a  throne ;  and  to  his  exertions  are  mainly  owing  the  peace 
and  unity  which  the  empire  has  ever  since  enjoyed.  During  this  reign, 
the  Jesuit  missionaries  made  some  progress,  being  employed  by  him  to 
reform  the  calendar;  but  he  was  afterwards  induced  to  discourage  them, 
and  is  said  to  have  particularly  derided  the  spiritual  supremacy  claimed 
by  their  leaders  for  the  Pope. 

Japan. — The  islands  of  Japan  were  probably  settled  by  the  Chinese; 
their  rulers,  until  about  660  b.  c.,  being,  so  far  as  the  imperfect  accounts 
are  to  be  credited,  the  same  as  those  of  that  empire.  Afterwards,  the 
country  seems  to  have  been  governed  by  chiefs  called  Dairis ,  who  united 
in  their  persons  both  the  spiritual  and  temporal  authority.  But  all 
offices,  public  or  private,  being  hereditary,  the  military  commander  gra¬ 
dually  obtained  so  much  influence,  that,  in  1585,  he  was  able  to  seize 
on  the  entire  power,  leaving  to  the  other  merely  the  control  of  ecclesias¬ 
tical  affairs.  Thus  Japan  has  since  had  two  sovereigns,  the  former 
residing  at  Jeddo,  the  latter  at  Miaco,  under  whom  the  country  appears 
to  have  enjoyed  a  large  amount  of  prosperity  and  peace.  During  this 
century,  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  introduced  by  the  Portuguese, 
whose  intercourse  dates  from  1541  :  at  first  it  made  great  progress,  but 
was  eventually  rooted  out  by  cruel  persecutions,  and  entirely  forbidden. 
The  Dutch  succeeded  in  establishing  a  trade  with  the  natives  in  1611 ; 
and  they  are  now  the  only  Europeans  allowed  to  enter  their  ports. 

India. — On  the  death  of  Akbar  in  1605,  the  Mogul  empire  descended 
to  his  son  Selim,  wffio  assumed  the  pompous  title  of  “  conqueror  of  the 
world.”  This  designation  wTas  certainly  anything  but  appropriate;  for 
durino'  his  reffin  the  Persians  took  Candahar,  the  Usbecks  obtained 
possession  of  Cabul,  the  Afghans  in  the  north  revolted,  the  Rajpoot 
princes  began  a  struggle  for  independence,  and  even  his  own  heir,  Shah 
Jehan,  rebelled  against  him.  He  appears,  however,  to  have  been  a  weak 
rather  than  a  bad  ruler,  protecting  the  Hindoos  in  the  exercise  of  their 
religion,  and  encouraging  literature  and  the  arts.  The  British  East 
India  Company,  having  sent  an  embassy  to  his  court,  obtained  from  him 
many  advantageous  grants.  His  successor,  Jehan,  1627,  was  doomed 
to  experience  a  severe  requital  for  the  ingratitude  he  had  displayed  to 
him,  being  dethroned  in  1659  by  his  own  son  Aurengzebe,  wffio  detained 
him  in  prison  till  his  death.  This  prince  was  the  last  powerful  Mogul 
sovereign,  having  conquered  the  cities  of  Golconda,  Hydrabad,  and 
Bejapore,  and  extended  his  rule  almost  to  the  limits  of  the  Carnatic. 
His  reign,  as  it  had  been  begun,  continued  to  be  distinguished  by  great 
cruelty;  he  endeavoured  to  establish  Mohammedanism  throughout  his 
dominions,  by  destroying  the  Hindoo  temples  and  imposing  a  poll-tax 
on  every  individual  not  professing  Islamism.  The  Mahrattas  now  began 
to  assume  importance  in  India,  having  succeeded  in  conquering  great 
part  of  the  Deccan ;  and  though  frequently  defeated  in  the  low  country 
by  the  troops  of  Aurengzebe,  he  was  unable  to  make  any  permanent 
impression  on  their  mountain  territory.  Sevajee,  the  founder  of  the 
Mahratta  sovereignty,  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sambajee  in  1682,  wffio 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Mogul  emperor,  1689,  and  subjected  to  a 
cruel  death.  This  monarch  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  powerful 
of  his  day,  his  revenue  being  computed  by  Major  Rennel  at  more  than 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


425 


thirty-two  millions  sterling,  in  a  country  where  productions  are  a  fourth 
less  in  value  than  in  England;  but,  after  his  demise  in  1707,  the  wealth 
and  influence  of  the  Moguls  rapidly  declined. 

COLONIES. 

English. — In  1600,  Queen  Elizabeth  granted  a  charter  of  exclusive 
commerce  with  the  East  Indies  to  a  company  of  London  merchants,  who 
made  several  profitable  voyages,  and,  in  1611,  received  permission  from 
the  government  of  Delhi  to  establish  factories  at  Surat,  Camoay,  and 
other  places,  though  their  attempts  to  obtain  a  share  of  the  spice  trade 
by  a  settlement  at  Amboyna  were  resisted  by  the  Dutch,  who  even  put 
some  settlers  to  death,  1623.  In  1624,  the  company  received  extensive 
judicial  authority,  being  permitted  to  try  their  servants  when  abroad 
either  by  civil  or  martial  law ;  and,  though  exposed  to  considerable 
opposition  from  the  rivalry  of  other  mercantile  associations,  who  at  vari¬ 
ous  times  acquired  permission  to  infringe  the  original  monopoly,  they 
continued  steadily  to  advance,  and  eventually  thwarted  all  competitors. 
Their  first  settlement  at  Madras  was  formed  about  1648,  and  they  ob¬ 
tained  another  valuable  position  on  the  western  coast  by  the  gift  of  the 
island  of  Bombay,  which  formed  part  of  the  marriage  portion  received 
by  Charles  II.  with  the  Princess  Catherine  of  Portugal,  1668.  Seven 
years  previously,  by  a  new  charter,  the  company,  besides  a  confirmation 
of  all  their  former  privileges,  received  the  further  authority  to  make 
peace  or  war  with  any  people  not  being  Christians,  and  to  seize  all  un¬ 
licensed  persons  who  should  be  found  within  their  limits,  and  send  them 
to  England.  In  1664,  they  first  came  into  hostile  collision  with  a  native 
power,  having  repelled  an  attack  upon  Surat  by  Sevajee,  the  founder  of 
the  Mahratta  empire ;  on  which  occasion  the  Mogul  expressed  his  thanks 
for  their  conduct,  and  considerably  extended  their  trading  privileges. 
Fort  William  at  Calcutta  was  erected  in  1699. 

Many  African  companies  were  successively  incorporated ;  but  none 
succeeded  in  obtaining  exclusive  privileges.  About  1674,  the  English 
founded  on  the  Guinea  Coast  the  ports  of  St.  James  and  Sierra  Leone 
Their  colonies  in  the  West  Indies  began  to  flourish  in  the  early  part  of 
the  century.  Private  merchants  established  factories  in  Barbadoes  and 
St.  Kitt’s  in  1625;  but  little  importance  was  attached  to  these  places 
until  the  sugar-cane,  transplanted  from  Brazil  in  1641,  began  to  be  suc¬ 
cessfully  cultivated.  The  conquest  of  Jamaica,  1655,  opened  a  new  and 
abundant  source  of  wealth  to  British  commerce  in  those  regions. 

On  the  North  American  continent,  in  1620,  the  state  of  Massachusetts 
owed  its  first  settlement  to  a  small  body  of  Presbyterians,  who  had 
resolved  to  seek  freedom  of  worship  on  those  distant  shores,  where,  six 
years  later,  they  founded  the  city  of  Boston.  The  increasing  persecu¬ 
tions  of  the  Puritans  and  Catholics,  and  the  internal  convulsions  of 
England,  drove  great  numbers  across  the  Atlantic.  Rhode  Island  was 
colonized  by  the  former  in  1630;  and  Maryland,  in  1632,  by  the  latter. 
About  1662,  Charles  II.  granted  to  a  body  of  noblemen  the  lordship  of 
the  country  now  known  as  Carolina;  but  the  first  permanent  settlement 
was  not  made  till  1680,  on  the  site  of  Charleston.  The  shores  of  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay  were  first  occupied  by  the  Swedes  ;  their  colony  subsequently 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  who  finally  ceded  it  to  England  in  1664 
36  * 


426 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


In  1681,  the  country  was  granted  to  the  celebrated  William  Penn,  who 
in  the  following  year  founded  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  By  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  1713,  Great  Britain  acquired  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia, 
with  the  entire  commerce  of  Hudson’s  Bay  and  the  Straits. 

French. — The  minister  Colbert,  whose  attention  was  much  directed 
to  commerce  and  maritime  speculations,  established  East  and  West  India 
Companies  in  1664;  and  between  1685  and  1690,  a  French  settlement 
formed  at  Pondicherry  obtained  considerable  importance.  Their  first 
permanent  occupation  of  Canada  took  place  in  1608,  on  the  spot  now 
covered  by  the  city  of  Quebec,  wThere  a  valuable  trade  in  fish  and  pel¬ 
tries  was  established. 

Spanish. — The  immense  empire  founded  by  Spain  in  the  New  World 
had  now  become  consolidated,  and  the  wealth  derived  from  the  rich 
mines  of  gold  and  silver  excited  the  envy  of  all  Europe.  During  the 
wars  of  this  century,  the  plate  fleets,  as  they  were  called,  laden  with  the 
annual  tribute  of  those  regions,  frequently  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  French,  or  English  cruisers;  and  the  colonies  also  suffered  much 
from  the  predatory  attacks  of  the  Buccaneers,  a  body  of  lawless  adven¬ 
turers  who  established  themselves  in  a  small  island  in  the  West  Indies, 
whence  they  long  continued  to  be  the  terror  of  the  Spanish  Main.  The 
Jesuit  missionaries  succeeded  in  acquiring  immense  influence  in  South 
America,  and  made  great  efforts  for  the  benefit  of  the  natives ;  but,  in 
general,  the  condition  of  the  aboriginal  population  continued  to  be  the 
most  miserable  that  could  possibly  be  conceived. 

Portuguese. — After  her  separation  from  Spain,  Portugal  retained 
little  of  her  East  Indian  possessions  besides  Goa  and  Diu.  Her  valua¬ 
ble  settlement  of  Brazil  had  previously  to  that  period  been  exposed  to 
various  attacks,  particularly  from  the  Dutch,  who,  between  1620  and 
1640,  under  prince  John  Maurice  of  Nassau,  obtained  possession  of 
nearly  the  whole  colony;  but  by  the  peace  of  1660  they  subsequently 
resigned  all  claim  to  it.  About  the  year  1700,  the  accidental  discovery 
of  the  rich  mines  of  Villa  Rica  gave  increased  importance  to  this  pos¬ 
session. 

Dutch. — In  1650,  the  Dutch  seized  on  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
where  they  founded  the  capital  Cape  Town;  and  in  1656,  they  drove 
the  Portuguese  out  of  Colombo,  a  valuable  settlement  in  Ceylon,  de¬ 
priving  them  of  the  principal  seat  of  the  pearl-fishery.  In  1605,  they  had 
wrested  from  the  same  people  the  possession  of  the  Moluccas  or  Spice 
Islands,  and  continued  to  maintain  them  against  all  competitors;  and 
their  colony  of  Surinam  in  South  America,  founded  about  1590,  became 
highly  flourishing 

/ 

SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

[The  oldest  town  in  the  United  States  is  St.  Augustine,  in  Florida, 
having  been  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in  1565,  as  was  related  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

[Gosnold  in  1602,  Pring  in  1603,  and  Weymouth  in  1605,  explored 
the  whole  New  England  coast,  but  failed  to  make  any  settlement.  The 
first  permanent  settlement  made  by  the  English  was  that  of  Jamestown, 
in  Virginia,  in  1607.  The  first  settlers,  105  in  number,  were  chiefly 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


427 


commercial  adventurers.  They  experienced  all  the  hardships  incident 
to  their  situation,  and  were  several  times  on  the  brink  of  destruction ; 
but  were  repeatedly  rescued  by  the  genius  and  daring  of  Captain  John 
Smith,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  in  American  annals,  and  justly 
called  the  father  of  Virginia. 

[The  same  year  that  Jamestown  was  founded,  the  Plymouth  company 
sent  out  a  hundred  emigrants  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  settlement 
in  New  England.  They  effected  a  landing  near  Kennebec,  in  Maine, 
where  they  remained  nearly  all  winter ;  but,  discouraged  by  the  hard¬ 
ships  which  they  had  to  endure,  they  abandoned  their  settlement  the 
following  year,  and  returned  to  England.  The  Plymouth  company 
were  unsuccessful  in  their  subsequent  efforts  to  plant  a  colony  under  the 
charter  they  had  received,  until  at  length  a  congregation  of  English  Pu¬ 
ritans,  whom  oppression  had  driven  to  Holland,  formed  the  resolution 
of  seeking  the  civil  and  religious  liberty  which  they  wished  by  removing 
in  a  body  to  the  New  World.  Having  returned  to  England  to  make  the 
necessary  arrangements  for  their  departure,  they  finally  sailed  from  Ply¬ 
mouth  for  the  river  Hudson,  on  which  they  intended  to  settle;  but  being 
carried  further  north,  they  landed  near  Cape  Cod,  December  1620,  at  a 
place  to  which,  in  honour  of  the  port  from  which  they  sailed,  they  gave 
the  name  of  New  Plymouth.  These  emigrants,  101  in  number,  are 
known  in  history  as  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  They  were  soon  followed 
by  others,  who,  with  them,  laid  the  foundation  of  all  the  New  England 
States. 

[Roger  Conant,  one  of  the  pilgrims  from  New  Plymouth,  with  only 
three  companions,  in  1626  made  choice  of  Salem  as  the  most  convenient 
place  of  refuge  for  their  persecuted  brethren  in  England  ;  and  they  boldly 
resolved  on  establishing  themselves  there  as  the  sentinels  of  Puritanism. 
They  were  not  long  left  alone.  Endicott  joined  them  in  1628  with  a 
company  of  one  hundred  Puritans  from  England  ;  seven  of  whom,  with 
characteristic  enterprise,  detached  themselves  from  the  rest,  and  imme¬ 
diately  commenced  a  new  settlement  at  Charlestown.  A  company  of 
two  hundred  men,  among  them  Francis  Higginson,  went  over  in  1629. 
In  the  same  year  the  friends  of  the  cause  succeeded  in  getting  a  new  and 
more  liberal  charter,  and,  what  was  more  important,  in  getting  the  cor¬ 
poration  itself,  which  had  hitherto  existed  in  England,  transferred  to  the 
colony,  the  members  of  the  corporation  becoming  the  actual  colonists. 
The  effect  of  these  movements  was  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  whole 
body  of  English  Puritans  to  the  subject  of  emigration;  and  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year,  1630,  no  less  than  seventeen  ships,  containing  fifteen  hun¬ 
dred  emigrants,  with  John  Winthrop  at  their  head,  landed  at  Salem. 
Such  was  the  origin  of  Massachusetts.  The  Puritans  who  settled  it 
were  men  of  a  superior  character  to  any  that  had  yet  come  as  colonists 
to  the  shores  of  America ;  a  large  portion  of  them  gentlemen  of  fortune 
and  education,  who  sought  the  New  World,  not  in  the  spirit  of  commer¬ 
cial  adventure,  but  to  found  a  free  commonwealth  for  themselves  and 
their  posterity. 

[The  names  of  Sir  Ferdinand  Gorges  and  Captain  John  Mason  are 
inseparably  connected  with  the  history  of  New  Hampshire.  Under  the 
patent  obtained  by  them,  a  settlement  was  commenced  on  the  Piscataqua 
river  in  the  year  1623.  The  oldest  towns  built  were  Portsmouth  and 
Dover.  The  colony  was  replenished  partly  by  settlers  from  England 


428 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


under  grants  from  Mason  and  Gorges,  and  partly  by  emigrants  from 
Massachusetts ;  and  suffered  probably  more  than  any  other,  both  from  In¬ 
dian  hostilities,  and  from  disputes  about  conflicting  titles  to  the  land. 

[On  the  coast  of  Maine  attempts  at  a  settlement  were  made  very  early 
by  both  the  French  and  English,  but  without  success  until  1628,  when, 
under  the  influence  of  Gorges,  a  few  trading-houses  were  planted  near 
the  Penobscot.  A  charter,  with  ample  proprietary  powers,  was  granted 
to  Gorges  in  1635,  and  a  general  court  was  held  at  Saco  in  1640.  This 
colony,  like  that  of  New  Hampshire,  was  early  taken  under  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  Massachusetts,  and  suffered  greatly  from  the  claims  of  conflicting 
jurisdictions. 

[Roger  Williams,  a  Puritan  divine,  illustrious  for  his  political  wisdom 
as  well  as  his  benevolence,  proclaimed  opinions  respecting  freedom  of 
conscience  in  matters  of  religion  of  the  most  liberal  and  comprehensive 
character,  and,  consequently,  far  in  advance  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
Being  exiled  on  this  account  from  the  colony  of  Massachusetts,  in  1636 
he  retired  alone  into  the  recesses  of  the  forest  to  a  place  which  he  called 
Providence,  where  he  was  soon  after  joined  by  others,  and  became  the 
founder  of  Rhode  Island. 

[Connecticut  was  settled  chiefly  by  emigrants  from  the  older  colonies. 
The  people  of  New  Plymouth  built  a  trading-house  at  Windsor  in  1633, 
and  settlements  were  commenced  soon  after  at  Hartford  and  Wethersfield 
by  pioneers  from  Massachusetts.  In  1636  a  large  company  from  the 
same  colony,  led  by  Hooker  and  Haynes,  emigrated  to  the  banks  of  the 
Connecticut.  This  emigration  was  made  under  authority  of  a  grant  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  proprietaries  by  the  younger  Winthrop  ;  a  man  so  highly 
esteemed  in  England,  that  he  was  enabled  afterwards  to  obtain  for  Con¬ 
necticut  the  wisest  and  most  liberal  of  all  the  charters  granted  by  the 
Stuarts.  He  may  justly  be  considered  the  founder  of  Connecticut,  as 
his  father  was  the  father  of  Massachusetts. 

[In  1609,  the  great  navigator  Henry  Hudson,  sailing  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch,  entered  New  York  harbour,  and 
the  noble  river  which  bears  his  name.  Having  explored  the  river  as  far 
as  Albany,  he  published  such  an  account  of  these  regions,  which  had 
never  before  been  seen  by  any  European,  as  led  in  the  following  year  to 
a  voyage  for  the  purpose  of  traffic  with  the  natives.  In  1614,  the  first 
rude  fort  was  erected  on  the  southern  point  of  Manhattan  Island,  and  in 
1615  the  first  permanent  settlement  at  Albany  began.  The  object  of  the 
Dutch  was  commerce  rather  than  colonization.  Political  dissensions  at 
home,  however,  soon  caused  the  emigration  of  a  large  number  of  settlers 
from  Holland.  The  New  Netherlands,  under  its  brave  governors  Wouter 
Van  Twiller,  William  Kieft  and  Peter  Stuyvesant,  continued  for  half  a 
century  to  be  a  thriving  and  important  colony  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company.  In  1664,  however,  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
and  has  since  been  known  by  its  present  name  of  New  York. 

[The  first  settlement  in  Delaware  appears  to  have  been  made  by  the 
Dutch.  Certain  wealthy  proprietors  in  Holland,  who  had  purchased  of 
the  natives  the  title  to  the  lands  around  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  river 
in  1630  set  on  foot  an  expedition  for  the  purpose  of  taking  possession 
of  their  new  territories.  De  Vries,  the  conductor  of  the  expedition, 
reached.  Delaware  bay  and  planted  a  colony  of  thirty  souls  at  Lewistown 
in  1631.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  illustrious  king  of  Sweden,  in  162^ 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.D. 


429 


projected  a  plan  for  colonizing  these  regions  by  his  own  subjects ;  and 
the  commencement  of  their  colony  has  been  generally  assigned  to  that 
year.  No  actual  emigration,  however,  took  place  till  1638,  when  a  small 
company  of  Swedes  and  Finns  entered  Delaware  bay,  and  having  pur- 
chased  from  the  natives  all  the  land  from  its  mouth  to  the  falls  of  Trenton, 
built  a  fort  and  commenced  a  settlement  on  Christiana  creek.  Emigrants 
multiplied,  and  Swedish  settlements  were  formed  along  the  Delaware  as 
far  as  Tinicum  Island,  within  a  few  miles  of  Philadelphia.  They  were, 
however,  conquered  by  the  Dutch  in  1655,  and,  with  the  rest  of  the 
Dutch  possessions  in  North  America,  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  in  1664. 

[William  Clayborne,  an  English  surveyor,  under  license  of  Charles 
I.,  formed  a  trading  establishment  on  Kent  Island,  in  Maryland,  as  early 
as  1632.  The  same  year  Sir  George  Calvert,  Baron  of  Baltimore,  ob¬ 
tained  a  royal  charter,  which,  in  consequence  of  his  death  before  the 
patent  had  passed  the  great  seal,  was  made  out  in  the  name  of  his  son 
Cecil,  granting  to  him  and  his  heirs  proprietary  rights  to  the  soil  of 
Maryland.  This  charter,  which  was  written  by  the  elder  Lord  Balti¬ 
more,  was  .onceived  in  a  spirit  of  moderation  and  of  civil  and  religious 
toleration  much  in  advance  of  the  age.  Under  its  wise  and  liberal  pro¬ 
visions,  a  large  body  of  English  Catholics,  gentlemen  of  birth  and  qua¬ 
lity,  embarked  in  the  enterprise  of  colonizing  Maryland.  The  first  town 
founded  by  them  was  St.  Mary’s,  1634,  where  their  first  legislative  assem¬ 
bly  was  held  the  following  year.  They  experienced  bitter  opposition  from 
Clayborne,  whose  establishment  was  broken  up,  but  continued  with 
various  success  under  the  proprietary  government  until  the  Revolution. 

[In  the  year  1663,  some  of  the  independent  planters  of  Virginia  esta¬ 
blished  themselves  on  Albemarle  Sound,  and  a  few  hardy  sons  of  New 
England  began  an  infant  colony  on  the  banks  of  Cape  Fear  River. 
These  were  the  first  beginnings  of  the  permanent  settlement  of  the  Caro- 
linas.  The  same  year  Lord  Clarendon  obtained  for  himself  and  some 
others  a  charter  constituting  themselves  proprietors  of  the  soil.  The 
celebrated  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  and  John  Locke  the 
philosopher,  afterwards,  in  1669,  prepared  for  this  province  a  constitu¬ 
tion  and  frame  of  government,  which,  however,  never  went  fully  into 
operation. 

[On  the  surrender  of  the  New  Netherlands  in  1664,  the  territory  be¬ 
tween  the  Hudson  and  the  Delaware  was  granted,  under  the  name  of 
New  Jersey,  to  Lord  Berkley  and  Sir  George  Carteret,  as  proprietors. 
Settlements  had  already  been  commenced  by  detached  bodies  of  Swedes, 
Dutch  and  English.  As  early  as  1664,  a  few  families  of  Dutch  were 
found  about  Burlington,  and  of  Quakers  on  Raritan  Bay ;  and  in  the 
following  year  a  considerable  number  of  New  England  Puritans  were 
settled  at  Elizabethtown,  and  plantations  were  begun  at  Middletown 
and  Shrewsbury.  Just  ten  years  later,  West  Jersey  was  purchased  by 
a  company  of  English  Quakers,  who  immediately  made  settlements  at 
Salem,  Burlington,  and  other  places  on  the  Delaware.  East  and  West 
Jersey  continued  divided  until  1702,  when  they  were  again  united  into 
one  province. 

[Pennsylvania  was  founded  by  William  Penn,  who  obtained  a  royal 
charter  for  the  purpose  in  1681.  Small  settlements  had  already  been 
made  by  the  Swedes  and  Finns.  Markham  was  sent  over,  therefore,  by 


430 


modern  history. 


the  proprietary  to  take  possession  of  the  province,  and  make  preparations 
for  settling  it  on  a  more  extended  scale.  Penn  himself  came  over  in 
1682  with  about  two  thousand  settlers,  mostly  Friends.  Having  first 
agreed  upon  a  constitution  at  Chester  for  the  government  of  his  colony, 
including  the  previous  settlements  of  the  Swedes  and  Finns,  having 
concluded  his  famous  treaty  with  the  Indians  at  Shackamaxon,  now 
called  Kensington,  and  having  purchased  of  the  Swedes  the  ground 
occupied  by  them  near  the  mouths  of  the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill,  Penn 
proceeded  to  lay  out  and  build  the  city  of  Philadelphia  according  to  a 
plan  designed  by  himself  before  leaving  England.  Penn’s  charter  con¬ 
tained  the  same  features  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  which  character¬ 
ized  that  of  Lord  Baltimore;  and  Penn  himself  was  distinguished  by  a 
liberality  of  opinions,  a  moderation  of  conduct,  and  a  wise  political  fore¬ 
cast,  which  have  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  human  legislators. 

[Georgia  was  founded  in  the  following  century,  1732,  by  a  company 
of  settlers  under  the  direction  of  General  James  Oglethorpe.] 

THE  CHURCH. 

The  Jansenists. — This  sect,  which  sprung  up  in  the  Romish  church 
about  the  middle  of  the  century,  owed  its  origin  to  Jansenius,  a  bishop 
of  Ypres,  who  died  in  1638,  leaving  behind  him  a  work  entitled  Augus¬ 
tinus,  in  which  he  had  treated  of  the  opinions  of  St.  Augustine  concern¬ 
ing  predestination  and  grace.  Several  years  after  his  death  some 
Jesuit  theologians  discovered  in  his  volume  five  propositions  embodying 
principles  closely  resembling  Calvin’s  doctrine  of  predestination,  and 
which  they  denounced  as  heretical.  After  much  discussion,  Pope  Inno¬ 
cent  X.  condemned  the  same  tenets  as  blasphemous,  1653  ;  but  various 
learned  men,  who  disliked  the  Jesuits,  undertook  to  prove  that  they  did 
not,  in  fact,  exist  in  the  work,  at  least  in  the  sense  attributed  to  them. 
Three  years  after,  however,  the  book  itself  was  condemned  by  Alexan¬ 
der  VII. ;  while  Arnauld,  Pascal,  and  others,  from  their  retreat  at  Port 
Royal,  near  Paris,  continuing  to  maintain  the  orthodoxy  of  the  author, 
received  the  name  of  Jansenists.  A  formula  having  been  afterwards 
drawn  up,  which  all  ecclesiastical  persons  in  France  were  required  to 
sign,  many  refused ;  and  a  schism  consequently  arose  in  the  Gallican 
church,  the  followers  of  Arnauld  pointing  out  various  corruptions  in  dis¬ 
cipline  and  morality,  and  accusing  the  Jesuits  as  the  cause  of  them. 
Much  controversy  arose  from  these  differences ;  and  the  influence  of  the 
latter  body  in  European  affairs  gave  even  a  political  importance  to  their 
antagonists.  The  excitement  subsequently  died  away  ;  and  the  monas¬ 
tery  of  Port  Royal  was  suppressed  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1709. 

An  immense  number  of  different  bodies  arose  among  the  Reformers, 
which  it  would  be  tedious  even  to  enumerate.  In  England,  about  1650, 
first  appeared  the  Quakers,  at  that  time  regarded  as  a  sect  of  visionary 
fanatics,  and  owing  their  origin  to  George  Fox,  a  shoemaker.  Barclay, 
their  great  apologist,  and  William  Penn,  are,  however,  to  be  considered 
the  real  founders  of  the  society. 

LITERATURE,  ARTS,  AND  SCIENCES. 

England. — The  literature  of  England  during  this  century  presents  a  galaxy 
of  great  and  imperishable  names.  Bacon,  1626,  laid  down  the  principles  of  the 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


431 


modern  or  inductive  philosophy  in  his  Novum  Organon ,  and  thus  led  the  way 
to  the  great  discoveries  of  Newton  and  Davy.  In  the  struggles  of  these  times, 
Algernon  Sydney,  1683,  Hobbes,  1679,  and  Milton,  1674,  are  celebrated  as  the 
defenders  of  popular  principles.  The  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding  by  John 
Locke,  1704,  still  retains  the  highest  rank  among  metaphysical  productions. 
Poetry  was  illustrated  by  the  names  of  Waller,  168/,  Denham,  1668,  Butler, 
1680,  Otway,  1685,  and  Dryden,  1700,  to  whom  the  perfection  of  English  ver¬ 
sification  has  been  ascribed.  Milton,  the  greatest  poet  of  his  time,  composed 
his  Comus  before  the  Civil  War;  his  Allegro  and  Penseroso  were  written  in 
the  midst  of  its  contentions ;  and,  when  withdrawn  from  the  political  world, 
and  even  deprived  of  sight,  he  produced  that  imperishable  monument  of  his 
fame,  Paradise  Lost.  Lord  Shaftesbury,  1713,  and  Atterbury,  1732,  were  cele¬ 
brated  as  elegant  prose-writers,  and  Lord  Clarendon,  1674,  as  an  historian. 

In  1645,  a  number  of  learned  men  in  London,  agreeing  to  meet  at  stated 
times  and  communicate  their  discoveries  in  science,  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
Royal  Society.  Harvey,  1657,  first  demonstrated  the  circulation  of  the  blood  ; 
and  the  practice  of  medicine  owed  a  signal  improvement  to  Sydenham,  1689. 
The  steam-engine  was  invented  by  the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  1667,  and  ap¬ 
plied  to  practical  purposes  by  Savary,  1696.  Drebbel,  a  Dutch  peasant,  con¬ 
structed  the  thermometer,  1634;  and  the  reflecting  telescope  owes  its  origin  to 
James  Gregory,  a  native  of  Scotland,  1675.  Mathematical  science  received  a 
valuable  contribution  in  the  invention  of  Logarithms,  by  Baron  Napier  of 
Merchiston,  1617. 

France. — At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  French  language 
was  yet  unformed.  Malherbe,  1628,  had  just  shown  how  far  it  was  capable  of 
strength  and  elevation  in  poetry  ;  and  the  affected  Balzac,  1654,  had  done  the 
same  thing  for  its  prose.  Both  species  of  composition  were  brought  to  maturity 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Corneille,  1684,  was  the  first  who  elevated  the 
literary  genius  of  France  by  creating  its  theatre;  Racine,  1699,  exalted  the 
drama  to  its  highest  degree  of  elegance  and  dignified  expression,  though  it  still 
remained  a  feeble  copy  of  the  Grecian  stage.  Fenelon,  1715,  author  of  Tele - 
tnachus,  gave  to  French  prose  its  utmost  degree  of  refinement.  Moliere,  1673, 
is  still  admired  in  his  own  peculiar  branch  of  comedy  ;  as  is  Lafontaine,  1695, 
for  the  exquisite  simplicity  and  sly  humour  of  his  fables.  The  pulpit  was 
adorned  by  the  eloquence  of  Bourdaloue,  1704,  of  Bossuet,  1704,  and  Massil¬ 
lon,  1742.  Philosophy  was  successfully  cultivated  by  Des  Cartes,  1650,  Pascal, 
1662,  and  Malebranche,  1715.  Among  the  philologers  of  the  day  are  found  the 
names  of  Bochart,  1667,  Anne  Dacier,  1720,  and  Huet,  1721.  Boileau,  1711. 
was  celebrated  as  a  critic  and  satirist ;  and  Bayle,  1706,  the  father  of  free  dis¬ 
cussion  in  modern  times,  was  conspicuous  in  the  same  walk.  The  French 
school  of  painting  was  upheld  by  the  judicious  Le  Sueur,  1655,  and  by  the  cor¬ 
rect  designs  of  Charles  Le  Brun,  1690.  Sallo,  1669,  conducted  the  first  literary 
journal  established  in  Europe  ;  and  Gallois,  1707,  assisted  in  projecting  the 
Journal  des  Savans.  The  Academie  Frangaise  owed  its  origin  to  Richelieu 
in  1635. 

Italy. — During  this  century  Italian  literature  and  science  began  to  share  in 
the  degeneracy  of  the  nation,  although  in  the  first  part  of  it  their  painters  were 
still  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  We  recognise  the  name  of  one  original 
prose-writer,  Caracciolus,  marquis  of  Vico,  1744;  and  the  historians  Sarpi, 
1623  ;  Davila,  1631  ;  and  Bentivoglio,  1644.  Poetry  was  much  disfigured  by 
euphuism  and  affectation  in  Marini,  1625;  and  Tassoni,  1635.  Painting  was 
illustrated  by  the  delicate  and  beautiful  pencil  of  Guido.  1642;  Albano,  1660, 
celebrated  for  the  grace  of  his  figures  ;  Domenichino,  1641,  whose  correct  and 
lively  designs  have  been  much  admired  ;  and  Salvator  Rosa,  1673.  conspicuous 
for  the  wild  and  gloomy  magnificence  infused  into  his  conceptions.  Modern 
astronomy  and  physics  owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  celebrated  Galileo,  1642, 
who  demonstrated  the  truth  of  the  Copernican  philosophy,  by  discovering  the 
motions  of  the  planets,  and  he  is  also  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  pendulum  ; 
*he  barometer  owes  its  invention  to  his  pupil  Torricelli,  1647;  and  Cassini, 
1712,  was  renowned  for  his  astronomical  discoveries. 


432 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Spain.- — The  literature  of  Spain  presents  no  celebrated  names  beyond  those 
mentioned  in  the  last  century  ;  Lope  de  Vega,  Cervantes,  and  Calderon,  being 
still  its  chief  writers.  Murillo,  1682,  and  Alfaro,  1680,  were  conspicuous  as 
painters. 

Germany. — Notwithstanding  the  appearance  of  several  eminent  writers,  Ger¬ 
many  as  yet  showed  few  indications  of  the  high  literary  and  scientific  renown 
which  she  has  since  attained.  In  philosophy  and  politics,  there  were  Conring, 
1681  ;  Puffendorf,  1694;  and  Leibnitz,  1716:  in  poetry,  Opitz,  1639;  Balde, 
1668  ;  Canitz,  1699.  Bauer,  1640,  was  celebrated  as  a  painter  and  engraver  ; 
Sandrart,  1688,  was  favourably  known  for  historical  pieces ;  Lely,  1680,  and 
Kneller,  1723,  both  of  whom  died  in  London,  were  eminent  portrait  painters. 
In  addition  to  the  valuable  contributions  to  science  of  Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe, 
mentioned  in  the  last  century,  may  be  noticed  the  important  invention  of  the 
air-pump  by  Otto  Guerike,  1686  ;  and  Glauber,  1668,  famed  for  his  chemical 
investigations,  and  in  particular  for  the  discovery  of  the  salt  which  bears  his 
name. 

Holland. — In  this  century,  Holland  gave  birth  to  Spinosa,  1677,  a  cele¬ 
brated  sceptic,  and  to  Grotius,  1645,  who  gave  a  scientific  form  to  morals,  and 
demonstrated  their  application  alike  to  social  and  individual  man.  The  depart¬ 
ment  of  philology  was  illustrated  by  a  number  of  eminent  writers,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  Voss,  1649  ;  Heinsius,  1655  ;  Schrevelius,  1667  ;  and  Go- 
lius,  1667.  In  Flanders  was  formed  that  celebrated  school  of  painting  from 
which  emanated  the  masterly  productions  of  Rubens,  1640;  Vandyck,  1641; 
Rembrandt,  1674;  and  the  two  Teniers,  1649  and  1694.  Mathematical  science 
was  cultivated  by  Ludolph  of  Cologne,  1610;  physiology  by  Wale,  1640,  and 
Sylvius,  1672;  and  Huygens,  1695,  is  eminent  for  his  improvements  on  the 
telescope,  and  for  the  invention  of  the  pendulum  clock. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Great  Britain. —  1700,  Act  of  Succession.  —  1702,  Anne.  —  1707,  Scottish 
Union.  —  1704,  Victory  of  Blenheim;  Gibraltar  taken.  —  1706,  Ramillies; 
1708,  Oudenarde  ;  1709,  Malplaquet. — 1714,  House  of  Brunswick ;  George 
I. — 1715,  1745,  Scottish  Rebellions. — 1716,  Septennial  Act. — 1718,  Quadru¬ 
ple  Alliance.  —  1720,  South  Sea  Bubble;  Walpole.  — 1743,  Victory  at  Det- 
tingen.  —  1748,  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  —  1759,  Conquest  of  Canada. — 
1763,  John  Wilkes ;  American  War;  ended  1783  ;  Fox  and  Pitt.  —  Naval 
Victories  of  Howe,  1794;  Duncan  and  Jervis,  1797;  Nelson,  1798.  — 1798, 
Irish  Rebellion. 

France. — 1700,  War  of  Spanish  Succession. — 1715;  The  Regency  of  Orleans. 
— 1718,  Mississippi  Scheme. — 1733,  War  of  Polish  Succession. — 1740,  War 
of  Austrian  Succession.  — 1756,  Seven  Years’  War.  —  1764,  Jesuits  sup¬ 
pressed.— 1774,  Louis  XVI.  —  1789,  States-General.  —  Revolution  :  1793, 
King  beheaded. — 1794,  The  Directory. — 1798,  Egyptian  Expedition. — 1799, 
Consulate ;  Bonaparte. 

Spain. — 1700,  Philip  V.  of  Anjou;  Cardinal  Alberoni. — 1746,  Ferdinand  IV 
— 1761,  Family  Compact. — 1788,  Charles  IV. 

Portugal. — 1703,  Methuen  Treaty. — 1706,  John  V. — 1714,  Portuguese  Aca¬ 
demy.—  1750.  Joseph  I. ;  Marquis  of  Pombal.— 1755,  Earthquake  at  Lisbon, 
— 1758,  Jesuits  expelled. 

Italy. — Victor  Amadeus  II.  of  Sardinia.  —  1737,  Francis  of  Lorraine,  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany. — 1767,  Jesuits  expelled  from  Sicily. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


433 


Germany. — 1705,  Joseph  I. — 1711,  Charles  VI. — 1724,  Pragmatic  Sanction. — 
1740,  Maria  Theresa  ;  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. — 1748,  Treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  —  1763,  Treaty  of  Paris.  —  1777,  Bavarian  Succession; 
1779,  Peace  of  Teschen. — 1780,  Joseph  II. — 1792,  Francis  II. — 1797,  Treaty 
of  Campo  Formio. 

Holland.  —  1713,  Peace  of  Utrecht. — 1747,  William  IV. — 1751,  Regency. — 
1787,  Revolution  ;  William  V. — 1795,  Batavian  Republic. 

Denmark. — Frederick  IV. — 1720,  Peace  of  Stockholm. — 1746,  Frederick  V. ; 
Bernstorf.  —  1766,  Christian  VII.;  Affranchisement  of  Serfs.  —  Struensee 
beheaded,  1772. 

Sweden.  —  1700,  Charles  XII. — 1709. — Defeat  at  Pultow.a. — 1738,  Factions  of 
Hats  and  Caps. — 1771,  Gustavus  III. — 1792,  Gustavus  IV. 

Poland.  —  1697,  Augustus  II.  —  1763,  Stanislaus  Poniatowski. —  Religious 
Quarrels. — Partitions,  1772,  1793,  1795. 

Prussia. — 1701,  Frederick  I. — 1740,  Frederick  II. — 1756,  Seven  Years’  War. 

— 1786,  Frederick  William  III.  ;  War  with  France. 

Russia.  —  Peter  the  Great. — 1700,  Defeat  of  Narva.  — 1725,  Catherine  I. — 
1762,  Catherine  II.  ;  Turkish  War. 

Turkey. — 1715,  War  with  Venice. — 1718,  Treaty  of  Passarowitz. — 1730,  Re¬ 
volution  ;  Mahmoudi. — Treaties  of  Kainardge,  1774;  of  Jassy,  1792. 
Persia.  — 1727,  Nadir  Shah.  — 1738,  Invasion  of  Hindostan;  Kingdoms  of 
Cabul  and  Candahar. — 1797,  Futteh  Ali. 

India. —  1707,  Sikh  Wars.  —  1756,  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  —  1757,  Battle  of 
Plassey. — 1766,  Hyder  Ali ;  Warren  Hastings. — 1799,  Tippoo  Saib  killed. 
United  States.  - — 1773,  Disturbances  at  Boston;  War  of  Independence. — 
1777,  Burgoyne  capitulates. — 1783,  Independence  recognised  by  England. — 
1787,  Federal  Constitution. 

Hayti. — 1794,  Rebellion  of  Slaves  ;  Toussaint  l’Ouverture. 

Church. — 1773,  Suppression  of  Jesuits. — 1793,  Abolition  of  Religious  Worship 
in  France. — 1740,  Methodists  in  England. 

Discoveries,  &c. — 1720,  Fahrenheit’s  Thermometer ;  Reaumur,  1731. — 1713, 
Ruins  of  Herculaneum. — 1750,  Ruins  of  Pompeii. — 1759,  Eddystone  Light¬ 
house  built;  Lewenhoek’s  Microscope. — 1781,  Planet  Herschel. — 1783,  Air 
Balloon  by  Montgolfier  ;  Lightning  Conductors. — 1791,  Galvanism;  Gal¬ 
vanic  Battery. — 1794-1798,  Vaccination. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Act  of  Succession. — William  and  his  sister-in-law  Anne  being-  both 
childless,  parliament  in  1700  passed  the  famous  Act  of  Succession,  by 
which  the  crown,  failing  them,  was  settled  upon  the  next  Protestant 
heir,  Sophia,  duchess  of  Hanover,  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  eldest  daughter 
of  James  I.  About  this  time  the  causes  of  a  new  war  arose  out  of  cer¬ 
tain  disputes  as  to  the  inheritance  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  which  had  been 
left  by  the  will  of  the  last  monarch  to  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV. ;  and 
England,  Holland,  and  the  Empire,  accordingly  became  parties  to  a 
Grand  Alliance ,  as  it  was  called,  having  in  view  the  preservation 
of  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  supposed  to  be  endangered  by  this 
arrangement.  In  1701,  James  II.  died  in  France,  leaving  his  pretensions 

37 


434 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


to  his  son  of  the  same  name;*  and  Louis,  in  spite  of  the  treaty  of  Rys- 
wick,  immediately  recognised  this  young  prince  as  King  of  Great 
Britain,  thereby  adding  materially  to  the  hostile  feelings  which  animated 
William  and  his  people.  War  was  accordingly  in  preparation  when  the 
latter  sovereign  died  in  1702,  in  consequ;  nee  of  a  fall  from  his  horse. 
His  reign  is  remarkable  for  the  commencement  of  the  national  debt,  and 
for  thtf  first  legal  support  of  a  standing  army.  Banks  for  the  deposit  of 
money  and  the  issue  of  a  paper  currency  were  also  first  established  in 
his  time;  the  Bank  of  England  having  been  incorporated  in  1694,  and 
that  of  Scotland  in  the  following  year. 

Queen  Anne,  1702. — This  princess,  who  was  the  second  daughter  of 
James  II.,  had  married  Prince  George  of  Denmark  in  1683,  by  whom 
she  had  several  children,  though  none  of  them  lived  to  maturity.  On 
her  accession  to  the  crown,  she  found  it  necessary  to  maintain  her  place 
in  the  Grand  Alliance ;  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  was  sent  to  the 
Continent  with  a  large  army  to  prosecute  the  designs  of  the  confederates. 
In  Germany  and  Flanders,  under  this  able  commander,  the  British  army 
achieved  some  signal  successes,  particularly  at  Blenheim,  1704,  and 
Ramillies,  1706;  while  a  smaller  force  in  Spain,  under  the  chivalrous 
Earl  of  Peterborough,  performed  important  services,  the  strong  fortress 
of  Gibraltar,  the  key  of  the  Mediterranean,  also  falling  into  the  hands 
of  Britain,  1704.  The  war,  however,  was  one  in  which  the  country  had 
little  real  interest,  and  the  Tory  party,  in  1706,  attempted  to  bring  it  to 
an  end ;  but  Marlborough,  who  found  his  account  in  its  continuance, 
succeeded  in  averting  a  treaty  for  some  years. 

Treaty  of  Union,  1707. — The  Scottish  nation  had  been  deepiy  in¬ 
censed  by  the  fate  of  their  Darien  expedition,  and  being  now  intent  on 
a  fair  participation  of  trade,  their  parliament  passed,  in  1703,  an  Jict  of 
Security ,  by  which  it  was  declared  that  the  successor  of  her  majesty  in 
Scotland  should  not  be  the  same  as  in  Enoland,  unless  a  free  cominer- 
cial  intercourse  was  permitted  between  the  two  countries ;  while  a 
measure  was  at  the  same  time  adopted  for  arming  the  people.  In  these 
circumstances  the  English  ministry,  fearful  that  the  northern  crown 
might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Pretender,  resolved  upon  effecting  an 
incorporating  union ;  and  for  this  purpose  a  treaty  was  drawn  up  by 
commissioners  chosen  from  each  country,  for  the  purpose  of  joining  the 
two  legislatures;  the  Scots  to  send  forty-five  members  to  the  Commons 
and  sixteen  to  the  Upper  House,  and  to  retain  their  judicial  and  ecclesi¬ 
astical  establishments.  These  terms,  though  regarded  by  the  Scottish 
people  as  miserably  inadequate,  were  nevertheless  carried  through  their 
parliament,  May  1,  1707;  and  thenceforth  England  and  Scotland  formed 
one  state,  under  the  title  of  the  United  Kino'dom  of  Great  Britain. 

Meanwhile  the  continental  war  continued,  the  victory  of  Oudenarde, 
1708,  being  accompanied  in  the  same  year  by  the  surrender  of  the  islands 
of  Majorca  and  Minorca  to  the  British,  and  followed  by  the  triumph  at 
Malplaquet,  1709.  But  the  Whigs,  under  whose  auspices  this  contest 
had  been  protracted,  were  now  becoming  unpopular,  and  the  influence 
of  the  Tory  party  began  to  be  felt  in  the  queen’s  councils.  Their  entire 

♦James  became  henceforth  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Pretender .  a  term  having 
its  rise  from  an  assertion  made  at  his  birth,  that  he  was  a  supposititious  child.  Subse¬ 
quent  writers,  having  no  doubt  that  he  was  the  real  son  of  James  II.,  have  employed  il 
simply  to  designate  his  pretensions  to  the  British  throne. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


435 


ascendency  was  at  length  achieved  by  the  trial  of  Henry  Sacheverell,  a 
divine  of  inferior  note,  who  had  preached  an  inflammatory  sermon,  call¬ 
ing  upon  the  people  to  take  arms  in  defence  of  the  church,  which  he 
pronounced  to  be  in  danger  from  the  principles  of  toleration  acted  on  by 
the  ministry.  This  person,  though  subjected  merely  to  a  nominal  pun¬ 
ishment,  wTas  regarded  as  a  martyr;  and  the  queen  being  herself  deeply 
imbued  with  High  Church  principles,  Harley,  afterwards  Earl  of  Ox¬ 
ford,  and  St.  John,  afterwards  Lord  Bolingbroke,  obtained  the  seals  of 
office  at^he  head  of  a  decidedly  Tory  government,  1710.  These  states¬ 
men  speedily  exerted  themselves  to  bring  about  a  peace,  which,  after 
much  negotiation,  was  signed  at  Utrecht,  1713,  Britain  gaining  little  by 
her  exertions  except  the  retention  of  her  conquests  of  Gibraltar  and  Mi¬ 
norca.  Anne  died  suddenly  in  the  following  year. 

House  of  Brunswick,  1714. — The  late  queen  and  her  ministers  were 
supposed  not  unwilling  to  have  set  aside  the  Act  of  Succession,  and 
hereby  reinstate  the  direct  Stuart  line;  but  her  sudden  death  prevented 
any  steps  being  taken  for  that  purpose,  and  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  son 
of  the  Duchess  Sophia,  w^as  accordingly  proclaimed  under  the  title  of 
George  I.  The  new  king,  know  ing  well  to  which  party  his  elevation 
W’as  ow7ing,  immediately  raised  the  Whigs  to  pow-er,  wffiile  he  treated 
their  opponents  with  great  harshness,  and  even  suffered  articles  of  im¬ 
peachment  to  be  draw  n  up  against  the  heads  of  the  late  administration. 
The  Tories,  however,  still  succeeded  in  fomenting  popular  disturbances 
in  favour  of  High  Church  principles,  which  were  met  by  an  enactment 
called  the  Riot  Act ,  permitting  a  military  force  to  be  used  in  dispersing 
a  crowd  after  the  act  itself  shall  have  been  read  by  a  magistrate  in  their 
hearing.  Thrust  out  from  all  hope  of  office  and  power,  and  deeply 
resenting  the  treatment  of  their  leaders,  the  same  party  now7  resolved  to 
bring  in  the  Pretender,  otherwise  called  the  Chevalier  St.  George,  by 
force  of  arms;  and  accordingly  the  Earl  of  Mar,  secretary  of  state  in  the 
late  government,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  10,000  Highlanders,  while 
a  simultaneous  rising  took  place  in  the  north  of  England  under  the  Earl 
of  DenventwTater,  September  1715.  The  movement,  howrever,  wras  but 
slenderly  supported  by  the  nation,  while  all  hope  of  aid  from  France 
wras  disappointed  by  the  death  of  Louis  XIV. ;  so  that,  before  the  prince 
could  arrive  to  encourage  his  partisans,  his  Scottish  adherents  had  been 
defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Argyle  at  Sheriffmuir,  while  the  southern  insur¬ 
gents  wTere  forced  to  surrender  themselves  prisoners  at  the  town  of  Pres¬ 
ton  in  Lancashire.  The  Highland  army  now7  rapidly  dispersed,  the 
chevalier  and  Mar  making  their  escape  into  France,  while  Derwentw7ater 
and  about  twrenty  other  prisoners  suffered  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner. 
The  successful  suppression  of  this  rebellion  tended  greatly  to  the  sta¬ 
bility  of  the  Hanoverian  dynasty;  and  the  ministers  took  advantage  of 
the  disturbed  state  of  the  country  to  extend  the  duration  of  parliament 
from  three  to  seven  years,  1716. 

In  1718,  Britain  became  a  party  in  a  Quadruple  Alliance,  alone-  with 
Holland,  France,  and  Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  repressing  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  Spain  to  regain  her  Italian  possessions.  Admiral  Byng 
was  despatched  with  a  squadron  to  the  Mediterranean,  w7here  he  defeated 
the  Spanish  fleet  near  Sicily ;  wffiile  the  failure  of  an  expedition  fitted 
out  to  invade  England  in  favour  of  the  Pretender,  compelled  the  Catholic 
monarch  to  accede  to  the  terms  of  the  allies,  1719. 


436 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


South  Sea  Bubble,  1720. — A  Scotsman  of  the  name  of  Law,  after  almost 
ruining  France  by  the  famous  Mississippi  scheme,  was  the  means  of  inspiring 
the  British  people  with  a  similar  visionary  project.  It  originated  in  a  proposal 
of  the  ministry  to  reduce  the  interest  of  the  national  debt,  amounting  to  upwards 
of  fifty  millions,  from  six  to  five  per  cent.,  when  Sir  John  Blount,  one  of  the 
directors  of  a  company  professedly  formed  for  trading;  to  the  Pacific,  projected 
the  purchase  and  management  of  all  the  government  liabilities.  The  company 
was  accordingly  empowered  to  raise  funds  by  means  of  shares,  which,  by 
various  tricks  and  manoeuvres,  unintelligible  unless  explained  in  detail,  were 
rapidly  enhanced  to  ten  times  their  original  value.  During  this  seeming  pros¬ 
perity,  many  realized  large  fortunes  by  selling  their  shares  to  oihers  at  enormous 
premiums  ;  but  in  a  short  time  the  unsoundness  of  the  whole  scheme  was  dis¬ 
covered,  the  price  fell,  and  thousands  were  utterly  ruined.  A  committee  of  the 
Commons,  with  great  difficulty  and  by  an  extremely  complicated  adjustment, 
succeeded  in  restoring  credit  by  equalizing  as  far  as  possible  the  state  of  gain 
and  loss  among  the  innocent  sufferers  ;  and  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  had  been 
mainly  instrumental  in  effecting  this  arrangement,  became  prime-minister,  1721. 

Consult :  Lord  Mahon’s  Hist.  England,  ch.  ix. 

George  II.,  1727. — George  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  son  of  the  same 
name,  a  prince  of  respectable  character  and  moderate  abilities,  under 
whom  Walpole  continued  at  the  head  of  affairs.  The  love  of  peace 
being  the  distinctive  feature  of  this  minister’s  policy,  he  exerted  his 
influence  in  developing  the  commercial  resources  and  arranging  the 
finances  of  the  country;  but  his  parliamentary  career  was  marked  by  an 
extensive  system  of  bribery,  alike  disgraceful  to  the  members  and  to 
himself.  At  length  the  Spaniards,  with  the  view  of  putting  a  stop  to 
the  illicit  traffic  which  had  sprung  up  with  their  American  colonies, 
began  to  insist  on  a  right  of  searching  all  vessels  sailing  in  the  South 
Sea ;  and  this  indignity  being  offensive  to  the  country,  Walpole  was 
forced  to  declare  war  against  that  people,  1739.  Hostilities,  however, 
were  languidly  conducted,  the  chief  exploit  being  the  taking  of  Porto- 
bello  at  the  outset  of  the  war,  which  was  more  than  balanced  by  an 
unsuccessful  attack  on  the  town  of  Carthagena  in  the  following  year, 
involving  a  loss  of  20,000  men.  The  war  between  France  and  the 
Queen  of  Hungary  had  now  broken  out,  and  the  English  king,  alarmed 
for  the  safety  of  his  German  dominions,  resolved  upon  taking  up  arms 
in  behalf  of  that  princess,  1742.  The  premier,  who  was  strongly  op¬ 
posed  to  this  measure,  retired  from  office,  which  was  given  to  the  chief 
of  his  parliamentary  opponents ;  and  his  majesty  himself,  with  the  Earl 
of  Stair,  led  an  army  to  the  Continent,  where  he  gained  a  victory  over 
the  French  at  Dettingen,  1743.  In  a  subsequent  campaign  the  British 
forces,  under  the  young  Duke  of  Cumberland,  were  less  successful,  being 
subjected  to  a  severe  repulse  at  Fontenoy,  and  forced  to  retreat,  1745. 

Rebellion  of  1745. — Meanwhile  the  court  of  Louis,  with  the  view 
of  effecting  a  diversion  in  favour  of  their  army  in  the  Netherlands,  had 
fitted  out  an  expedition  in  support  of  the  exiled  Stuart  family.  Their 
fleet,  however,  having  been  driven  back  by  a  storm,  Charles  Edward, 
eldest  son  of  the  Pretender,  resolved  on  prosecuting  the  enterprise  un¬ 
aided,  trusting  solely  to  the  attachment  of  his  friends  in  Britain ;  and  he 
accordingly  landed  in  Inverness-shire  in  July  1745.  A  number  of  the 
Highland  clans  speedily  repaired  to  his  standard,  and  the  prince  having 
descended  with  his  tumultuary  followers  into  the  Lowlands,  took  pos¬ 
session  of  Edinburgh,  and  defeated  the  royal  forces  at  Prestonpans.  He 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


437 


shortly  after  entered  England,  where  he  penetrated  as  far  as  Derby,  but 
was  then  compelled  to  retire  towards  the  north;  and  being  now  opposed 
by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  with  large  reinforcements,  at  length  expe¬ 
rienced  a  total  overthrow  at  Culloden,  1746.  Charles,  after  a  variety 
of  adventures,  reached  France  in  safety,  while  numbers  of  his  unfortu¬ 
nate  adherents  perished  on  the  scaffold  or  by  military  execution.  Mea¬ 
sures  were  then  taken  to  prevent  similar  attempts,  by  suppressing  the 
hereditary  jurisdictions  in  the  Highlands,  and  the  tartan  dress  was  pro¬ 
hibited  ;  the  army  and  other  public  employments  were  opened  to  the 
gentry,  and  the  Scottish  people  at  large  treated  in  a  milder  spirit.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  remainder  of  the  war  in  which  the  confederates  were  engaged 
with  France,  the  forces  of  the  latter  were  generally  successful  by  land, 
while  the  British  fleets  were  triumphant  at  sea;  but  all  parties  willingly 
listened  to  overtures  of  peace,  which  terminated  in  the  treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  1748,  leaving  matters  in  precisely  the  same  condition  in  which 
they  stood  before  the  commencement  of  hostilities. 

Seven  Years’  War. — The  British  colonial  empire  had  now  attained 
an  unexampled  pitch  of  prosperity  both  in  India  and  America;  and  their 
lucrative  commerce  provoked  the  cupidity  of  the  French,  who  commenced 
a  series  of  encroachments,  particularly  in  the  latter  continent,  which 
eventually  led  to  hostilities,  1756.  The  King  of  Prussia,  being  at  the 
same  time  involved  in  a  war  with  Louis  and  other  continental  sove¬ 
reigns,  received  the  support  of  an  English  army  and  large  subsidies. 
On  the  accession  to  office  of  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  Earl  of  Chatham), 
1757,  the  war  was  carried  on  wTith  great  vigour,  all  Canada  submitting 
to  the  British,  though  at  the  expense  of  the  life  of  the  brave  General 
Wolfe,  while  their  arms  in  India  were  signally  triumphant  under  Colo¬ 
nel  Clive.  At  sea,  the  naval  victories  of  Sir  E.  Hawke,  1759,  and  Cap¬ 
tain  Elliot,  1760,  rendered  the  British  maritime  supremacy  indisputable. 
These  triumphs,  however,  were  somewhat  counterbalanced  by  the  French 
invasion  of  Hanover,  in  the  course  of  which  a  body  of  40,000  men,  under 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  were  compelled  to  lay  down  their  arms,  1757, 
leaving  that  country  for  a  time  in  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

George  III.,  1760. — In  the  midst  of  these  contests  the  king  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  then  in  his  twenty-third  year,  by  the 
title  of  George  III.,  wTho  at  that  time  began  one  of  the  longest  and  most 
remarkable  reigns  in  English  history.  Mr.  Pitt  soon  retired  from  office, 
with  a  peerage  and  a  pension,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Earl  of  Bute, 
a  man  of  peaceful  dispositions,  under  whom,  however,  the  war  continued 
to  be  prosecuted.  The  French  power  in  India  was  nearly  destroyed, 
and  a  rupture  again  occurring  with  Spain,  in  consequence  of  the  signa¬ 
ture  of  the  family  compact  with  France,  Havannah  and  Manilla  were 
taken,  1762.  At  length,  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  tranquillity  was  re¬ 
established  in  a  manner  highly  favourable  to  Great  Britain ;  the  Spa¬ 
niards  ceding  Florida  and  Minorca,  while  France  gave  up  Louisiana, 
Canada,  and  various  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  1763.  But  the  national 
debt  had  now  increased  to  ^0140,000,000. 

The  signal  success  which  had  so  generally  attended  this  war,  rendered 
it  highly  popular  with  the  people ;  and  the  Earl  of  Bute,  who  had  all 
along  been  odious  from  his  Scotch  extraction  and  Tory  principles,  was 
assailed  with  the  most  violent  abuse  for  the  treaty  now  concluded,  and 

37* 


438 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


speedily  forced  to  retire  from  office.  One  of  the  most  virulent  of  his 
opponents  was  Mr.  John  Wilkes,  member  for  Ailesbury,  and  editor  of  a 
paper  entitled  the  North  Briton.  Mr.  Grenville,  successor  of  Bute,  in¬ 
stituted  a  prosecution  against  this  personage  for  a  libel  contained  in  the 
forty-fifth  number  of  his  paper,  in  which  he  had  directly  accused  the 
king  of  falsehood.  He  was  apprehended  on  a  general  warrant  issued  by 
the  secretary  of  state,  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  but  was  released 
again  in  a  few  days,  as  being  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Though  expelled  from  parliament,  and  his  paper  ordered  to  be  burnt  by 
the  hands  of  the  common  hangman,  Wilkes  commenced  an  action  against 
the  secretary  for  illegal  imprisonment,  which  terminated  in  a  verdict  of 
damages,  and  a  declaration  by  Chief- Justice  Pratt,  that  general  warrants 
were  inconsistent  with  the  laws  of  England.*  The  celebrated  Letters 
of  Junius  belong  to  this  period. 

American  War.  —  The  war  in  which  Britain  had  recently  been  en¬ 
gaged,  having  been  undertaken  in  a  great  measure  for  the  defence  of  the 
North  American  colonies,  the  ministry  now  resolved  upon  taxing  those 
provinces,  as  a  means  of  relieving  the  burdens  of  the  parent  state.  Mr. 
Grenville  accordingly  procured  the  enactment  of  the  celebrated  Stamp 
Act ,  17G5,  which  was  strongly  resisted  by  the  Americans,  on  the  plea 
that  they  were  not  represented  in  the  Imperial  Parliament,  and  that  their 
charters  and  privileges  secured  to  them  the  sole  right  of  taxing  them¬ 
selves.  In  consequence  of  the  strenuous  opposition  thus  excited,  the 
government  consented  to  repeal  the  obnoxious  statute,  though  still 
asserting  a  right  to  impose  taxes  on  the  colonies,  which  was  acted  on 
in  1767  by  a  duty  on  tea,  glass,  and  paints;  but,  in  1770,  during  the 
ministry  of  Lord  North,  all  these  imposts  were  abandoned  except  that 
on  tea,  which  it  was  determined  to  retain,  as  an  assertion  of  the  right 
of  parliament  to  tax  their  dependencies.  The  unavailing  remonstrances 
of  the  inhabitants  at  length  led  to  the  struggle  detailed  under  the  head 
United  States,  and  which,  aided  by  France  and  Spain,  terminated  in 
the  treaty  of  Versailes,  1783,  when  those  colonies  were  finally  acknow¬ 
ledged  by  England  as  “free,  sovereign,  and  independent.”  At  the  same 
time,  the  Irish  volunteers,  a  large  body  of  armed  men  assembled  for  the 
defence  of  that  country,  procured  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
their  parliament,  and  the  extension  to  the  people  of  the  right  of  habeas 
corpus .  The  national  debt  now  amounted  to  nearly  267  millions  ster¬ 
ling. 

This  formed  altogether  a  most  tremendous  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  British 
empire.  During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  the  gradual  develop¬ 
ment  of  her  vast  commercial  and  military  resources  had  excited  the  wonder  and 
jealousy  of  surrounding  states;  and  France,  in  particular,  could  not  easily  for¬ 
get  the  triumphant  peace  she  had  dictated  in  1763.  That  power  was  therefore 
readily  induced  to  promote  the  independence  of  the  British  colonies,  and  to  send 
a  force  for  their  assistance,  1778 ;  Spain,  conceiving  the  period  for  her  humilia¬ 
tion  had  at  length  arrived,  declared  war  against  her  in  the  following  year ;  in 

*  Mr.  Wilkes  at  this  time  found  it  prudent  to  retire  to  the  Continent,  whence  he  sub¬ 
sequently  returned  during  the  ministry  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  and  was  elected  member 
for  the  county  of  Middlesex,  1768.  The  Commons  formally  expelled  him  from  the  house  , 
but  he  was  again  returned  a  second  and  a  third  time,  and  as  often  rejected.  The  cry  of 
“Wilkes  and  Liberty”  now  became  general;  forty-eight  peers,  including  all  the  great 
Whig  chiefs,  publicly  protested  against  the  injury  supposed  to  be  done  to  the  cause  of 
popular  representation  ;  and  from  the  agitations  thus  produced  may  be  dated  the  long 
struggle  for  Parliamentary  reform  in  England 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


439 


1780,  Holland  was  added  to  the  number  of  her  enemies  ;  while  Russia,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark  formed  an  armed  neutrality  indirectly  hostile  to  her  cause.  In 
1779,  300,000  men,  300  armed  ships,  and  twenty  millions  sterling  annually, 
were  found  no  more  than  enough  to  meet  the  enormous  force  Drought  to  bear 
against  her ;  and  even  these  unexampled  exertions  were  insufficient  to  prevent 
the  unwonted  spectacle  of  a  hostile  fleet  riding  unopposed  in  the  Channel. 
These  fearful  difficulties  from  without  were  aggravated  by  internal  disorders 
of  an  alarming  nature.  In  1778,  in  consequence  of  the  repeal  of  certain  severe 
penal  statutes  against  the  English  Catholics,  formidable  riots  took  place  in 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  other  cities  ;  and,  in  1780,  a  mob  assembled  by  Lord 
George  Gordon  retained  uncontrolled  possession  of  the  metropolis  during  five 
days,  setting  fire  to  the  city  in  various  quarters,  and  pillaging  and  demolishing 
in  every  direction.  But  the  inherent  strength  of  the  empire  was  found  fully 
equal  to  the  crisis.  The  internal  disorders  were  speedily  composed  ;  Gibraltar, 
besieged  four  years,  proved  invulnerable  to  the  attacks  of  France  and.  Spam, 
1779-1783;  Rodney  vanquished  the  Spanish  fleet  in  1780,  and  that  of  France 
near  Dominica  in  1782  ;  and  though  the  peace  of  Versailles  terminated  in  the 
dismemberment  of  the  empire,  and  was  followed  by  some  colonial  concessions 
to  her  European  enemies,  Britain  afterwards  attained,  partly  by  this  very  dis¬ 
memberment,  an  unexampled  height  of  commercial  prosperity,  and  her  navies 
annihilated  the  maritime  resistance  of  the  world. 

The  ministry  of  Lord  North  had  been  succeeded  by  one  under  the 
Marquis  of  Rockingham  in  1782 ;  and,  on  the  death  of  this  nobleman 
shortly  afterwards,  the  seals  of  office  were  transferred  to  the  Earl  of 
Shelburne,  by  whom  the  peace  of  Versailles  was  signed  in  the  following 
year.  The  celebrated  Charles  James  Fox,  and  William  Pitt,  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Chatham,  now  appeared  on  the  theatre  of  parliament;  and  in 
1783,  the  Coalition  Ministry  was  formed,  Mr.  Fox  and  Lord  North  be¬ 
coming  joint-secretaries  of  state.  These  associates  having  attempted  to 
obtain  the  entire  patronage  of  India  by  means  of  a  measure  called  the 
India  Bill,  the  king,  sanctioned  by  the  voice  of  the  nation,  raised  Mr. 
Pitt  to  the  office  of  prime-minister,  who  remained  at  the  head  of  affairs 
till  the  end  of  the  century.  The  new  premier,  who  had  hitherto  pro¬ 
fessed  liberal  principles,  signalized  his  entrance  into  office  by  a  motion 
for  reform  in  parliament,  which  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority,  1785, 
and  by  the  promulgation  of  the  well-known  scheme  of  a  sinking  fund 
for  reducing  the  national  debt,  1786.  At  the  same  time  commenced  the 
trial  of  Mr.  Warren  Hastings  for  alleged  cruelty  and  robbery  in  India, 
which  extended  over  several  years,  but  ended  in  his  acquittal.  In  1788, 
the  king  first  began  to  display  symptoms  of  insanity ;  and  the  question 
of  a  regency  gave  rise  to  animated  discussions  in  parliament  between 
Fox  and  Pitt,  which  were  terminated  by  his  majesty’s  recovery,  1789. 

Meanwhile,  the  course  of  events  on  the  continent  of  Europe  was  pre¬ 
paring  for  England  a  contest  of  unexampled  severity  and  duration.  The 
French  revolution  began  in  1789,  and  rapidly  advanced  to  a  consumma¬ 
tion  in  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.,  1793.  At  this  period,  a  great 
number  of  democratical  societies  existed  in  Britain,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  a  reform  in  parliament;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
apprehension  of  scenes  at  home  similar  to  those  which  had  so  fearfully 
distinguished  the  neighbouring  country,  rendered  the  ministry  not  averse 
to  a  war  in  defence  of  ancient  institutions.  The  French  envoy  was  ac¬ 
cordingly  ordered  to  quit  England,  which  was  immediately  followed  by 
a  declaration  of  hostilities  on  the  part  of  the  convention ;  while  Pitt 
formed  alliances  with  the  powers  who  had  already  declared  against  the 
republicans.  The  first  military  operations  on  the  Continent  were  unfa- 


440 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


vourable  to  England  and  her  allies;  but  France  lost  all  her  colonial 
possessions;  her  fleets  were  defeated  by  Howe,  1794,  and  by  Nelson, 
1798;  three  expeditions  to  Ireland  failed;  Jervis  vanquished  a  Spanish 
squadron  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  the  Dutch  navy  was  annihilated  by 
Duncan  at  Camperdown,  1797.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  taken 
from  Holland,  and  Trinidad  from  Spain.  A  mutiny  of  the  Channel 
fleet,  1797,  was  fortunately  composed  without  loss  to  the  nation;  while 
a  rebellion  in  Ireland,  1798,  was  speedily  suppressed,  and  a  body  of 
French  troops  sent  to  aid  the  insurgents  taken  prisoners.  At  the  same 
time,  with  the  view  of  attaching  Ireland  still  more  closely  to  the  British 
crown,  an  incorporating  union,  similar  to  that  formed  with  Scotland  a 
century  before,  was  effected,  1801,  by  which  that  country  became  an 
integral  part  of  the  empire,  and  George  III.  assumed  the  title  of  sove¬ 
reign  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

“  Nine  years  of  peace  had  enabled  Great  Britain  to  recover,  in  a  great  degree, 
the  losses  and  exhaustion  of  the  American  war.  If  she  had  lost  one  empire  in 
the  Western,  she  had  gained  another  in  the  Eastern  world:  the  wealth  of  India 
began  to  pour  into  her  bosom  ;  and  a  little  island  in  the  west  of  Europe  already 
exercised  a  sway  over  realms  more  extensive  than  the  arms  of  Rome  had 
reduced  to  subjection.  A  vast  revenue,  amounting  to  £7,000,000,  was  already 
derived  from  her  Indian  possessions ;  and  although  nearly  the  whole  of  this 
great  sum  was  absorbed  in  their  costly  establishment,  yet  her  rulers  already 
looked  forward  with  confident  hope  to  the  period,  now  never  likely  to  be 
realized,  when  the  empire  of  Hindostan,  instead  of  being  as  heretofore  a  burden, 
should  be  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  ruling  state,  and  the  wealth  of  India  really 
become  that  mine  of  gold  to  Britain  which  it  had  long  proved  to  numbers  of 
her  children.  Her  national  debt,  amounting  to  £244,000,000,  and  occasioning  an 
annual  charge  of  £9,317,000,  was  indeed  a  severe  burden  upon  the  industry  of 
the  people ;  and  the  taxes,  though  light  in  comparison  of  what  have  been 
imposed  in  later  times,  were  still  felt  as  oppressive ;  but,  nevertheless,  the 
resources  of  the  state  had  augmented  to  an  extraordinary  degree  during  the 
repose  which  had  prevailed  since  the  conclusion  of  the  former  contest.  Com¬ 
merce,  agriculture,  and  manufactures,  had  rapidly  increased  ;  the  trade  with 
the  independent  states  of  North  America  had  been  found  to  exceed  what  had 
been  enjoyed  with  them  when  in  a  state  of  colonial  dependence;  and  the 
incessant  exertions  of  every  individual  to  better  his  condition,  had  produced  a 
surprising  effect  upon  the  accumulation  of  capital  and  the  state  of  public  credit. 
The  three  per  cents.,  from  57  at  the  close  of  the  war,  had  risen  to  99 ;  and  the 
overflowing  wealth  of  the  capital  was  already  finding  its  way  into  the  most  cir¬ 
cuitous  foreign  trades  and  hazardous  distant  investments.  The  national  revenue 
amounted  to  £16,000,000,  and  the  army  included  32,000  soldiers  in  the  British 
isles,  besides  an  equal  force  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  thirty-six  regi¬ 
ments  of  yeomanry ;  but  these  forces  were  rapidly  augmented  after  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  war,  and,  before  1796,  the  regular  army  of  Britain  amounted 
to  206,000  men,  including  42,000  militia.  More  than  half  of  this  force  wag 
required  for  the  service  of  the  colonies;  and  experience  has  proved  that  Britain 
can  never  collect  above  40,000  men  upon  any  one  point  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  The  real  strength  of  England  consisted  in  her  inexhaustible  wealth, 
in  the  public  spirit  and  energy  of  her  people,  in  the  moral  influence  of  centuries 
of  glory,  and  in  a  fleet  of  141  ships  of  the  line,  which  gave  her  the  undisputed 
command  of  the  seas.” — Alison’s  History  of  the  French  Revolution,  vol.  i.  p. 
516-518. 


FRANCE. 


War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. — Scarcely  had  the  treaty  of  Rys- 
wick  given  peace  to  Europe,  and  promised  a  period  of  repose  to  the 
exhausted  resources  of  the  French  empire,  ere  the  elements  of  a  new 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


441 


struggle  arose,  destined  to  destroy  the  long  supremacy  of  her  ambitious 
sovereign,  and  to  cloud  his  declining  days  with  ruin  and  disaster. 
Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  was  now  on  the  brink  of  the  grave,  without 
any  immediate  successors,  and  the  nearest  heirs  to  the  throne  were  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  on  behalf  of  his  second  son  the  Archduke  Charles; 
Philip,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis;  and  the  Prince  of  Bavaria, 
also  a  relative  of  the  Emperor.  It  was  at  first  agreed,  with  the  consent 
of  the  English  monarch,  to  partition  the  Spanish  territory  among  the 
contending  claimants ;  but  this  arrangement  was  at  once  set  aside  when 
it  was  found  that  Charles  II.  had  bequeathed  the  entire  succession  to 
the  French  prince,  1700.  The  new  monarch,  supported  by  his  grand¬ 
father,  was  immediately  acknowledged  by  the  people  as  Philip  V.  ; 
while  on  the  other  hand,  Germany,  England,  and  Holland,  formed  an 
offensive  alliance,  which  was  afterwards  joined  by  Prussia,  Portugal, 
and  Savoy,  1701.  War  now  broke  out  in  all  quarters;  the  imperialists, 
under  Prince  Eugene,  invaded  Italy,  where  the  French  were  signally 
defeated ;  while  the  celebrated  Duke  of  Marlborough  was  appointed  to 
lead  the  armies  of  the  allies  in  the  Netherlands,  where  he  compelled 
Boufflers,  the  French  general,  to  retreat,  and  captured  Yenlo,  Rure- 
monde,  and  Liege.  The  treasury  of  Louis  was  exhausted,  and,  to  add 
to  his  distresses,  a  formidable  insurrection  of  the  Protestants  took  place 
in  the  Cevennes,  1702:  while  in  the  same  year  his  fleet  was  utterly 
destroyed  at  Vigo  by  the  English  and  Dutch.  The  signal  defeat  at 
Blenheim,  1704,  was  next  year  followed  by  the  almost  complete  con¬ 
quest  of  Spain  by  the  Archduke  Charles  and  the  Earl  of  Peterborough ; 
and  though  these  conquerors  were  in  1707  defeated  at  Almanza  by  the 
forces  of  Philip  V.,  under  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  a  natural  son  of  James 
II.,  Louis  had  still  to  regret  the  disaster  at  Ramillies,  which  placed  the 
entire  Netherlands  at  the  feet  of  his  enemies,  and  the  decisive  battle  of 
Turin,  gained  by  Prince  Eugene,  which  almost  annihilated  his  Italian 
army,  1706.  An  abortive  attempt  to  invade  Scotland  in  behalf  of  the 
Stuarts,  and  the  defeat  of  Oudenarde,  1708,  which  appeared  to  open  the 
way  to  Paris,  now  forced  the  French  monarch  to  sue  for  peace;  but  the 
demands  of  the  allies  were  so  exorbitant,  that  he  resolved  to  hazard  an¬ 
other  campaign,  in  which  he  was  signally  discomfited  by  Marlborough 
at  Malplaquet,  1709.  Again  he  solicited  an  accommodation,  offering 
yet  more  favourable  conditions,  which  were  still  haughtily  rejected  ;  and 
the  total  ruin  of  this  once  powerful  prince  seemed  impending,  when  the 
accession  of  the  Tories  to  office  in  England,  in  1711,  deprived  Marlbo¬ 
rough  of  his  command,  while  the  Archduke  Charles  in  the  same  year 
became  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  thus  entirely  changed  the  aspect  of 
affairs.  The  European  powers  were  even  more  unwilling  to  see  Spain 
in  the  hands  of  Austria  than  in  those  of  the  Bourbons,  and  the  cause  of 
Philip  V.  having  now  gained  a  decided  preponderance  in  that  country, 
peace  was  at  length  signed  at  Utrecht  with  England  and  the  other  allies, 
1713,  and  in  the  following  year  with  the  emperor  at  Rastadt.  By  these 
treaties  the  right  of  Philip  to  the  Spanish  crown  was  recognised,  but 
with  the  stipulation  that  Spain  and  France  should  never  be  united  under 
one  sovereign ;  while  England  received  large  territories  in  America ; 
Naples,  Milan,  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  fell  to  Austria;  and  the 
Duke  of  Savoy  obtained  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Louis  him 
self  died  in  1715. 


442 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Louis  XIV.  was  a  great  but  a  bad  sovereign,  and  his  reign  proved  a  source 
of  incalculable  evils  to  France  and  to  Europe.  His  most  valuable  qualities — 
power  of  application  to  business,  quickness  in  discovering  and  applying  the 
abilities  of  others,  and  skill  in  attaching  them  to  his  service  ;  even  the  senti¬ 
ment  of  religion  which  he  seems  to  have  possessed — became  with  him  the  mere 
instruments  of  ambition  and  intolerance.  In  his  long  reign  of  seventy-two 
years,  he  reared  the  fabric  of  absolute  monarchy  in  France;  and  the  ruling 
principles  of  his  government,  uniformity  and  centralization,  survived  even  the 
storms  of  the  revolution.  With  him  began  the  great  military  system  of  Europe  ; 
and  his  immense  standing  armies,  clothed  in  uniform,  and  armed  with  the 
bayonet,  set  a  fatal  example  to  surrounding  states.  From  1672  he  maintained 
a  force  of  180,000  regulars  ;  and  afterwards,  including  the  marine,  there  were 
in  arms  not  fewer  than  450,000  men.  The  revenues  of  his  kingdom  were  at 
the  same  time  raised  to  the  enormous  sum  of  thirty  millions  sterling ;  and  at 
his  death  he  bequeathed  a  debt  of  more  than  two  thousand  millions  of  livres. 
Unhappily,  his  abilities,  by  no  means  extraordinary,  were  nevertheless  of  that 
theatrical  and  showy  cast,  so  likely  to  create  admiration  in  an  excitable  people  ; 
and  to  the  passion  for  false  glory  engendered  during  his  reign  may  be  traced 
that  course  of  events  which,  in  the  next  century,  after  unparalleled  bloodshed, 
placed  France  once  more  prostrate  beneath  a  military  despotism. 

The  Regency,  1715. — Louis  XV.,  great-grandson  of  the  former  so¬ 
vereign,  and  nephew  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  was  a  feeble  infant  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  and  the  regency  in  consequence  devolved  on 
Philip,  duke  of  Orleans,  who  had  been  nominated  to  that  office  by  the 
will  of  the  late  king.  The  regent,  though  regarded  as  a  man  of  unprin¬ 
cipled  character,  began  with  several  salutary  measures.  He  reformed 
many  of  the  most  glaring  abuses  of  the  late  reign,  liberated  a  number 
of  individuals  who  had  for  years  been  immured  in  the  prison  of  the 
Bastile ;  while  he  at  the  same  time  reduced  the  army,  enforced  economy, 
and  endeavoured  to  maintain  peace  in  Europe.  This  was  partially  dis¬ 
turbed  by  the  ambitious  projects  of  Cardinal  Alberoni,  prime-minister 
of  Spain,  who  wished  to  displace  the  regent,  and  recover  the  Italian 
territories  given  up  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht;  but  Philip  was  speedily 
forced  to  dismiss  the  priestly  statesman  and  accede  to  the  Grand  Alli¬ 
ance,  1720. 

Mississippi  Scheme,  1718. — Meanwhile,  the  disorder  in  which  he  had  found 
the  finances,  and  the  grievous  deficiency  in  the  revenue,  induced  the  duke  to 
listen  to  a  wild  project  propounded  by  the  celebrated  John  Lawr,  wffiich  even¬ 
tually  involved  the  nation  in  wide-spread  bankruptcy  and  ruin.  This  plan  con 
sisted  in  the  establishment  of  a  bank  of  issue,  the  shares  of  w’hich  w’ere  offered 
to  the  national  creditors  in  exchange  for  their  stock ;  w’hile,  with  the  view’  of 
inducing  the  public  to  purchase  these  shares,  the  bank  was  conjoined  with  a 
company  having  a  monopoly  of  trade  wdth  the  Mississippi  territory  and  Canada 
to  the  former  of  which  great  numbers  of  planters  and  artisans  were  removed 
for  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  and  other  produce,  1718.  In  the  following  year, 
the  East  India  and  Senegal  Companies  were  incorporated  with  the  Mississippi 
Company  ;  and  the  prospect  of  the  advantages  thus  held  out  wras  so  great,  that 
its  stock  speedily  rose  1200  per  cent.  The  corporation  had  now  obtained  the 
farming  of  the  entire  public  revenues-  and  an  exclusive  privilege  of  coining,  and 
had  actually  advanced  large  sums  to  government  in  payment  of  the  national 
debt.  In  1720,  its  stock  rose  to  the  enormous  height  of  2050  per  cent.  ;  but 
this  was  the  climax  of  the  delusion :  the  hopes  of  profit  were  found  to  be 
erroneous,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  few’  w’eeks,  the  bank  suspended  payment  of 
its  notes.  By  this  step  thousands  of  wealthy  persons  w’ere  reduced  to  indigence, 
and  Law  retired  in  disgrace  to  Venice,  w’here  he  died  in  poverty.  The  same 
period  was  conspicuous  for  a  calamity  of  a  different  kind,  the  plague  at  Mar¬ 
seilles,  by  which  fully  half  of  the  inhabitants  were  sw’ept  awTay  ;  an  even* 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D.  443 

illustrated  by  the  heroic  labours  of  the  “  good  bishop,”  Belzunce,  who  exerted 
nimself  Jay  and  night  to  relieve  the  distress  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  regent  died  in  1723,  at  which  period  the  young  king  came  of  age ; 
and,  by  the  advice  of  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  now  become  prime-minister, 
he  was  induced  to  marry  the  Princess  Maria,  daughter  of  Stanislaus, 
ex-king  of  Poland,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  France,  1725.  The  duke 
was  dismissed  in  1726,  to  make  way  for  the  Cardinal  Fleury,  a  man  of 
pacific  disposition,  and  possessing  great  influence  over  the  mind  of  the 
king.  The  cardinal  made  every  exertion  to  restore  order  in  the  finances, 
and  promote  the  revival  of  credit  and  commerce,  endeavouring  with  this 
view  to  maintain  peace  in  Europe.  Nevertheless,  a  war  broke  out  in 
1733  against  Russia  and  Austria  on  behalf  of  Stanislaus ;  but  the  real 
strength  of  France  was  directed  towards  Italy  and  the  Rhine,  at  the 
latter  of  which  the  Austrians  under  Prince  Eugene  were  opposed  by  the 
Duke  of  Berwick,  who  fell  while  taking  the  town  of  Philipsburg,  1734. 
In  Italy,  also,  the  French  arms  were  successful  under  Marshal  Villars, 
who  united  his  forces  with  those  of  the  King  of  Sardinia,  and  reduced 
Milan  with  various  other  strong  places ;  w  hile  Naples  was  overrun  »nd 
conquered  by  a  Spanish  army  under  Don  Carlos.  A  treaty  was  at 
length  concluded  at  Vienna,  1735,  by  which  the  duchy  of  Lorraine  wras 
given  to  the  exiled  Polish  monarch,  to  revert  to  France  on  his  death,  ana 
Naples  and  Sicily  were  ceded  to  Don  Carlos,  thereby  establishing  a 
third  Bourbon  dynasty  in  Europe. 

By  the  peace  just  concluded,  France  had  become  a  party  to  the  famous 
Pragmatic  Sanction ,  guaranteeing  the  Austrian  succession  to  the  Princess 
Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  But  on  the 
death  of  that  sovereign  in  1740,  Louis,  in  utter  disregard  of  these  obli¬ 
gations,  and  against  the  advice  of  Fleury,  agreed  to  assist  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria  in  his  claims  to  her  inheritance,  and  thereby  involved  him¬ 
self  in  a  war  with  Britain.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  Hungarians  and 
Austrians  in  favour  of  their  youthful  queen  frustrated  all  the  designs  of 
her  enemies;  the  French  and  Bavarians  were  expelled  from  Bohemia, 
and  they  were  also  defeated  at  Dettingen  by  the  English  under  George 
IL,  1743.  The  death  of  the  cardinal  in  the  same  year  freed  the  king 
from  the  restraints  which  his  wise  and  virtuous  character  imposed ; 
and  he  declared  he  would  henceforth  govern  without  a  minister.  The 
conquest  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  now  became  the  chief  object  with 
Louis,  where  his  forces  under  Marshal  Saxe  defeated  at  Fontenoy,  with 
great  slaughter,  the  allied  army  of  England,  Austria,  and  Holland,  led 
by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  1745.  Two  subsequent  campaigns  were 
equally  favourable  to  France;  but  her  arms  were  unfortunate  in  Italy, 
her  fleets  had  been  annihilated,  and  Britain  threatened  her  colonies  in 
India  and  America.  In  these  circumstances,  a  treaty  was  at  length  con¬ 
cluded  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1748,  all  parties  agreeing  to  a  mutual  restitu¬ 
tion  of  conquests. 

France  now  enjoyed  the  blessings  of  peace  nearly  seven  years,  dis¬ 
turbed,  how7ever,  by  factions  among  the  clergy  ;  and  the  king  aban¬ 
doned  himself  to  the  control  of  his  mistress,  the  Marchioness  of  Pompa¬ 
dour,  a  vulgar  and  ambitious  woman.  But,  in  1755,  in  consequence  of 
certain  disputes  as  to  the  boundary  between  Canada  and  the  British 
settlements,  a  contest,  known  as  the  Seven  Years’  War,  broke  out  be¬ 
tween  France  and  England,  in  which,  entirely  reversing  the  previous 


444 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


state  of  parties,  the  former  united  with  Austria,  while  the  latter  allied 
herself  with  Frederick  of  Prussia.  The  events  which  followed  are 
noticed  under  England  and  Prussia  ;  and  it  may  suffice  to  repeat,  that 
at  the  peace  of  Paris,  1763,  France,  utterly  prostrated,  surrendered  the 
whole  of  her  American  and  African  territories,  besides  various  islands 
in  the  West  Indies.  Her  finances,  too,  were  in  a  state  of  deplorable  con¬ 
fusion  ;  while  the  monarch,  abandoned  to  the  most  shameless  profligacy, 
formed  a  harem  after  the  fashion  of  Eastern  sultans,  on  which  he 
squandered  vast  sums.  The  Duke  of  Choiseul,  his  last  able  minister, 
by  whose  advice  the  Jesuits  had  been  expelled  from  France  in  1764, 
attempting  to  bring  him  to  a  sense  of  his  degradation,  was  banished 
from  the  court,  1770;  while  the  remonstrances  of  the  provincial  parlia¬ 
ments  were  stifled  by  the  strong  hand  of  arbitrary  authority.  The  king 
died  in  1774,  having  previously  lost  his  eldest  son,  the  dauphin,  in  1765, 
who  left  three  sons,  afterwards  known  as  Louis  XVI.,  Louis  XVIII., 
and  Charles  X. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XV.,  one  of  the  most  contemptible  and  odious  characters 
in  French  history,  formed  an  ominous  and  fatal  sequel  to  that  of  his  predecessor. 
The  wastef  ul  extravagance  and  boundless  ambition  of  the  former  monarch  were 
at  least  gilded  by  the  lustre  of  his  early  victories ;  but,  under  his  successor,  the 
nation  was  destined  not  merely  to  see  its  laurels  fade  before  the  ascendency  of 
England,  but  to  lament  the  perversion  of  the  revenues,  drawn  from  an  exhausted 
and  famishing  people,  to  maintain  the  unveiled  debaucheries  of  the  court.  The 
nobility  and  higher  clergy,  exempted  from  taxation  and  possessed  of  exclusive 
privileges,  trampled  on  the  inferior  orders,  and,  while  following  the  example  of 
corruption  thus  held  out,  lent  a  greedy  ear  to  the  sensual  philosophy  now  be¬ 
come  fashionable  with  all  classes.  These  causes,  added  to  an  empty  exchequer, 
a  debt  of  four  thousand  millions  of  livres,  impolitic  restrictions  even  on  internal 
trade,  general  poverty,  national  humiliation,  and  universal  discontent,  prepared 
the  way  for  the  fearful  explosion  which  took  place  under  his  unfortunate  suc¬ 
cessor. 

Louis  XVI.,  1774. — The  new  sovereign  was  about  twenty  years  of 
age  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne,  having  married,  in  1770,  the 
Archduchess  Marie  Antoinette,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria. 
The  natural  disposition  of  the  king,  which  was  amiable  and  virtuous, 
led  him  to  put  a  stop  to  the  scandalous  depravity  of  the  court,  and  he 
was  sincerely  anxious  to  promote  the  happiness  of  his  people;  but, 
though  possessed  of  considerable  industry  and  application,  his  mind 
was  weak  and  irresolute.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  restore  the  Par¬ 
liament  of  Paris,  exiled  in  the  previous  reign  ;  and  the  management  of 
the  finances  was  intrusted  to  Turgot,  an  enlightened  minister,  who  pro¬ 
posed  many  salutary  reforms.  But  his  measures  being  opposed  by  the 
nobility,  and  even  by  the  parliaments,  who  feared  that  their  importance 
would  be  lessened  by  them,  the  timid  monarch  was  induced  to  dismiss 
him  in  1776,  and  transfer  the  office  to  Necker,  a  Swiss  Protestant,  also 
an  able  and  well-intentioned  man.*  Notwithstanding  financial  embar- 


*  From  the  dictates  of  his  own  natural  disposition,  however,  Louis  effected  much 
partial  good.  He  granted  liberty  of  trade  in  corn  between  one  province  and  another, 
made  reforms  in  the  administration,  abolished  various  feudal  exactions  and  the  practice 
of  torture,  established  some  degree  of  economy  and  order,  and  set  a  conspicuous  example 
of  it  in  the  management  of  his  own  household.  He  also  extended  freedom  of  worship  to 
the  Protesta  t<  :  and  demonstrated  on  the  whole,  that  if  he  could  have  followed  the  bent, 
of  his  own  heart  and  understanding,  France  might  have  had  cause  to  rejoice  in  the 
blessings  rather  than  to  lament  the  calamities  of  his  reign. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTUKY  A.  D. 


44  b 

rassments,  the  French  marine  had  been  brought,  by  extraordinary  exer¬ 
tions,  nearly  to  an  equality  with  that  of  England ;  and  when  the  Ame¬ 
rican  colonies  of  the  latter  country  began  their  struggle  for  independence, 
the  people,  bifrning  to  wfipe  out  the  disgraces  of  the  former  contest, 
eagerly  clamoured  for  war,  to  wffiich  the  king  reluctantly  consented.  A 
treaty  of  commerce  and  alliance  was  accordingly  signed  between  France 
and  the  United  States,  1778 ;  hostilities  were  declared,  and  a  body  of 
auxiliaries,  under  the  Marquis  La  Fayette,  sent  out  to  aid  the  colonists. 
The  chief  events  of  this  struggle  have  already  been  noticed  ;  and  it  may 
suffice  to  state,  that  its  consequences  to  France,  besides  a  great  aggra¬ 
vation  of  financial  difficulties,  w7ere  conspicuous  in  the  general  diffusion 
of  those  republican  principles  which  had  been  imbibed  by  the  army 
during  their  service  in  America. 

The  Revolution. — Meanwffiile  M.  Necker  had  been  doomed  to  share 
the  fate  of  his  predecessor,  from  nearly  the  same  causes,  1781 ;  and  in 
1783,  Calonne,  supposed  to  be  a  more  pliant  personage,  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him.  After  various  unsuccessful  efforts  to  meet  the  difficul¬ 
ties  of  his  position,  the  minister  at  length,  1787,  resolved  upon  assem¬ 
bling  the  Notables ,  a  number  of  influential  persons  nominated  by  the 
king,  to  wffiom  he  proposed  a  measure  for  taxing  the  wffiole  landed  pro¬ 
perty  in  the  nation,  including  that  of  the  nobles  and  clergy.  But  this 
body,  being  entirely  composed  of  territorial  proprietors,  at  once  rejected 
the  proposal;  Calonne  resigned;  and  Louis,  after  vainly  employing 
several  successive  advisers,  at  length  recalled  Necker,  1788.  This 
statesman  now  declared  that  the  only  resource  left  w7as  to  assemble  the 
states- general,  a  body  consisting  of  the  three  orders,  clergy,  nobility,  and 
commons  or  third  estate,  which  had  not  met  since  1614  ;  and  they  were 
accordingly  convoked  in  May  1789  at  Versailles.  The  king  had  pre¬ 
viously  agreed  that  the  deputies  of  the  third  estate  should  equal  in  num¬ 
ber  those  of  the  other  two  orders ;  and  immediately  after  their  meeting, 
the  commons  made  a  proposal  that  the  three  estates  should  assemble 
and  deliberate  together.  This  being  at  first  refused  by  the  nobles  and 
clergy,  the  commons  declared  themselves  The  National  Assembly ,  and 
at  length  succeeded  in  forcing  the  others  to  join  them  in  one  common 
hall. 

A  fearful  excitement  now7  prevailed  in  Paris  and  throughout  the  coun¬ 
try,  wffiich  wras  greatly  aggravated  by  the  imprudence  of  his  majesty  in 
dismissing  Necker,  July  11,  the  only  individual  near  him  wffio  continued 
to  retain  public  confidence.  The  nobles  of  the  court,  headed  by  the 
king’s  brother,  the  Count  d’Artois,  were  occupied  in  collecting  troops 
from  all  quarters  around  Versailles  and  the  capital ;  wffiile  the  Parisians, 
joined  by  a  portion  of  the  regular  army,  wffiose  pay  wras  greatly  in  arrear, 
formed  themselves  into  a  body  called  the  national  guard.  On  the  14th 
July,  this  newly  organized  force,  accompanied  by  a  vast  concourse  of 
the  lowest  people,  stormed  the  Bastile,  and  massacred  the  governor  and 
his  lieutenant ;  simultaneous  insurrections  against  the  mansions  of  the 
wealthy  occurred  in  the  provinces ;  and  the  princes  of  the  blood  and 
many  of  the  nobility,  thoroughly  alarmed,  hastened  to  leave  the  country. 
The  perplexed  monarch  again  recalled  Necker;  but  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  populace  w7as  shared  by  the  assembly,  wffiich  now7  proceeded  in  its 
task  of  legislation  with  an  absurd  and  fatal  rapidity.  On  the  night  of 
the  4th  of  August,  every  incorporate  and  vested  right  in  the  kingdom 
38 


446 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


was  cancelled  by  a  single  vote ;  and  on  the  20th  September  Louis  was 
compelled  to  sanction  a  decree  by  which  the  entire  royal  authority  was 
swept  away,  and  France  virtually  created  a  republic,  with  an  hereditary 
magistrate  having  the  regal  title.  The  excitement  in  Paris  still  increased, 
fomented  by  various  demagogues  and  the  miseries  of  a  famine ;  and  on 
the  6th  of  October,  a  mob  from  that  city  attacked  the  palace  of  Versailles, 
massacred  the  guards,  and  compelled  the  king  and  his  family,  at  the 
peril  of  their  lives,  to  remove  to  Paris,  whither  the  National  Assembly 
also  repaired.  On  the  very  same  day  the  famous  Club  of  the  Jacobins 
bea-an  its  sittings. 

w  o  ^  ^ 

During  the  year  1790,  the  royal  family  remained  in  the  Tuileries,  in 
a  condition  no  way  different  from  that  of  prisoners,  constantly  disturbed 
by  alarms  of  insurrection  and  rumours  of  foreign  war ;  while  the  assem¬ 
bly  continued  their  labours  for  the  new  organisation  of  the  country.  On 
the  16th  June,  they  abolished  hereditary  titles  and  every  distinction  of 
rank;  and,  in  November  following,  passed  a  decree  ejecting  from  their 
benefices  all  those  of  the  clergy  who  refused  to  swear  to  the  new  order 
of  things.  Necker  had  now  resigned  and  departed  from  the  country, 
an  example  which  had  already  been  set  by  most  of  the  nobility  and 
higher  classes ;  and  the  unfortunate  monarch,  left  alone  to  contend  with 
a  storm  of  democracy  which  he  had  neither  courage  to  allay  nor  genius 
to  direct,  also  attempted  to  escape,  June  1791.  He  was,  however,  stopped 
and  brought  back  to  Paris ;  and,  in  September  following,  the  assembly 
presented  to  him  the  new  constitution  in  a  complete  form,  which  he 
swore  faithfully  to  observe.  That  body  now  dissolved  itself,  declaring 
at  the  same  time  that  its  members  should  not  be  eligible  for  re-election 
to  the  ensuing  Legislative  Assembly ,  which  commenced  its  sittings  on 
the  1st  October.  This  new  body  was  almost  wholly  made  up  of  persons 
holding  republican  principles;  the  majority  being  connected  with  the 
Jacobin  Club,  while  the  more  moderate  party,  led  by  Brissot  and  other 
deputies  from  the  Gironde,  were  found  in  the  end  altogether  destitute  of 
influence.  They  began  by  confiscating  the  property  of  the  emigrants 
and  banishing  the  nonjuring  priests ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the  king 
was  treated  with  marked  disrespect,  and  even  forced  to  dismiss  a  num¬ 
ber  of  his  guards.  At  this  period,  the  Austrian  and  Prussian  monarchs, 
alarmed  by  the  progress  of  democracy  in  France,  assembled  a  large  force 
on  the  frontiers;  the  assembly  declared  war  against  them  in  April  1792; 
and  in  July,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  commander  of  the  combined  armies, 
issued  a  violent  manifesto,  declaring  his  intention  to  reinstate  the  royal 
authority,  to  treat  the  authors  of  the  late  changes  as  rebels,  and  even  to 
subject  the  capital  to  military  execution.  This  arrogant  declaration  ex¬ 
cited  general  resentment,  and  drove  the  populace  of  Paris  to  absolute 
phrensy.  On  the  10th  August,  they  attacked  the  Tuileries,  massacred 
the  Swiss  guards,  and  compelled  the  king  and  his  family  to  take  refuge 
in  the  hall  of  the  assembly,  whence  they  v7ere  immediately  after  trans¬ 
ferred  as  prisoners  to  the  old  palace  of  the  Temple.  The  gaols  of  Paris 
now  contained  large  numbers  of  recusant  priests  and  others  ;  and,  on  the 
advance  of  the  allies  into  France,  bands  of  furious  ruffians  burst  into 
these  places  of  confinement,  and  massacred  their  unfortunate  inmates  in 
cold  blood,  2d  Sept. ;  similar  scenes  were  also  enacted  in  the  chief  cities 
of  the  provinces. 

The  Republic _ The  Legislative  Assembly  now  gave  place  to  a  new 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


447 


body  termed  the  National  Convention ,  which,  on  the  first  day  of  its  sitting, 
abrogated  the  constitution,  and  declared  France  a  republic  ;  shortly  after, 
they  invited  the  people  of  all  nations  to  overturn  their  existing  govern¬ 
ments,  and  offered  them  protection.  The  Jacobin  or  Mountain  party,* 
led  by  Danton  and  Robespierre,  were  now  the  ruling  power;  and  the 
fate  of  the  unfortunate  prisoners  in  the  Temple  was  not  long  in  being 
decided.  On  the  21st  January  1793,  after  a  mock  trial  by  the  conven¬ 
tion,  the  king  was  led  out  to  execution ;  an  act  of  gratuitous  atrocity, 
which  at  once  arrayed  against  France  the  moral  sympathies  of  mankind, 
and  provoked  a  coalition  among  all  the  powers  of  Europe. f  By  this 
time,  however,  the  revolutionary  authorities  had  assembled  numerous 
and  well-appointed  armies;  and,  in  1792,  General  Dumouriez,  who  had 
been  opposed  to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  after  compelling  that  leader  to 
retreat  from  France,  gained  a  victory  at  Jemappes,  which  gave  him  pos¬ 
session  of  all  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  In  the  beginning  of  1793,  war 
was  declared  against  England,  Spain,  and  Holland ;  which  last  country 
was  immediately  invaded  by  Dumouriez,  who,  however,  soon  after  de¬ 
serted  to  the  allies;  but,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  French  had  still  the 
ascendency  in  Flanders,  and  their  armies  on  the  Rhine  were  equally 
successful.  The  city  of  Lyons,  having  revolted,  was  taken  by  the  re¬ 
publican  troops  after  a  siege  of  two  months,  and  became  the  scene  of 
horrible  atrocities ;  the  people  of  La  Vendee,  who  had  risen  in  behalf  of 
royalty,  after  being  entirely  overcome  in  the  field,  were  massacred  in 
thousands;  while  the  seaport  of  Toulon,  which  had  been  taken  by  the 
English,  was  recovered,  chiefly  through  the  skill  of  a  young  officer  of 
artillery,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  native  of  Corsica.  The  ruling  spirits 
of  this  extraordinary  epoch,  known  as  the  Reign  of  Terror,  and  charac¬ 
terized  equally  by  intense  vigour  and  wild  ferocity,  were  Robespierre 
and  Carnot,  the  heads  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  To  the  latter 
was  intrusted  the  chief  control  of  military  operations;  while  the  former 
directed  the  confiscations  and  massacres  perpetrated  by  those  sanguinary 
courts  which  had  been  established  in  the  capital  and  principal  cities  for 
the  trial  of  persons  accused  of  disaffection.  As  if  to  demonstrate  the 
close  alliance  between  crime  and  irreligion,  the  convention,  in  October 
1793,  passed  a  decree  prohibiting  the  worship  of  God  ;  busts  were  erected 
in  the  public  places  to  various  infidels ;  while  a  great  festival,  equally 
absurd  and  impious,  was  celebrated  in  honour  of  the  apotheosis  of  the 
Goddess  of  Reason.  In  little  more  than  a  year,  the  revolutionary  tribunal 
of  Paris  had  sent  1108  persons  to  the  guillotine,  including  nearly  the 
whole  moderate  part  of  the  convention  ;  while,  by  July  1794,  Robespierre 
had  procured  the  execution  of  a  great  number  of  his  former  associates, 
besides  nearly  a  thousand  other  victims.  At  length  the  remaining  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  convention,  each  fearful  of  being  the  next  sacrifice,  united 
against  the  dictator,  who  was  himself  executed  on  the  28th  July  1794. 


*  So  called  from  occupying  the  most  elevated  benches  in  the  convention. 
fOn  the  14th  October  of  the  same  year,  the  queen  was  brought  to  the  guillotine ;  the 
king’s  sister,  Princess  Elizabeth,  suffered  the  same  fate  on  the  10th  May  following;  his 
young  son,  the  dauphin,  died  in  prison  in  1795.  Of  this  ill-fated  family,  the  princess 
royal  alone  survived,  being  given  up  to  the  Austrians  in  exchange  for  some  French 
prisoners,  1795. 

JThe  republican  writer,  Prudhomme,  gives  a  list  of  upwards  of  one  million  persons 
who  suffered  during  this  period,  including  18,603  persons  of  both  sexes  who  were  guillo¬ 
tined:  937,000  perished  in  La  Vend6e;  32,000  at  Nantes,  exclusive  of  the  massacres  at 
Versailles,  Lyons,  and  various  other  places. 


448 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


The  Directory. — The  fall  of  Robespierre  placed  tne  direction  of 
affairs  in  the  hands  of  more  moderate  men;  but  Carnot  still  had  the 
control  of  the  military  operations,  which  were  prosecuted  with  the  same 
energy  and  success.  The  republican  fleet,  ir^eed,  had  been  destroyed 
by  Lord  Howe,  June  1794,  and  their  possessions  in  the  West  Indies 
taken  by  the  British ;  but,  by  the  beginning  of  1795,  Holland  was  en¬ 
tirely  overrun  and  incorporated  with  France;  their  victories  in  Germany 
forced  Prussia  to  a  humiliating  peace;  corresponding  triumphs  in  Spain 
led  to  the  same  result  with  that  country,  followed  next  year  by  an  alli¬ 
ance  offensive  and  defensive.  In  October,  the  convention  terminated  its 
extraordinary  career,  and  was  succeeded  by  an  executive  government  of 
five  directors,  Barras,  Carnot,  Reubell,  Reveillere-Lepaux,  and  Letour- 
neur,  and  two  legislative  bodies  ;  the  one,  composed  of  *250  members, 
was  denominated  the  Council  of  Ancients,  the  other  was  called  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred.  The  emigrants  were  forthwith  invited  to 
return,  and  the  clergy  to  celebrate  the  worship  of  that  divine  Being 
whom  France  had  at  length  consented  to  recognise  as  supreme.  Austria 
and  England,  and  some  of  the  Italian  states,  were  now  the  only  powers 
who  continued  the  contest ;  and  in  the  spring  of  1796,  the  directory  sent 
three  great  armies  into  the  field, — that  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse,  under 
Jourdan ;  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  under  Moreau  ;  while  the  command 
of  the  army  destined  for  Italy  was  intrusted  to  Bonaparte,  who,  some 
time  before,  had  rendered  an  important  service  to  the  directory  by  sup¬ 
pressing  a  revolt  of  the  sections  in  Paris.  The  first  and  second  of  these 
armies,  opposed  by  the  Archduke  Charles,  one  of  the  ablest  generals  of 
his  time,  maintained  the  campaign  in  Germany  with  various  fortune; 
but  the  success  of  that  under  Napoleon  was  little  less  than  miraculous. 
After  defeating  the  Austrians  in  various  successive  engagements,  and 
plundering  the  states  of  Northern  Italy,  he  succeeded,  February  1797, 
in  capturing  the  strong  city  of  Mantua,  whence  he  instantly  crossed  the 
Alps  and  marched  at  once  upon  Vienna.  The  danger  of  his  capital  now 
forced  the  emperor  to  negotiate ;  in  October  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio 
was  concluded,  by  which  the  Austrian  Netherlands  were  ceded  to 
France,  and  Milan,  Mantua,  Modena,  Bologna,  and  Ferrara  formed  into 
a  mere  dependency  called  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  The  conversion  of 
Genoa  into  the  Ligurian  Republic  speedily  followed ;  in  1798,  Rome 
was  taken  possession  of,  and  the  pope  deposed ;  while  an  unprovoked 
invasion  of  Switzerland  terminated,  after  a  brief  but  desperate  struggle, 
in  the  imposition  upon  that  country  of  a  constitution  on  the  model  of 
that  established  at  Paris. 

England  was  now  the  only  enemy  of  France;  and  the  design  of 
attacking  her  vast  empire  in  India  became  a  chief  object  with  the  direc¬ 
tory.  Apparently  with  this  view,  and  possibly  also  to  get  rid  of  a 
general  whose  talents  and  towering  ambition  began  to  excite  alarm, 
Bonaparte,  in  1798,  was  despatched  from  Toulon  to  Egypt  at  the  head 
of  40.000  men.  On  his  way  thither,  he  obtained  possession  of  Malta; 
successfully  eluded  an  English  squadron  under  Nelson,  which  had  been 
sent  to  watch  his  proceedings  ;  and,  on  the  5th  July,  landing  at  Alex¬ 
andria,  he  took  that  city  by  storm,  while  the  fleet  remained  at  anchor  in 
Aboukir  Bay.  On  the  1st  of  August,  the  English  Admiral  hove  in 
sight,  and  on  the  same  evening  began  an  engagement  which  utterly 
annihilated  the  French  squadron,  and  shut  up  their  army  within  the 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


440 


limits  of  Egypt.  Nevertheless,  Napoleon  soon  made  himself  master  of 
the  entire  country,  and  marched  into  Palestine,  where  he  laid  siege  to 
the  town  of  Acre ;  but  the  pasha  having  intrusted  the  command  to  Sir 
Sidney  Smith,  an  officer  in  the  British  navy,  the  place  was  so  obstinately 
defended,  that  he  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege.  He  then  retreated  into 
Egypt,  where,  encountering  a  Turkish  army  which  had  been  sent  from 
Constantinople,  he  utterly  destroyed  it  at  Aboukir,  July  1799.  But  he 
had  no  intention  of  remaining  in  this  distant  country,  isolated  from  the 
great  events  then  transacting  in  Europe.  The  Austrians,  encouraged  by 
Nelson’s  victory  at  Aboukir,  had  again  taken  the  field,  and,  aided  by  a 
Russian  army  under  Suwarrow,  recovered  possession  of  the  whole  of 
Italy.  Bonaparte  accordingly  returned  to  France,  leaving  his  army 
under  the  command  of  General  Kleber  ;  and,  on  the  10th  of  November, 
after  various  intrigues,  succeeded  in  overturning  the  directory,  and 
obtaining  the  supreme  power  by  the  title  of  First  Consul. 

The  downfal  of  the  directory  and  the  final  triumph  of  its  ablest  military  chief, 
terminated  the  great  drama  of  the  revolution,  by  far  the  most  remarkable  and 
important  event  in  modern  history.  In  England  it  tended  unquestionably  to 
retard  the  progress  of  constitutional  liberty,  by  furnishing  its  antagonists  with 
the  strongest  arguments  against  concession  to  the  popular  voice.  Still,  numer¬ 
ous  obstacles,  perhaps  otherwise  insurmountable,  were  removed,  and  the  face 
of  Europe  gradually  prepared  for  important  though  less  violent  changes,  by 
which  the  wealthy  middle  and  commercial  classes  have  succeeded  to  the  power 
and  influence  of  a  prejudiced  aristocracy.  The  most  immediate  consequences 
in  France  were —  1.  The  abolition  of  feudal  rights  and  the  privileges  of  primo¬ 
geniture  ;  2.  Equality  in  the  eye  of  the  law  ;  3.  The  establishment  of  inde¬ 
pendent  tribunals  for  the  administration  of  justice  ;  4.  National  representation 
with  taxation ;  5.  Liberty  of  the  press,  and  religious  toleration  ;  6.  The  aboli¬ 
tion  of  torture  ;  7.  The  division  of  provinces  into  departments.  The  following 
institutions  also  appeared  amidst  the  storms  of  this  period:  —  The  National 
Guard,  the  Institute,  the  Jury  ;  but  this  last,  adopted  from  England,  does  not 
succeed  in  a  land  even  yet  imperfectly  prepared  for  constitutional  liberty. 

SPAIN. 

The  will  of  Charles  II.  in  favour  of  the  young  Duke  of  Anjou,  though 
mainly  obtained  through  the  successful  intrigues  of  his  grandfather  Louis 
XIV.,  seems  to  have  been  cheerfully  acquiesced  in  by  the  majority  of 
the  Spaniards ;  and  the  Bourbon  prince  was  at  once  proclaimed  as 
Philip  V.  throughout  the  European  and  transatlantic  possessions  of  the 
monarchy,  1700.  In  the  long  war  which  followed  with  Austria  and 
England,  the  people,  aided  by  a  body  of  French  troops  under  the  Duke 
of  Berwick,  remained  steadfast  to  their  sovereign ;  until  at  length  that 
general  totally  routed  the  rival  claimant  at  Almanza,  1707,  and  placed 
Philip  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Peninsula, 
Catalonia  alone  remaining  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  contest, 
however,  of  which  a  notice  has  already  been  given  under  France,  con¬ 
tinued  six  years  longer,  the  seat  of  war  being  chiefly  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands  ;  and  Spain  of  course  shared  in  the  signal  humiliation  which 
it  entailed  on  the  French  king.  The  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Rastadt, 
1713,  1714,  stripped  her  of  all  her  European  dependencies,  and  secured 
to  England  the  strong  fortress  of  Gibraltar,  an  acquisition  which  that 
country  has  ever  since  retained.  This  struggle  was  also  fatal  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  liberties  of  the  people ;  for  Philip,  who  had  been  educa- 
38* 


450 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


ted  in  the  despotic  principles  of  his  grandfather,  and  was  long  ruled  by 
French  counsellors,  succeeded  in  abrogating  the  free  constitutions 
enjoyed  by  the  various  provinces,  and  the  country  became  more  than 
ever  united  into  one  uniform  and  absolute  monarchy. 

The  death  of  the  queen,  Maria  Louisa,  in  1714,  terminated  the  French 
influence  in  Spain.  Alberoni,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  and  a  person  of  bold 
and  unscrupulous  character,  had  been  appointed  envoy  from  Parma  to 
the  court  of  Madrid,  and  succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  marriage  between 
Elizabeth  Farnese  and  Philip.  This  princess  speedily  showed  her  de¬ 
termination  to  command  both  her  consort  and  his  kingdom ;  she  igno- 
miniously  turned  off  the  Princess  Orsini,  the  chief  favourite  of  the  late 
queen  and  also  of  his  majesty  himself;  while  Alberoni,  the  agent  of  her 
elevation,  was  successively  made  prime-minister,  a  cardinal,  and  a 
grandee  of  Spain.  The  influence  of  these  two  ambitious  individuals 
soon  became  apparent  in  numerous  cabals  to  set  aside  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  and  thereby  secure  to  Philip  the  reversion  of  the  French  crown 
and  the  recovery  of  his  lost  dominions  in  Italy.  At  the  same  time,  it 
must  be  acknowledged  that  the  internal  administration  of  the  cardinal 
was  characterized  by  a  wisdom  and  vigour  long  unknown  to  the  Span¬ 
iards  ;  his  endeavours  to  promote  general  improvement  and  increase  the 
advantages  derived  from  the  colonies,  did  much  for  the  restoration  of  the 
country ;  and  it  may  even  be  doubted  whether  he  would  not  have  perse¬ 
vered  in  this  judicious  course,  had  not  the  imperious  character  of  the 
queen  precipitated  hostilities.  These  at  length  broke  out  on  the  death 
of  Louis  XIV.,  1715  :  a  conspiracy  was  formed  in  France  for  the  over¬ 
throw  of  Orleans  and  the  appointment  of  the  Spanish  sovereign  to  the 
regency  of  that  kingdom  ;  an  armament  was  despatched  against  Sar¬ 
dinia,  which  was  conquered  in  three  months ;  and  an  expedition  was 
even  fitted  out  to  invade  England  on  behalf  of  the  Stuarts.  But  the 
formation  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  1718,  rendered  all  these  designs 
abortive  ;  and  Alberoni,  wTho  had  thus  drawn  on  himself  the  deep  resent¬ 
ment  of  France  and  England,  was  deprived  of  all  his  offices,  and  com¬ 
pelled  to  take  his  departure.  However,  in  the  peace  which  followed, 
1720,  the  reversion  of  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Tuscany  was  secured 
to  the  queen  and  her  heirs. 

In  1724,  Philip  abdicated  his  crown  in  favour  of  his  son  Louis  ;  but 
this  prince  having  died  a  few  months  after  of  the  smallpox,  he  again 
resumed  the  government.  The  real  motive  for  this  singular  step  seems 
to  have  been  the  hope  of  thereby  succeeding  Louis  XV.,  whose  health 
was  very  precarious,  on  the  throne  of  France,  an  attempt  which  would 
not  have  been  permitted  while  he  remained  king  of  Spain.  The  ambi¬ 
tion  of  the  queen  was  therefore  again  directed  towards  Italy ;  and,  on 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Polish  succession  war  in  1733,  hostilities  were 
declared  against  Austria,  and  arr  army  under  her  son,  Don  Carlos,  was 
sent  thither.  He  speedily  made  himself  master  of  Naples  and  Sicily, 
acquisitions  which  were  ultimately  secured  to  him  by  the  peace  of  1736, 
though  at  the  expense  of  her  majesty’s  patrimonial  territories,  the 
duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  which  were  surrendered  to  the  emperor. 
In  1739,  war  broke  out  with  England  in  consequence  of  some  disputes 
as  to  the  contraband  trade  with  America;  and  in  the  following  year 
Spain  took  part  in  the  attacks  on  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria;  neither  of 
which  contests  was  conducted  with  much  spirit,  Philip,  who  had  long 
laboured  under  a  hypochondriacal  malady,  died  in  1746* 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


451 


Ferdinand  VI.  had  married  in  1729  the  Princess  Barbara  of  Portugal ; 
and  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  recover,  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
1748,  the  duchy  of  Parma  and  other  territories  in  Italy,  as  a  principality 
for  his  half-brother  Philip.  The  remainder  of  his  reign  was  happily 
barren  of  w  hat  are  called  great  events,  exhibiting  little  beyond  a  contest 
betw  een  the  English  and  French  agents  in  support  of  the  policy  of  their 
respective  courts.  In  following  the  bent  of  his  natural  disposition, 
he  preserved  a  strict  neutrality,  and,  aided  by  his  excellent  minister,  the 
Marquis  of  Ensenada,  originally  a  peasant,  devoted  himself  to  heal  the 
wounds  inflicted  by  wTar,  alleviate  the  burdens  of  the  people,  encourage 
agriculture,  and  re-establish  order  in  the  finances.  The  revenues,  which 
under  Charles  II.  had  scarcely  amounted  to  thirty  millions  of  reals,  ex¬ 
ceeded  in  1750  thirty  millions  of  dollars,  although  many  taxes  had  been 
reduced  or  abolished.  At  his  death,  in  1759,  he  left  about  three  millions 
sterling  in  the  royal  treasury,  and  a  navy  augmented  to  fifty  ships  of 
war. 

Don  Carlos,  king  of  Naples,  succeeded  his  brother  Ferdinand  by  the 
title  of  Charles  III.  At  this  time  France  and  England  w?ere  engaged 
in  the  celebrated  seven  years’  w7ar,  from  w  hich  Spain  for  a  time  kept 
aloof,  but  wras  at  length  drawm  into  it  by  signing  the  treaty  with  the 
ormer  country,  known  as  the  Family  Compact,  1761.  An  immediate 
rupture  with  England  w  as  the  consequence ;  and  Portugal,  refusing  to 
sacrifice  her  alliance  with  that  power,  was  unsuccessfully  invaded  by  a 
Spanish  army.  The  English  fleet  captured  Havannah,  with  a  numerous 
squadron  and  great  booty ;  the  Philippine  Islands  also  fell  into  their 
hands.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  1763,  by  which  Florida  was 
ceded  to  Great  Britain,  Charles  occupied  himself  with  the  interior  im¬ 
provement  of  his  kingdom,  and  societies  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts 
and  agriculture  sprung  up  over  all  the  Peninsula.  The  roads,  which 
had  previously  been  so  bad  that  no  public  carriage  was  in  existence, 
were  greatly  improved ;  the  canal  of  Aragon,  begun  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  was  continued;  and  the  revived  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
glass  became  equally  celebrated  and  valuable.  In  1766,  some  popular 
tumults  occurred  in  Madrid  and  other  places,  w’hich  with  very  little  ap¬ 
pearance  of  probability  were  ascribed  to  the  instigation  of  the  Jesuits; 
and  that  order  was  in  consequence  summarily  banished  in  the  follow  ing 
year.  Various  other  measures  were  adopted  to  limit  the  influence  of  the 
church  and  the  power  of  the  Inquisition ;  while  military  schools  w’ere 
founded,  and  great  exertions  made  to  restore  the  navy,  w’hich  had  suffer¬ 
ed  severely  by  the  disastrous  contest  of  1761 ;  so  that  the  Spanish  fleets 
became  important  auxiliaries  to  those  of  France  during  the  American 
wrar,  1779.  Charles  died  in  1788,  sincerely  regretted  by  his  subjects, 
wdiose  happiness  and  prosperity  had  been  greatly  promoted  throughout 
his  w’hole  reign,  both  by  his  own  exertions  and  by  those  of  his  enlight¬ 
ened  ministers,  Aranda,  Campomanes,  and  Floridablanca. 

Charles  IV.  wTas  forty  years  of  age  w7hen  he  ascended  the  throne. 
The  commencement  of  his  government,  which  coincides  with  the  epoch 
of  the  French  revolution,  seemed  to  promise  a  continuance  of  the  wise 
policy  of  his  father;  but  Godoy,  a  favourite  of  the  queen,  having  suc¬ 
ceeded  Floridablanca  in  powder,  soon  involved  the  country  in  a  new 
career  of  misfortune.  In  1793,  the  convention  declared  war  ao-ainst 
him,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  improperly  interfered  in  the  internal 


452 


Modern  history. 


concerns  of  France;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  joined  with  zeal  in 
the  crusade  against  that  country.  A  contribution  of  fully  three  millions 
sterling  being  voted  towards  the  expenses  of  the  war,  Roussillon  was 
invaded  by  the  united  armies  of  Spain  and  Portugal;  but  in  1794  the 
French  entered  Catalonia,  and  compelled  Godoy  to  conclude  an  ignomi¬ 
nious  peace.  The  next  step  of  the  favourite,  who  had  obtained  the  sin¬ 
gular  title  of  Prince  of  the  Peace,  was  to  conclude  an  offensive  and 
defensive  alliance  with  the  revolutionary  leaders,  by  which  it  was  stipu¬ 
lated  that  each  state  should,  in  case  of  war,  receive  from  the  other  the 
aid  of  fifteen  ships  of  the  line  and  24,000  troops.  The  necessary  result 
of  this  measure  was  an  immediate  rupture  with  England,  in  which  the 
Spanish  fleets  were  destroyed,  the  islands  of  Trinidad  and  Minorca 
wrested  from  her,  and  her  colonial  and  foreign  trade  nearly  ruined.  The 
dominions  of  Charles  now  became  little  better  than  a  French  dependency; 
Portugal,  having  refused  to  submit  to  a  similar  degradation,  was  invaded 
by  an  army  of  40,000  men,  commanded  by  Godoy  in  person,  compelled 
to  cede  the  fortress  of  Olivenza,  and  to  close  her  ports  against  England, 
1801. 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  SPANISH  BOURBON  FAMILY. 

1.  Philip  V.,  s.  of  Louis  (dauphin),  b.  1683,  k.  1700,  abd.  15th  January,  rest.  6th 
|  September  1724,  d.  1746. 

' - A - - 

2.  Louis  I.,  b.  1707,  3.  Ferdinand  VI.,  b.  1711,  4.  Charles  III.,  b.  1716 

k.  1724,  d.  1724.  k.  1746.  k.  1759. 

- - A - - 

5.  Charles  IV.,  b.  1748 
k.  1788,  abd.  1808. 

t - A - » 

6.  Ferdinand  VII.,  b.  1784  ==  Maria  Antoinette, 
d.  of  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Sicily,  1802,  k.  1808. 

/— - - - A - N 

7.  Maria  Isabella  II.  (minor),  1833,  q. 

PORTUGAL. 

The  reign  of  Peter  II.,  of  nearly  forty  years’  duration,  enabled  Portu¬ 
gal  in  some  measure  to  recover  from  the  wounds  inflicted  by  foreign 
domination  and  the  hostilities  by  which  it  was  terminated ;  but  the 
country  could  hardly  have  attained  its  former  eminence,  even  though 
the  government  had  been  more  wisely  administered  than  it  actually  was. 
From  this  time  may  be  dated  her  commercial  relations  and  alliance  with 
England.  In  1703,  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  the  British  ambassador, 
Mr.  Methuen,  which  secured  important  advantages  to  both  countries, 
and  the  Portuguese  were  induced  to  take  part  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession.  Peter  was  succeeded  in  1706  by  his  eldest  son  John  V.,  a 
prince  of  moderate  abilities,  under  whom,  nevertheless,  some  vigour  was 
displayed  in  relation  to  foreign  affmirs,  and  various  attempts  were  made 
for  the  promotion  of  internal  welfare,  by  restricting  the  enormous  powers 
of  the  Inquisition,  and  promoting  trade  and  manufactures.  That  body, 
however,  were  much  too  formidable  to  allow  the  object  to  be  effectually 
attained  ;  and  although  the  national  revenues  were  considerably  im¬ 
proved,  yet  immense  sums  were  squandered  on  the  sumptuous  monas¬ 
tery  of  Mafra,  and  in  obtaining  permission  from  the  Pope  to  institute  a 
patriarch  of  Lisbon.  John  V.  also  patronised  literature;  in  1714  he 
founded  the  Portuguese  Academy,  and  in  1720  that  of  History. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


453 


Joseph  I.  succeeded  his  father  in  1750,  and  chose  for  his  minister  the 
bold  and  enterprising  Don  Carvalho,  afterwards  Marquis  of  Pombal. 
The  spirit  of  reform  and  improvement  which  had  been  developing  itself 
in  Spain  now  also  became  active  in  Portugal ;  and  this  statesman,  emu¬ 
lating  Aranda  and  Floridablanca,  was  indefatigable  in  his  efforts  to 
restore  its  ancient  prosperity.  Industry  of  all  kinds,  commerce,  and. 
education,  received  his  attention  and  support;  absurd  sumptuary  laws 
were  abolished,  piracy  was  checked,  the  frontiers  were  fortified,  and  the 
army  regularly  paid.  The  Jesuits  and  the  nobility,  who  had  exercised 
a  dangerous  influence  under  the  preceding  reign,  were  vigorously  attack¬ 
ed,  sometimes  with  a  degree  of  violence  not  altogether  prudent.  Several 
of  his  measures,  too,  were  regulated  by  the  narrow  views  of  political 
economy  prevalent  at  the  time ;  the  monopoly  of  the  Oporto  Wine  Com¬ 
pany,  intended  to  deprive  England  of  some  of  the  benefits  she  derived 
from  the  Methuen  treaty,  being  equally  detrimental  to  the  native  growers. 
In  the  midst  of  his  various  plans,  a  terrible  earthquake  (November  1755) 
occurred  at  Lisbon,  by  which  nearly  the  entire  city  was  thrown  down, 
and  about  15,000  persons  perished  in  the  ruins.  For  some  years,  the 
attention  of  Pombal  was  mainly  occupied  with  endeavours  to  repair  the 
ravages  of  this  frightful  event;  but,  in  1758,  he  renewed  his  hostility  to 
the  Jesuits,  resolving  even  on  their  expulsion  from  the  kingdom.  Some 
trifling  colonial  disputes  with  Spain  had  revealed  the  immense  influence 
acquired  by  these  fathers  among  the  Indians  of  South  America,  and  a 
plot  for  the  assassination  of  the  king  having  about  this  time  been  disco¬ 
vered,  was  charged  without  a  shadow  of  evidence  to  their  instigation. 
The  order  was  accordingly  proscribed  and  banished,  with  circumstances 
of  hardship  and  cruelty  which  affix  an  indelible  stigma  upon  the  memory 
of  this  minister.  After  the  signing  of  the  family  compact  between  Spain 
and  France,  1761,  Portugal,  still  adhering  to  the  English  alliance,  was 
exposed  to  invasion ;  but  the  war  terminated  honourably  for  the  country, 
through  the  able  measures  of  the  British  general,  1763. 

The  accession  of  Maria,  1777,  terminated  the  ministry  of  Pombal, 
who  had  raised  up  to  himself  many  enemies  among  the  nobility,  and 
given  great  offence  to  the  queen  by  an  attempt  to  impede  her  succession. 
Her  majesty  inherited  all  the  bigotry  of  the  house  of  Braganza ;  the 
ignorant  nobles  and  the  equally  ignorant  and  still  more  ambitious  clergy 
soon  regained  much  of  their  former  influence ;  and  he  was  consequently 
condemned  to  perpetual  exile  from  the  court.  Her  first  measures,  how¬ 
ever,  were  sufficiently  popular:  a  number  of  persons  were  released  from 
prison,  while  a  defensive  alliance  with  Spain  secured  the  peace  of  the 
Peninsula  and  terminated  the  colonial  disputes  between  the  countries. 
In  1786,  she  lost  her  husband  Pedro,  which  induced  a  state  of  melan¬ 
choly  that  rendered  her  nearly  incapable  of  public  business  ;  the  govern¬ 
ment,  of  course,  fell  into  great  disorder,  and  faction  disputed  the  autho¬ 
rity  of  the  state.  She  at  length  became  entirely  insane ;  and,  in  1799, 
her  eldest  son,  John,  prince  of  Brazil,  was  declared  regent,  with  full 
regal  powers. 

ITALIAN  PENINSULA. 

Savoy,  Piedmont,  and  Sardinia. — Victor  Amadeus  II.,  duke  of 
Savoy,  had  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  reunited  Montferrat  to  Piedmont 
and  the  crown  of  Sicily  to  his  paternal  coronet.  To  take  possess*  &  o i 


454 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


his  new  kingdom,  he  passed  into  Sicily  with  all  his  court,  where  he  en¬ 
gaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Pope,  in  defence  of  the  royal  prerogatives 
against  the  pretensions  of  the  holy  see.  In  1718,  the  Spanish  invasion 
of  this  island  and  the  Quadruple  Alliance  compelled  him  to  exchange 
Sicily  for  Sardinia,  which  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom.  After 
having  long  attracted  the  attention  of  Europe  by  his  enterprising  and 
successful  ambition,  he  resigned  the  crown  to  his  son,  Charles  Ema¬ 
nuel  III.,  1730,  and  retired  to  the  villa  of  Moncalieri,  where  he  died 
two  years  afterwards.  The  new  sovereign  was,  like  his  father,  a  skilful 
warrior  and  politician,  and  equally  true  to  his  own  interest.  By  the 
contests  of  the  Polish  and  Austrian  successions,  he  obtained  considera¬ 
ble  augmentations  of  territory.  From  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  to 
his  death  in  1773,  his  reign  exhibits  no  remarkable  event;  the  place  of 
battles  and  victories  being  occupied  by  useful  reforms,  and  other  endea¬ 
vours  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  Unfortunately,  this  state 
of  affairs  changed  considerably  under  Victor  Amadeus  III.,  a  prince 
fond  of  show  and  parade ;  and  Sardinia,  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  groaned  beneath  the  despotism  of  its  viceroys  and  the  continu¬ 
ally  augmenting  weight  of  abuses  engendered  by  a  corrupt  administra¬ 
tion. 

Tuscany. — Cosmo  III.  grandduke  from  1670  to  1723,  left  his  terri¬ 
tory  in  a  miserable  condition,  loaded  with  debt  and  oppressed  with 
abuses.  His  son,  John  Gaston,  endeavoured  to  compensate  by  the 
pleasures  of  royalty  for  the  constrained  life  he  had  previously  been  com¬ 
pelled  to  lead  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  his  ruinous  prodigality,  his  demise 
in  1737  was  esteemed  a  fortunate  event  for  his  people.  As  he  died 
without  heirs,  the  duchy  was  conferred  by  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
on  Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine,  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  who,  becoming 
Emperor  of  Germany  some  time  afterwards,  allowed  the  interests  of 
Tuscany  to  fall. into  neglect.  On  the  death  of  the  emperor,  his  second 
son,  Peter  Leopold,  succeeded  him  as  grandduke,  1765,  under  whose 
wise  and  paternal  government  the  prosperity  of  the  country  began 
gradually  to  revive. 

The  Two  Sicilies. — After  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  the 
kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  was  divided,  by  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and 
Rastadt,  between  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  who  took  the  continental 
portion,  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  Victor  Amadeus,  who  obtained  Sicily. 
In  1733,  these  territories  were  reunited  under  Austrian  masters;  but,  in 
1734,  the  Infant  Don  Carlos  began  the  reconquest  of  them,  which  he 
completed  in  the  following  year.  He  was  immediately  crowned  king 
as  Charles  VII.,  and  legitimatized  his  title  by  a  wise  and  beneficent 
administration.  His  successor  in  1759  was  Ferdinand  IV.,  a  minor 
eight  years  of  age,  under  the  regency  of  the  able  Tanucci.  The  com¬ 
pletion  of  his  majority,  1767,  was  celebrated  by  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  from  his  dominions.  Ten  years  after,  Tanucci  was  disgraced, 
having  possessed  power  nearly  half  a  century.  An  Englishman  named 
Acton  succeeded  to  his  duties,  but  became  odious  to  the  people  by 
adopting  what  were  thought  too  stringent  measures  for  the  reorganisa¬ 
tion  of  the  military  force. 

Venice,  under  Francis  Morosini,  had  been  signally  victorious  over 
the  Turks  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  She  was  sensible 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


455 


of  her  real  feebleness  and  decline,  and,  during  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  almost  alone  remained  neutral.  In  1714,  the  Ottomans 
recovered  the  Morea;  and,  in  1715,  the  republic  confined  its  exertions  to 
save  the  island  of  Corfu,  the  key  on  that  side  to  Italy  and  the  Adriatic. 
Aided  by  the  emperor,  the  recovery  of  their  lost  territories  might  have 
been  effected ;  but  the  Austrian  forces  being  required  elsewhere,  the 
treaty  of  Passarowitz  was  hastily  concluded  at  the  expense  of  Venice, 
1718.  The  policy  of  this  state  was  to  maintain  an  entire  neutrality, 
which  did  not,  however,  preserve  it  from  being  ravaged  by  the  contend¬ 
ing  forces  of  1733.  In  like  manner,  during  the  war  between  the  Turks 
and  Russians  in  1768,  it  sided  with  neither  party,  confining  its  exertions 
to  a  few  ill-directed  efforts  against  the  pirates,  whose  tributary  it  even¬ 
tually  became. 

States  of  the  Church. — Clement  XI.,  1700,  issued  the  celebrated 
bull  Unigenitus ,  which,  during  half  a  century,  caused  so  many  ridiculous 
disputes  and  odious  persecutions.  A  tribunal  established  in  Sicily  by  a 
manifesto  of  Urban  II.  led  to  serious  differences  with  the  king  of  that 
island,  1713  ;  but  they  were  terminated  in  a  short  time.  Benedict  XIII., 
1724,  a  model  of  all  Christian  virtues,  weakly  abandoned  the  govern¬ 
ment  to  the  Cardinal  Benevento,  who  unworthily  abused  his  confidence, 
causing  an  annual  deficiency  of  120,000  Roman  crowns.  The  very  day 
of  this  pontiff’s  death  was  signalized  by  a  rising  of  the  populace  to 
punish  the  minister  and  his  agents.  Benedict  XIV.,  1741,  esteemed 
for  his  moderation,  terminated  the  Jansenist  dispute,  and  settle  the  differ¬ 
ences  of  his  predecessors  with  the  courts  of  Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily,  and 
Sardinia.  In  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  the  neutrality  of  his 
territories  was  violated,  for  which  he  received  a  trifling  compensation 
after  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Clement  XIII.,  1748,  got  into 
trouble  with  all  the  princes  of  the  Bourbon  family  by  an  interdict  he  had 
published  against  the  Duke  of  Parma  :  France  seized  upon  Avignon,  the 
King  of  Naples  took  Benevento,  and  Spain  threatened  to  appropriate 
the  church  revenues.  His  troubles  were  further  increased  by  the  anti- 
sacerdotal  spirit  of  the  times,  manifested  principally  by  the  expulsion  of 
the  Tesuits  from  the  various  states  of  Europe.  Clement  XIV.  (Ganga- 
nelli),  1769,  one  of  the  wisest  men  of  the  age,  yielding  finally  to  neces¬ 
sity,  published  a  bull  abolishing  the  order  of  Jesuits, — a  condescension 
which  was  repaid  by  the  restitution  of  Benevento  and  Avignon.  The 
early  part  of  the  long  reign  of  his  successor,  Pius  VI.,  1774,  was  occu¬ 
pied  with  acts  of  charity  or  useful  labours  ;  in  founding  asylums  for 
indigent  young  females  and  hospitals  for  the  friars  charged  with  the 
education  of  the  people,  clearing  out  the  port  of  Ancona,  and  draining 
the  Pontine  marshes. 

Consult :  Sismondi’s  Italian  Republics. 

GERMANY. 

Joseph  I.,  son  of  Leopold,  having  been  elected  king  of  the  Romans  in 
1690,  at  once  succeeded  to  the  imperial  honours  on  his  father’s  death  in 
1705.  The  long  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  already  noticed  under 
France,  was  then  at  its  height,  and  formed  of  course  the  most  prominent 
event  of  his  reign,  internally  distinguished  by  a  wise,  tolerant,  and  hu¬ 
mane  administration.  His  brother,  the  competitor  for  the  throne  of 


456 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Spain,  succeeded  him  in  1711  as  Charles  VI.,  and  thus  led  to  the  termi 
nation  of  a  contest  which  had  well-nigh  mined  France,  and  exposed  many 
parts  ot  Europe  to  bloodshed  and  devastation.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
1713,  the  actual  conclusion  of  the  war,  was  confirmed  by  him  at  Rastadt 
the  next  year;  by  it  he  obtained  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  except  the 
Dutch  barrier  towns,  with*  Milan,  Naples,  and  Sardinia;  this  last  being 
afterwards  exchanged  for  Sicily. 

The  conquest  of  the  Morea,  achieved  in  1715  by  Achmet  III.,  led  the 
emperor  to  form  an  alliance  with  Venice  against  the  Turks,  in  which 
Prince  Eugene  gained  fresh  laurels.  He  signally  defeated  them  at 
Peterwaradin,  and  afterwards  captured  Belgrade  and  a  great  part  of 
Servia,  which  with  other  places  were  formally  ceded  by  the  Porte  to 
Austria,  17 IS ;  while  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  Spain  to  take  advantage 
of  this  contest  to  recover  her  lost  territories  in  Italy  was  frustrated  by 
the  Quadruple  Alliance.  But  the  main  concern  of  the  emperor  was 
directed  to  the  choice  of  a  successor  in  his  hereditary  dominions.  With 
this  view,  he  issued  in  17*24  the  famous  Pragmatic  Sanction ,  or  funda¬ 
mental  law  regulating  the  order  of  succession  in  the  Austrian  family  ; 
by  which,  in  default  of  male  issue,  Charles’  eldest  daughter,  Maria 
Theresa,  and  her  descendants  after  her,  were  called  to  that  vast  inherit¬ 
ance.  This  regulation  was  guaranteed  by  all  the  German  princes  and 
several  of  the  European  powers  ;  and  various  intrigues  and  alliances 
were  set  on  foot  for  the  purpose  of  having  it  generally  recognised, — that 
with  his  old  enemy,  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  1725,  being  not  the  least  extra¬ 
ordinary.  But  this  temporary  alliance,  it  is  well  known,  was  speedily 
dissolved,  and  Charles  returned  to  the  party  of  the  maritime  states.  The 
latter  years  of  his  reign  were  greatly  agitated  by  these  causes,  by  dis¬ 
putes  respecting  Parma  and  Piacenza,  and  by  the  war  which  arose  out 
of  the  Polish  election,  1733.  He  afterwards  engaged  with  Russia  in 
hostilities  against  Turkey,  1738  ;  but  his  army  met  only  with  reverses, 
and  the  peace  of  Belgrade,  signed  in  the  following  year,  deprived  Aus¬ 
tria  of  all  the  acquisitions  she  had  obtained  in  1718.  This  humiliation 
accelerated  the  death  of  the  emperor,  which  took  place  in  1740.  He 
was  a  patron  of  letters  and  science,  founded  a  public  library,  and  began 
a  cabinet  of  medals.  In  the  hereditarv  states  he  formed  new  and  im- 
proved  roads,  and  endeavoured  to  stimulate  manufactures  and  commerce. 

By  great  exertions,  Charles  VI.  had  procured  for  the  Pragmatic  Sanc¬ 
tion  the  guarantee  of  all  the  chief  European  states ;  and  therefore,  as 
well  as  by  right  of  blood,  Maria  Theresa  was  the  undoubted  sovereign 
of  the  Austrian  dominions.*  But  she  soon  experienced  the  inefficacy 
of  treaties  when  opposed  to  the  presumed  interests  of  rulers.  She  had 
hardly  taken  possession  of  the  inheritance  when  her  right  was  disputed 
— by  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria,  on  a  will  of  the  Emperor  Fer¬ 
dinand;  by  Augustus  III.  of  Poland,  elector  of  Saxony,  in  right  of  his 
wife  Maria,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Joseph,  Charles’  eldest 
brother ;  and  by  the  King  of  Spain,  on  a  most  recondite  genealogy ; 
while  Frederick  of  Prussia  put  forth  a  groundless  claim  to  the  province 
of  Silesia,  and  the  Sardinian  monarch  demanded  the  duchy  of  Milan. 

*  This  princess  had  married,  in  1736,  Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine,  afterwards  grandduke 
of  Tuscany,  where  she  and  her  husband  were  residing  at  her  father’s  death.  The  ter¬ 
ritories  bequeathed  to  her  bv  that  event  were  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Upper  and  Lower 
Austria,  Silesia,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  Burgau,  Brisgau,  the  Tyrol,  Friuli,  Milan, 
Parma,  Piacenza,  the  Netherlands,  and  part  of  Swabia. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  I  457 

Only  England  and  Holland  remained  faithful  to  their  engagements. 
Frederick  at  once  took  the  initiative  in  the  contest  by  invading  the  pro¬ 
vince  he  had  claimed ;  while  he  offered  Maria  Theresa  his  friendship  on 
condition  of  receiving  its  unconditional  surrender, — a  proposal  which 
she  magnanimously  rejected.  The  elector  of  Bavaria,  on  his  part, 
assisted  by  French  auxiliaries,  invaded  Austria  and  Bohemia,  and, 
pushing  his  troops  to  the  very  gates  of  Vienna,  forced  the  queen  to  flee 
from  her  capital.  Repairing  to  Hungary,  she  convoked  the  diet  at  Pres- 
burg,  and  appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  assembly  with  her  infant  son  in 
her  arms.  By  an  eloquent  and  heart-stirring  address,  she  awakened  the 
enthusiasm  of  that  chivalrous  nation  ;  the  barons,  drawing  their  swords, 
swore  to  defend  their  sovereign  to  the  last;  and  the  w7hole  military  f  rce 
of  Hungary  was  speedily  marshalled  around  her.  Under  Prince  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  her  brother-in-law7,  and  General  Kevenhuller,  these  brave 
troops  speedily  drove  the  French  and  Bavarians  out  of  the  hereditary 
states,  wdth  the  exception  of  Bohemia,  which  still  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy;  but  they  w7ere  unable  to  prevent  the  election  of  Charles 
Albert  to  the  imperial  crown,  which  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  diet 
of  Frankfort,  1742,  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII. 

Maria  Theresa  was  now7  compelled  to  purchase  peace  with  the  Prus¬ 
sian  monarch  by  the  surrender  of  Silesia.  She  w7as  able,  at  the  same 
time,  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Sardinia  against  the  French 
and  Spaniards,  who  w7ere  thereby  kept  in  check  on  the  side  of  Italy  ; 
while  the  former,  under  Broglio  and  Belleisle,  blockaded  in  Prague, 
offered  to  surrender  their  conquests  in  Bohemia  for  permission  to  retire, 
and  wrere  at  length  forced  to  a  disastrous  retreat.  Nevertheless,  in  1744, 
Frederick  again  took  the  field  against  the  queen,  demanding  additional 
territories ;' but  the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  made  an  alliance  with 
her,  sent  reinforcements,  wThich  obliged  the  Prussians  to  evacuate  Bohe¬ 
mia  with  the  loss  of  20,000  men.  In  1745,  Charles  VII.  died  ;  and 
the  queen,  whose  fortunes  wTere  now  decidedly  in  the  ascendant,  not¬ 
withstanding  the  victory  achieved  by  France  over  her  English  allies  at 
Fontenoy,  gained  the  highest  point  of  her  ambition  in  the  elevation  of 
her  husband  as  Francis  I.  to  the  imperial  honours.  In  Italy,  the 
Austrian  and  Piedmontese  troops  obtained  great  advantages;  in  1746, 
they  won  the  battle  of  Piacenza  against  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and 
occupied  Genoa,  w7hich,  howrever,  w7as  afterwards  lost  through  a  popular 
insurrection.  Another  bloody  campaign  took  place  in  Italy  and  Flan¬ 
ders,  with  no  decisive  result ;  and  next  year,  1748,  the  w7ar  wTas  ter¬ 
minated  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  securing  to  the  empress-queen 
the  peaceful  possession  of  her  dominions,  except  Silesia  alone,  which 
remained  in  the  hands  of  Frederick. 

Maria  Theresa  employed  this  interval  of  repose  in  various  useful  and 
important  measures  of  internal  reformation,  thereby  securing  still  more 
firmly  the  attachment  of  her  various  subjects.  The  revenues  were  much 
increased,  and  the  army  reorganized  by  Count  Daun,  the  great  military 
rival  of  Frederick  of  Prussia.  w7hile  the  chief  direction  of  the  government 
was  intrusted  to  Prince  Kaunitz.  The  principal  aim  of  this  minister's 
policy  wTas  the  humiliation  of  Prussia,  now7  one  of  the  most  formidable 
powrers  in  Europe.  With  this  view7,  a  league  w7as  entered  into  w  ith 
Russia,  Saxony,  and  France  ;  while  England,  then  at  war  w7ith  the 
last-mentioned  country,  promised  her  aid  to  Frederick,  1756.  A  fearful 
39 


458 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


struggle,  known  as  the  Seven  Years’  War,  was  the  consequence,  in 
which  the  Prussian  monarch  had  to  contend  almost  alone  against  these 
formidable  opponents.  It  ended  in  1763,  both  Austria  and  Prussia  re¬ 
maining  with  the  same  boundaries  as  before.  Two  years  later,  the 
Emperor  Francis  I.  died,  leaving  the  dignity  to  his  son,  who  had  shortly 
before  been  elected  King  of  the  Romans. 

Joseph  II.,  though  nominally  emperor,  remained  altogether  destitute 
of  real  power  during  the  lifetime  of  his  mother,  and  was  indebted  to  the 
Austrian  armies  alone  for  the  security  of  his  position.  Hence  he  may 
he  said  rather  to  have  acquiesced  in  than  effected  the  infamous  partition 
of  Poland,  1773,  between  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Maria  Theresa,  who  her¬ 
self  seems  to  have  been  forced  reluctantly  to  agree  to  it.  At  all  events, 
Austria  gained  thereby  a  large  accession  of  territory,  —  a  circumstance 
which  did  not  prevent  her  from  claiming,  on  the  extinction  of  the 
electoral  house  of  Bavaria  by  the  death  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  1777, 
nearly  all  the  possessions  of  that  family.  With  the  view  of  enforcing 
this  demand,  and  regardless  of  the  rights  of  the  undoubted  heir,  Charles 
Theodore,  elector-palatine,  an  Austrian  army  at  once  occupied  the  whole 
electorate.  France.  Russia,  and  Prussia,  however,  remonstrated  against 
this  appropriation;  and  Frederick  quickly  poured  an  immense  force  into 
Bohemia,  which  wasted  the  country  even  to  the  walls  of  Prague.  These 
prompt  measures  led  to  a  peace  at  Teschen,  1779,  by  which  the  elector- 
palatine  obtained  his  inheritance,  though  a  small  portion  of  his  spoils 
was  secured  to  the  emperor.  In  1780,  died  Maria  Theresa,  the  best  and 
greatest  sovereign  of  her  race,  after  a  reign  of  forty  years,  devoted  to  the 
promotion  of  the  happiness  of  her  people. 

Maria  Theresa  made  many  important  improvements  for  the  benefit  of  her 
wide  dominions,  in  1776  she  abolished  the  torture  in  the  hereditary  states,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  rural  and  personal  services  which  the  Bohemian  peasants 
rendered  to  their  feudal  lords  ;  and  from  1774  to  1778  her  attention  was  occupied 
with  the  establishment  of  a  gener d  system  of  popular  education.  Various 
salutary  regulations  were  enforced  touching  the  temporalities  of  the  clergy  ; 
and  in  Italy  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  Inquisition  was  circumscribed  within 
narrow  limits.  Lombardy,  after  the  long  misrule  of  its  Spanish  governors, 
experienced  an  era  of  reviving  prosperity  under  her  minister  Count  Firmian, 
who  reformed  the  financial  arrangements,  and  protected  the  peasants  from  the 
oppressions  of  the  great. 

Joseph  II.,  who  aimed  at  the  reputation  of  a  reformer,  now  undisputed 
master  of  the  Austrian  territories,  imagined  himself  at  length  able  to 
indulge  his  ambition  abroad,  as  well  as  to  enter  on  his  long-meditated 
changes  at  home.  Various  schemes  of  aggrandisement  were  formed  at 
the  expense  of  Holland,  Turkey,  aud  the  smaller  Germanic  states, 
especially  the  exchange  of  the  Netherlands  for  Bavaria  ;  but  the  inter¬ 
position  of  France  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  succeeded  in  effecting 
a  defensive  league  among  the  several-  princes,  effectually  kept  him  in 
check.  The  innovations  of  the  emperor,  embracing  the  entire  abolition 
of  feudalism,  religious  equality,  uniformity  of  government  and  taxation, 
regular  dispensation  of  justice  to  all  classes,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  German  as  a  universal  language  throughout  his  dominions,  were  in 
themselves  of  the  most  salutary  description ;  hut  they  were  carried  inro 
effect  with  an  arbitrary  and  restless  haste  which  gave  great  offence  to 
nations  differing  widely  from  each  other,  and  most  of  them  but  imper¬ 
fectly  prepared  for  such  sweeping  changes.  In  the  Catholic  Nether- 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


459 


lands,  in  particular,  these  inroads  on  their  ancient  usages  were  viewed 
with  detestation,  while  the  alteration  of  their  native  language  produced 
great  excitement  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  In  1788,  under  pretext  of 
an  alliance  with  the  Empress  Catherine  II.,  then  at  war  with  Turkey, 
he  raised  a  large  army  for  the  invasion  of  that  country.  He  conducted 
one  division  of  it  in  person,  with  little  credit ;  but  another,  under  General 
Laudon,  succeeded  in  capturing  Belgrade  and  other  fortresses,  1789. 
The  disturbances  in  Hungary  and  the  Low  Countries,  however,  which 
had  been  carried  the  length  of  open  revolt,  and  the  intervention  of  Prus¬ 
sia  and  the  maritime  powers,  arrested  the  progress  of  the  Austrian  arms, 
and  probably  accelerated  the  death  of  the  emperor,  which  took  place 
in  1790. 

Joseph  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Leopold  II.,  grandduke  of  Tus¬ 
cany,  in  the  hereditary  states,  and  shortly  after  also  in  the  imperial 
honours.  This  prince  had  gained  a  high  character  in  his  Italian  princi¬ 
pality,  and  soon  displayed  a  laudable  prudence  and  moderation  in 
governing  his  extensive  empire.  He  at  once  abolished  the  more  odious 
innovations  of  his  brother,  thereby,  in  some  measure,  securing  internal 
tranquillity  ;  placed  himself  on  a  footing  of  amity  with  Prussia  and 
England ;  and  concluded  an  advantageous  peace  with  the  Porte.  The 
most  important  event  of  his  reign,  which  embraced  little  more  than 
twelve  months,  was  an  alliance  with  Prussia,  1792,  to  arrest  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  French  republicanism,  which  became  the  precursor  of  conse¬ 
quences  most  disastrous  to  his  country.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  same 
year  by  his  son  Francis  II.,  at  a  time  when  the  discontent  produced  by 
the  rash  innovations  of  Joseph  had  not  subsided,  and  war  with  France 
appeared  inevitable.  It  broke  out  in  April  by  a  declaration  on  the  part 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  was  carried  on  for  some  years  on  the 
Rhine  with  varied  success :  but  the  brilliant  victories  of  Bonaparte 
forced  on  the  peace  of  1797.  However,  in  1799,  a  new  coalition  was 
formed  between  Austria,  Russia,  and  England,  and  the  allied  armies 
were  eminently  triumphant  both  in  Italy  and  on  the  Rhine,  when  a  mis¬ 
understanding  between  the  Austrian  and  Russian  commanders  led  to  the 
defeat  of  the  latter  in  Switzerland  and  his  subsequent  withdrawal,  1800. 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  HAPSBURG-LORRAINE. 

52.  Francis  Im  b.  1708,  emp.  1745,  d.  1765=  Maria  Theresa,  q.  of  Hungary'and 
|  Bohemia. 

« - * - , 

53.  Joseph  II.,  b.  1741,  emp.  1765,  54.  Leopold  II.,  b.  1747,  emp.  1790, 

d.  1790.  d  1792. 

/ - A - — - , 

55.  Francis  II.,  b.  1768,  emp.  1792,  1st  of  Austria,  1804. 

/ - - — - - 

56.  Ferdinand  Charles,  emp.  1835.  Maria  Louisa,  b.  1791  =  Napoleon,  1810. 

HOLLAND. 

William  III.,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  England  in  1G89, 
offered  to  the  world  the  singular  spectacle  of  a  monarchy  and  a  republic 
governed  at  the  same  time  by  the  same  individual;  and  in  both  capa¬ 
cities  he  was  occupied  with  one  absorbing  motive,  that  of  determined 
opposition  to  the  power  of  Louis  XIV.  Hardly,  therefore,  was  he 
seated  in  his  newly  acquired  sovereignty,  ere  he  appeared  on  the  Con¬ 
tinent  at  the  head  of  a  confederacy  embracing  Germany,  Spain,  Great 


460 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Britain,  and  Holland.  Various  bloody  but  undecisive  campaigns  were 
fought ;  and  though  unable  to  command  that  success  which  his  military 
talents  deserved,  he  had  the  rare  fortune  of  appearing  always  as  for¬ 
midable  after  defeat  as  he  had  been  before  action.  This  contest  con¬ 
ferred  a  high  reputation  on  the  naval  and  military  force  of  Holland  ;  but 
she  had  at  the  same  time  to  lament  an  increase  of  public  debt  and  the 
diminution  of  trade;  while  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  1697,  by  which  it 
was  terminated,  secured  to  her  no  advantages.  Nevertheless,  the  states 
readily  became  parties  to  the  Grand  Alliance,  1701  ;  and  William  was 
once  more  preparing  to  lead  the  armies  of  Europe  against  the  French, 
when  his  death  in  the  same  year  left  his  plans  to  be  carried  out  by  more 
fortunate  leaders. 

Holland,  however,  did  not  neglect  this  opportunity  of  recurring  to  the 
old  government  of  1650:  no  new  stadthoider  was  appointed;  the  su¬ 
preme  authority  was  retained  by  the  states-general,  and  Heinsius,  the 
grand-pensioner,  was  intrusted  with  the  active  direction  of  affairs.  This 
great  man  amply  justified  the  confidence  reposed  in  him ;  he  ably  co¬ 
operated  with  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  in  the  long  contest  which 
followed ;  and  to  his  assistance  and  counsels  w'ere  owino-  in  no  small 
degree  those  masterly  combinations  which  resulted  in  the  splendid 
triumphs  of  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet.  The 
peace  of  Utrecht,  1713,  which  secured  to  Holland  a  strong  barrier  of 
frontier  fortresses,  also  saw  the  republic  raised  to  her  highest  point  of 
influence  and  greatness.  Her  powerful  enemy  had  been  humbled  to  the 
dust ;  her  commerce  had  revived  amidst  the  struggle ;  her  finances  were 
placed  on  a  satisfactory  footing;  and  surrounding  states  regarded  her 
with  envy  or  respect. 

For  a  period  of  thirty  years  after  this  treaty,  the  United  Provinces 
enjoyed  the  unwonted  blessing  of  peace,  during  which  the  states  devoted 
their  entire  energies  to  internal  reforms.  They  received  into  their  pro¬ 
tection  the  persecuted  sectaries  of  France,  Germany,  and  Hungary  ;  and 
though  the  principle  of  toleration  might  seem  to  be  violated  in  the  expul¬ 
sion  of  the  Jesuits,  1731,  a  Protestant  country  cannot  well  be  blamed  for 
a  measure  afterwards  universally  imitated  even  by  Catholic  states.  In 
173*2,  the  whole  nation  was  overwhelmed  with  alarm,  by  the  discovery 
that  the  beams  and  other  wood-work  employed  in  the  construction  of 
their  dikes  had  been  eaten  through  by  some  unknown  species  of  marine 
grub;  but  the  providential  occurrence  of  a  hard  frost,  by  destroying 
these  formidable  insects,  freed  the  country  from  a  danger  greater  even 
than  another  war.  The  elements  of  a  fresh  contest  were  already  in 
existence.  In  1729,  the  states  had  been  induced  to  guarantee  the  Prag¬ 
matic  Sanction,  and  on  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  1740,  they  at  once 
joined  England  in  aid  of  his  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  with  a  reinforce¬ 
ment  of  20,000  men  and  a  large  subsidy.  These  allies  gained  the  battle 
of  Dettingen,  1743  ;  but  Holland  was  once  more  exposed  to  invasion 
after  the  severe  repulse  at  Fontenoy,  1744.  In  these  circumstances,  she 
again  had  recourse  to  the  old  expedient  of  elevating  the  house  of  Orange ; 
and,  accordingly,  the  representative  of  that  illustrious  family,  William 
IV.,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  George  II.,  was  appointed  stadt¬ 
hoider,  and  the  right  of  hereditary  succession  vested  in  the  male  and 
female  line,  1747. 

The  contest  was  concluded  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1748, 


N 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURA  A.  D. 


461 


without  loss  to  the  country  ;  but,  three  years  afterwards,  amid  her  re¬ 
viving  prosperity,  Holland  had  to  lament  the  death  of  her  young  chief. 
His  son,  William  V.,  then  an  infant,  succeeded  under  the  guardianship 
of  his  mother;  and,  during  his  minority,  the  nation  was  able  to  remain 
neutral  amid  the  storms  of  the  seven  years’  war.  This  prince  assumed 
the  government  in  1766;  two  years  later,  he  married  the  Princess  of 
Prussia,  niece  of  Frederick  the  Great.  But  the  anti-Orange  faction  had 
in  the  mean  time  again  attained  the  ascendency,  and  a  rankling  jealousy 
of  England  sprung  up  in  the  national  mind.  This  feeling  led  the  Dutch 
to  give  an  underhand  aid  to  the  revolted  colonies  in  America,  as  also  to 
join  the  armed  neutrality  of  the  northern  powers ;  and  the  British,  in 
return,  declared  war  against  them  in  1780.  In  the  four  years’  struggle 
that  followed,  Holland  suffered  severely  in  her  commerce,  and  lost  many 
valuable  colonies,  which  were  retained  by  Britain  at  the  peace  of  1784 ; 
while  the  emperor  also  took  the  opportunity  to  dismantle  the  barrier 
towns,  1781.  The  national  discontent  thus  awakened,  and  the  new 
theories  set  afloat  during  the  contest,  gave  increased  activity  to  the  re¬ 
publican  party;  and,  in  1787,  the  states  actually  deprived  William  of 
all  his  appointments,  while  his  consort,  wTho  had  endeavoured  to  recon¬ 
cile  the  hostile  parties,  was  unjustifiably  arrested  and  treated  as  a  pri¬ 
soner.  The  King  of  Prussia,  in  his  sister’s  name,  demanded  an  ample 
satisfaction ;  on  the  Tefusal  of  which,  a  Prussian  army  of  20,000  men, 
under  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  marched  into  Holland.  Amsterdam  was 
besieged  and  forced  to  capitulate,  when  all  the  resolutions  that  had  been 
taken  against  the  stadtholder  were  annulled,  and  he  was  reinstated  in 
his  former  authority.  But  this  period  of  recovered  power  was  of  short 
duration;  an  alliance  with  Prussia  and  England  in  1788  being  the 
ostensible  cause  of  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  France  in  1793. 
At  the  head  of  an  army  of  100,000  men,  the  republican  general,  Piche- 
gru,  soon  gained  possession  of  the  chief  places  in  Flanders,  1794;  and, 
taking  advantage  of  an  unusually  severe  winter,  which  froze  the  canals 
and  arms  of  the  sea,  drove  the  Duke  of  York  and  his  army  from  point 
to  point,  and  speedily  became  master  of  the  whole  country.  The  Prince 
of  Orange  presented  himself  to  the  states-general  at  the  Hague,  into 
whose  hands  he  resigned  his  dignities  and  retired  to  England ;  and  the 
United  Provinces  now  changed  their  long-cherished  form  of  government, 
and  even  their  name,  receiving,  at  the  command  of  their  Gallican  masters, 
the  novel  designation  of  the  Batavian  Republic,  1795. 

DENMARK. 

The  treaty  of  Stockholm,  1720,  having  secured  to  Frederick  IY.  all 
he  could  reasonably  desire,  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  in  un¬ 
molested  repose,  during  which  he  was  enabled  by  economy  and  wise 
financial  measures  to  reduce  somewhat  the  extraordinary  burdens  which 
the  war  had  rendered  necessary.  The  most  striking  events  that  followed 
were  the  closing  of  the  trade  with  Hamburg  in  1726,  and  the  occurrence 
of  a  fire  in  Copenhagen,  which  consumed  about  sixteen  hundred  and 
forty  houses,  thereby  nearly  destroying  that  capital,  1728.  Frederick 
died  in  1730,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age,  having  the  character  of  a 
wise  and  biave  prince,  fond  of  enterprise,  but  strongly  disposed  to  pro¬ 
mote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects.  His  son  and  successor,  Christian 
39* 


462 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


VI.,  one  of  the  most  popular  and  patriotic  sovereigns  of  Denmark,  im¬ 
mediately  abolished  various  monopolies  in  the  sale  of  wine,  brandy, 
salt,  and  tobacco,  which  had  pressed  heavily  on  the  people;  and  with 
the  view  of  still  further  stimulating  commerce,  he  established  the  Asiatic 
Company  in  1732,  and  four  years  after  re-opened  the  trade  with  Ham¬ 
burg.  At  the  same  time,  he  renewed  treaties  of  amity  with  Sweden  and 
England,  for  the  mutual  protection  of  their  dominions ;  with  the  view  of 
promoting  arts  and  manufactures,  workmen  were  brought  from  various 
countries  to  instruct  the  people ;  and  the  establishment  of  a  royal  bank 
proved  of  great  advantage  to  the  mercantile  classes  in  the  kingdom. 
Notwithstanding  the  repeal  of  various  oppressive  taxes,  Christian  con¬ 
trived  to  maintain  his  fleet  and  army  on  a  respectable  footing,  as  well 
as  to  restore  the  militia,  which  had  been  abolished  ;  and,  although  de¬ 
voted  to  a  pacific  policy,  he  was  thus  enabled  to  assume  a  vigorous 
warlike  attitude,  when  events  rendered  it  necessary.  This  prince  also 
established  regulations  for  the  better  celebration  of  religious  service,  and 
enjoined  upon  the  great  landed  proprietors  the  obligation  of  founding  a 
school  in  every  village.  The  magnificent  palace  of  Christiansburg,  and 
the  docks  of  Christianshaven,  are  among  the  chief  monuments  of  hi? 
reign. 

Frederick  V.,  1746,  succeeded  to  the  virtues  as  well  as  the  crown 
of  his  father ;  and  his  internal  management  of  affairs  forms  a  brilliant 
sequel  to  the  measures  of  that  excellent  prince,  in  which  he  was  ably 
seconded  by  his  minister,  the  great  Bernstorf.  Commerce  and  manufac¬ 
tures  accordingly  prospered  more  rapidly  than  ever,  the  national  shipping 
being  fully  doubled  in  this  reign;  intellectual  culture  became  widely 
diffused;  economy  and  judicious  regulations  placed  the  finances  in  a 
highly  satisfactory  condition ;  while  various  legislative  measures  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  more  prompt  and  regular  administration  of  justice.  In 
1743,  the  king  espoused  Louisa,  daughter  of  George  II.  of  England,  an 
estimable  personage;  and,  in  1749,  the  birth  of  a  prince-royal  diffused 
universal  joy  throughout  the  nation.  On  the  death  of  the  queen  in  1751, 
another  marriage  was  concluded  with  Juliana  Maria  of  Brunswick- 
Wolfenbuttel,  a  lady  greatly  inferior  in  every  respect  to  her  predecessor, 
and  whose  intrigues  became  afterwards'  the  source  of  much  evil  in  the  , 
reign  of  her  step-son.  In  the  wars  which  desolated  the  rest  of  Europe, 
Frederick  took  no  part ;  and  though  certain  claims  put  forth  to The  duchy 
of  Sleswick  by  the  Czar  Peter  III.  led  to  military  demonstrations  in 
1762,  the  dispute  was  amicably  settled  with  Catherine  II.  in  the  sam6 
year.  The  rest  of  his  life  was'spent  in  encouraging  the  arts  and  sciences  ; 
and  to  hirn  the  Danish  theatre  is  indebted  for  its  origin. 

Christian  VII.,  1766,  succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of  .seventeen, 
and,  though  inheriting  little  either  of  his  talents  or  virtues,  signalized 
the  commencement  of  his  reign  by  a  measure  for  the  gradual  abolition 
of  vassalage  throughout  the  kingdom.  Immediately  on  his  accession, 
he  espoused  Caroline  Matilda,  sister  of  George  III.  of  England,  an 
amiable  and  accomplished  princess,  whom  he  nevertheless  treated  with 
great  harshness;  and,  in  1768,  leaving  her  behind  him,  he  set  out  on  a 
tour  of  pleasure  through  Europe,  in  the  course  of  which  he  received  into 
his  favour  the  celebrated  Struensee,  a  physician  of  Ancona.  On  his 
return,  this  individual  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  count,  and  to  the 
office  of  pi  ime-minister,  in  which  capacity  he  displayed  considerable 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


463 


administrative  ability.  His  influence  over  Christian  enabled  him  to  re¬ 
concile  that  fickle  prince  to  his  consort;  and,  with  her  approbation,  he 
afterwards  introduced  many  reforms,  beneficial  in  themselves,  but  which 
from  their  precipitancy  irritated  both  the  clergy  and  nobles.  In  these 
circumstances,  the  queen-dowager  and  her  son  Frederick  plotted  his 
ruin ;  several  injurious,  and  it  would  seem  false  accusations,  were  set 
afloat  against  both  him  and  her  majesty;  and  in  1772,  the  king  was 
prevailed  on  to  sign  an  order  for  the  arrest  of  Caroline  and  her  accom¬ 
plices.  Struensee  was  thrown  into  prison  and  soon  after  beheaded,  and 
the  queen  died  in  banishment  at  Zell  in  Hanover,  1775. 

For  some  years  the  queen-dowager  and  her  faction  possessed  the 
entire  control  of  affairs,  Christian  himself  having  fallen  into  a  state  of 
imbecility  ;  but,  in  1784,  his  son  Frederick,  then  only  sixteen  years  old, 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  regency,  and  raised  Count  Bernstorf,  nephew 
of  the  former  minister  of  that  name,  to  the  chief  direction  of  affairs. 
The  young  prince  exercised  his  authority  with  great  moderation,  firm¬ 
ness,  and  equity ;  a  number  of  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  govern¬ 
ment  w7ere  reformed  ;  and  neutrality  wTas  maintained  in  the  wars  of  1788 

and  1793.  In  1808,  he  succeeded  his  father  by  the  title  of  Frederick  VI. 

\ 

SWEDEN. 

Charles  XII.,  1697,  wras  only  fifteen  years  old  when  he  ascended 
the  throne ;  and  his  extreme  youth  tempted  three  powerful  neighbours 
to  conspire  in  order  to  effect  the  dismemberment  of  his  states,  or  at  least 
the  recovery  of  territories  wrested  from  them  by  the  valour  of  his  prede¬ 
cessors.  These  aggressors  wTere  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark,  Frederick 
Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland,  and  Peter  I.  of  Russia  ; 
and,  in  the  year  1700,  they  simultaneously  invaded  the  Swedish  do¬ 
minions  at  three  different  points.  The  young  monarch  renewed  an 
alliance  writh  England  and  Holland,  from  w7hom  he  received  reinforce¬ 
ments,  and  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army,  resolved  on  a  vigor¬ 
ous  defence  of  the  kingdom.  He  immediately  sailed  writh  his  troops 
for  Copenhagen,  attacked  that  city,  and  in  a  few  weeks  obliged  the 
King  of  Denmark  to  sign  the  peace  of  Travendahl.  He  next  turned  his 
attention  to  the  Russians,  wTho  were  besieging  Narva,  a  town  in  Ingria; 
and  on  the  30th  November,  having  under  him  only  8000  soldiers,  totally 
routed  them,  though  ten  times  that  number.  Augustus,  wrho  had  fruit¬ 
lessly  invested  Riga,  now  only  remained  :  the  SwTedes  passed  the  Dwina 
in  spite  of  all  opposition,  and,  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time, 
became  masters  of  the  whole  of  Courland.  The  youthful  conqueror  now 
openly  declared  his  intention  of  dethroning  the  King  of  Poland,  and 
conferring  the  sovereignty  of  that  country  upon  Stanislaus  Leezinski, 
palatine  of  Posnania ;  a  design  in  which  he  was  seconded  by  several 
discontented  noblemen,  and  wThich  Augustus  in  vain  endeavoured  to 
avert  by  negotiation.  In  1702,  that  ruler  wras  defeated,  after  a  severe 
contest,  at  Clissau,  and  at  Pultusk  in  the  following1  vear ;  the  Polish 
diet  proclaimed  Stanislaus  in  1704  ;  and  at  the  beginning  of  1707,  the 
other  was  compelled  to  make  a  formal  resignation  of  his  crown,  with 
permission  merely  to  retain  his  Saxon  dominions. 

The  eyes  of  all  Europe  were  now  directed  towards  the  camp  of  Charles 
at  Leinsic,  where,  at  the  head  of  50,000  veterans,  he  received  ambassa- 


464 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


dors  from  the  principal  powers,  and  even  dictated  to  the  emperor  condi¬ 
tions  by  which  the  Protestants  in  Silesia  were  secured  in  the  free  exer¬ 
cise  of  their  religion.  But  he  felt  little  interest  in  the  politics  of  central 
Europe,  his  views  being  turned  towards  the  north,  where  his  great  object 
was  the  dethronement  of  his  rival,  Peter  of  Russia.  He  accordingly  set 
out  for  Muscovy  in  September  1707,  defeated  the  czar  in  the  following 
May  on  the  banks  of  the  Berezina,  and,  by  the  end  of  September,  pene¬ 
trated  as  far  as  Smolensk.  The  approaching  rigours  of  the  season, 
however,  compelled  him  to  abandon  his  design  of  marching  upon  Mos¬ 
cow,  and  to  retreat  towards  the  Ukraine,  where  Mazeppa,  hetmann  of 
the  Cossacks,  had  promised  to  join  him.  Here  Charles  passed  the 
winter,  during  which,  besides  the  loss  of  his  artillery  and  wagons,  he 
had  to  lament  the  interception  of  a  reinforcement  of  15,000  men,  and  the 
entire  dispersion  of  his  expected  allies.  In  the  spring  of  1709,  with  an 
army  greatly  reduced  in  number,  he  was  compelled  to  give  battle  to 
70,000  Russians  led  by  Peter  in  person,  under  the  wTalls  of  Pultowa, 
which  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  his  brave  followers,  9000  of  whom 
perished  on  the  field  of  battle.  This  decisive  event  annihilated  the 
ascendency  of  Sweden  :  the  vanquished  monarch  took  refuge  in  Turkey  ; 
Denmark  and  Poland  annulled  the  treaties  they  had  made ;  Augustus 
returned  to  Warsaw;  and  the  conqueror  kept  possession  of  Livonia. 

Instead  of  immediately  returning  to  defend  his  dominions,  Charles 
unaccountably  persisted  in  remaining  five  years  in  his  Turkish  asylum, 
spending  the  time  in  fruitless  intrigues  to  foment  a  war  between  that 
country  and  Russia,  while  his  inveterate  enemies  in  the  north  were 
ravaging  his  continental  provinces,  and  destroying  his  best  troops.  At 
length,  in  October  1714,  he  left  Turkey,  and  crossing  Hungary  and 
Germany,  arrived  at  Stralsand,  where  he  immediately  took  the  field 
against  Prussia,  Denmark,  Saxony,  and  Russia.  After  various  military 
operations,  he  succeeded,  through  the  exertions  of  his  minister,  Baron  de 
Gortz,  in  forming  an  alliance  with  Peter;  but  he  still  pursued  the  war 
against  the  Danes,  and  in  1718  sat  down  before  Frederickshall  in  the 
middle  of  winter,  where  his  adventurous  career  was  terminated  by  a  shot 
from  one  of  the  enemy’s  batteries.  This  event  produced  an  immediate 
revolution  in  the  aspect  of  affairs.  The  senate,  accusing  Gortz  as  the 
author  of  the  calamities  afflicting  the  nation,  had  that  minister  tried  and 
executed ;  while  the  late  king’s  sister,  Ulrica  Eleanora,  was  raised  to 
the  throne,  but  compelled  to  renounce  its  absolute  prerogatives  as  well 
as  the  hereditary  right  of  succession.  Treaties  of  peace  were  at  the 
same  time  set  on  foot:  in  1719  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Yerden  were 
ceded  to  Hanover,  in  consideration  of  one  million  of  rix-dollars  ;  a 
similar  payment  of  two  millions  secured  Pomerania-Anterior  to  Prussia, 
1720;  Denmark  agreed  to  restore  some  of  her  conquests  on  receiving  a 
pecuniary  compensation,  and  retaining  her  right  to  the  Sound  dues , 
Augustus  was  acknowledged  the  legitimate  sovereign  of  Poland,  to  the 
exclusion  of  Stanislaus;  while  Russia,  after  some  renewed  military 
operations  extremely  disastrous  to  Sweden,  signed  a  peace  at  Nystadt, 
1721,  by  which  she  obtained  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  Yiborg,  and 
part  of  Carelia,  but  agreed  to  resign  Finland,  and  pay  two  millions  of 
rix-dollars. 

Previously  to  the  conclusion  of  these  pacific  measures,  the  queen  had 
resolved  on  having  her  husband,  Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel,  associated 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


465 


with  her  in  the  sovereignty;  and  in  May  1720  the  royal  authority, 
greatly  limited,  was  intrusted  to  him  with  consent  of  the  diet.  The 
king,  nevertheless,  was  able  to  exert  himself  successfully  for  the  re¬ 
establishment  of  order  and  prosperity ;  abuses  were  investigated,  com¬ 
merce  restored,  mines  and  manufactures  encouraged,  the  treasury  was 
replenished,  the  country  placed  anew  in  a  competent  state  of  defence, 
and  in  1731  a  trading  company  to  the  East  Indies  was  established. 
But  the  seeds  of  disunion  had  been  sown  in  the  very  liberal  constitution 
lately  formed  ;  and  on  the  meeting  of  the  diet  in  1738,  two  factions 
appeared,  known  by  the  fantastic  appellations  of  the  Hats  and  Caps,  who 
mutually  attacked  each  other  with  great  bitterness.  The  latter  party 
were  favourable  to  peace  on  any  terms,  and  to  the  new  order  of  things ; 
while  the  former,  preferring  the  old  system  of  government,  exclaimed 
against  the  late  treaty  with  Russia;  and  these  last,  having  gained  a 
considerable  majority,  succeeded  in  provoking  a  rupture  with  the  court 
of  St.  Petersburg,  1741.  The  event  soon  proved  the  folly  of  this  new 
contest:  various  bloody  engagements  took  place  in  Finland;  in  almost 
every  one  of  which  the  enemy  proved  victorious;  and  in  1743,  it  was 
terminated  by  the  peace  of  Abo,  the  Swedes  consenting  to  nominate 
Adolphus  Frederick  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  a  relative  of  the  Russian  em¬ 
press,  as  the  successor  of  their  sovereign. 

The  prince  just  named  distinguished  his  accession  to  the  throne  by 
various  useful  measures,  1751  ;  but  he  was  much  disturbed  by  the  dis¬ 
putes  of  the  rival  Hat  and  Cap  factions.  In  1757,  he  was  led  to  take 
part  against  Prussia  in  the  seven  years’  war,  a  contest  in  which  the 
SwTedes  were  exposed  to  many  reverses,  and  which  ended  little  to  their 
advantage.  He  was  succeeded  in  1771  by  his  son  Gustavus  III.,  who 
at  length,  gaining  the  attachment  of  the  citizens,  peasantry,  and  clergy, 
succeeded  in  overawing  the  imperious  council  of  state  by  means  of  the 
military  force ;  and  in  1772,  a  new  constitution  was  introduced,  vesting 
the  legislative  power  in  the  states,  but  limited  to  such  measures  only  as 
originated  wTith  the  crown.  This  revolution,  however,  was  far  from 
settling  the  disputes  of  the  nation,  or  firmly  establishing  the  royal 
authority ;  so  that,  in  1788,  on  the  king  engaging  in  hostilities  against 
Russia,  the  officers  of  his  army  refused  to  act,  on  the  plea  that  he  was 
not  authorized  to  declare  offensive  war.  This  question  having  been 
settled  in  1789,  by  a  resolution  of  the  diet  investing  the  sovereign  with 
discretionary  power  in  this  respect,  the  contest  continued  to  be  prose¬ 
cuted;  and  in  1790,  his  fleet  gained  a  splendid  victory  over  the  Russians 
near  Svenkasund,  forty-two  ships  being  either  taken  or  destroyed,  an 
event  which  led  to  a  peace  in  the  same  year.  Gustavus  afterwards  be¬ 
came  a  party  to  the  views  of  the  convention  of  Pilnitz,  1791,  intending 
to  lead  a  northern  army  into  France,  when  his  career  was  cut  short  by 
a  conspiracy  of  the  discontented  nobles,  who  procured  his  assassination 
at  a  masked  ball,  1792.  He  w^as  succeeded  by  his  son  Gustavus  IV., 
under  the  regency  of  the  Duke  of  Sudermania. 

POLAND. 

On  the  death  of  John  Sobieski,  the  Polish  crown  became  an  object 
of  contention  among  various  candidates  ;  but  bribery  and  force  at  length 
decided  the  election  in  favour  of  Augustus  II,,  elector  of  Saxony,  1697, 


466 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


who,  by  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  two  years  after,  gained  some  valuable 
territorial  cessions  from  the  Turks.  In  1700,  he  joined  Russia  and 
Denmark  in  a  league  against  Charles  XII. ;  but  the  war  which  followed, 
already  noticed  under  Sweden,  instead  of  securing  his  ambitious  designs, 
exposed  his  kingdom  to  invasion,  and  he  was  hirnseif  forced  to  abdicate 
in  favour  of  Stanislaus  Leczinski,  1707.  The  battle  of  Pultowa,  how¬ 
ever,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Swedish  power,  1709,  enabled  him  to 
displace  Stanislaus  and  recover  his  position ;  but  the  country  had,  as 
usual,  suffered  severely  in  these  struggles,  and  its  miseries  were  greatly 
aggravated  by  his  repeated  efforts  to  obtain  absolute  authority,  and  the 
unsparing  persecution  which  he  directed  against  the  dissenters  from  the 
Catholic  faith.  On  his  death  in  1733,  the  electorate  of  Saxony  fell  to 
his  son  Augustus  III.,  who  on  this  ground  had  also  strong  pretensions 
to  the  crown  of  Poland ;  and  though  the  people  in  general  declared  for 
Stanislaus,  who  was  supported  by  France,  the  armies  of  Russia  enabled 
him  to  make  good  his  claims,  which  were  finally  recognised  by  the  diet 
in  1736.  Instigated  by  his  minister,  Count  Bruhl,  the  king  took  part  in 
the  various  contests  then  agitating  Germany,  sometimes  siding  with  one 
party  and  sometimes  with  another ;  while  the  nation,  gradually  falling 
under  Russian  influence,  lost  the  respect  of  surrounding  states,  and  be¬ 
came  a  prey  to  all  the  evils  of  internal  anarchy. 

On  the  death  of  Augustus  in  1763,  the  diet,  assembled  at  Warsaw  to 
choose  a  successor,  exhibited  a  disgraceful  scene  of  contention;  Cathe¬ 
rine,  on  pretence  of  preserving  the  peace,  sent  a  body  of  troops  into  the 
country ;  and  next  year  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  the  candidate  whom 
she  favoured,  was  of  course  elected.  At  this  time,  chiefly  through  the 
efforts  of  two  brothers,  the  Princes  Czartoriski,  who  desired  a  more 
stable  government,  the  executive  power  of  the  monarch  was  somewhat 
strengthened,  while  the  excessive  privileges  of  the  nobles  were  restricted ; 
but  Catherine,  who  had  no  intention  of  aiding  in  the  improvement  of 
Poland,  soon  exerted  herself  to  nullify  the  effect  of  these  measures. 
Animosities  broke  out  between  the  Catholic  party  and  that  of  the  dis¬ 
sidents,  who  demanded  an  equality  of  rights;  the  latter  received  the 
support  of  the  czarina  and  the  King  of  Prussia;  and  in  the  diet  of  1768, 
in  addition  to  the  equitable  law  of  replacing  all  Christian  sects  upon  an 
equal  footing,  various  regulations  were  adopted  tending  to  weaken  the 
government,  while  the  acceptance  of  a  Russian  guarantee  declared  that 
state  of  things  immutable.  These  proceedings,  and  disgust  at  the 
foreign  domination  under  which  the  country  had  fallen,  led  to  a  con¬ 
federation  of  the  Catholic  party,  headed  by  the  Bishop  of  Kamienetz ; 
and  a  civil  war,  combined  with  one  against  the  Russian  intruders, 
agitated  the  unhappy  country.  The  confederation,  ill  supported,  and 
without  regular  troops,  struggled  hopelessly  some  years  against  the 
foreign  armies ;  while  the  Ottomans,  who  had  taken  the  field  in  favour 
of  Poland,  after  in  vain  representing  to  the  cabinets  of  Europe  the 
dangers  of  Russian  predominance  in  that  country,  were  defeated  in 
several  battles. 

The  Three  Partitions. — The  time  had  now  arrived  for  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  a  project  first  conceived  by  Frederick  of  Prussia,  —  the  tran¬ 
quillizing  of  Poland  by  its  dismemberment.  Accordingly,  in  177*2,  a 
scheme  of  partition  was  agreed  on  between  him,  Catherine,  and  Maria 
Theresa ;  some  ridiculous  old  claims  were  revived ;  the  king  and  people, 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


467 


overawed  by  irresistible  force,  in  vain  appealed  to  justice,  for  me  remain 
ing  powers  of  Europe  were  not  in  a  condition  to  interfere.  By  this 
measure,  a  third  part  of  the  country  was  divided  among  these  imperial 
robbers  :  Austria  obtained  Galicia  and  Lodomiria ;  Russia,  the  territories 
between  the  Dwina,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Drutsc-h ;  and  Frederick,  the 
whole  of  Polish  Prussia,  except  Dantzic  and  Thorn,  together  with  the 
district  of  the  Netze.  A  diet  was  called  to  sanction  the  final  disruption 
of  their  country  ;  and,  coerced  by  foreign  armies  and  bribed  by  foreign 
gold,  a  majority  of  voices  was  found  to  sanction  this  achievement  of 
fraud  and  violence. 

This  great  calamity  had  some  effect  in  arousing  the  nation,  which 
now  sought  to  compensate  its  heavy  loss  by  internal  improvements. 
The  king,  though  left  with  little  beyond  the  mere  shadow  of  authority, 
seconded  by  several  distinguished  individuals,  earnestly  strove  to  ame¬ 
liorate  the  condition  of  the  country :  an  excellent  system  of  education 
was  introduced,  literature  received  encouragement,  and  industry  revived. 
The  diet,  having  assembled  in  1788,  declared  itself  permanent,  and  con¬ 
tinued  till  1791,  when  it  proclaimed  a  new  constitution,  which  abolished 
the  re/o,  made  the  crown  hereditary  in  the  Saxon  family  on  the  decease 
of  the  reigning  monarch,  and  introduced  some  useful  regulations.  But 
a  fatal  error  was  committed  in  neglecting  to  organize  a  national  force 
capable  of  protecting  the  new  arrangements;  and  Russia,  which  had 
guaranteed  the  former  state  of  things,  gave  her  aid  to  a  confederation  of 
factious  nobles  at  Taro-ovitza,  in  order  to  restore  them.  A  civil  war 
followed,  in  which  the  king  himself  at  length  deserted  to  the  enemy; 
while  the  Prussian  monarch,  though  he  had  encouraged  the  patriots  to 
frame  the  new  constitution,  joined  the  Russians  in  an  invasion  of  the 
country.  The  consequence  was  a  second  partition  of  the  Polish  terri¬ 
tory,  1793.  by  which  Russia  gained  85,000  square  miles,  and  Prussia 
21,000,  together  with  the  towns  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn. 

The  wretched  remnant  of  Poland,  amounting  to  only  85,000  square 
miles,  now  became  a  mere  Russian  dependency.  The  confederates  of 
Targovitza,  to  whose  treason  this  second  dismemberment  was  owinor, 
encouraged  by  the  presence  of  Russian  troops,  persecuted  the  patriots  in 
every  possible  manner,  and  many  of  the  chief  persons  among  them  were 
driven  into  exile.  But  these  adverse  circumstances  had  not  yet  quelled 
the  national  spirit;  insurrections  broke  out  in  many  places,  and  an  ex¬ 
tensive  conspiracy  was  finally  organized.  In  1794,  Kosciusko,  who 
had  gone  abroad  at  the  time  of  the  first  partition,  returned,  and  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  peasants  rudely  armed,  took  possession 
of  Cracow,  and  soon  after  put  to  flight  a  superior  number  of  enemies; 
the  people  of  Warsaw,  then  occupied  by  a  strong  Russian  force,  expelled 
their  oppressors,  after  a  bloody  contest ;  and  their  example  was  followed 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Wilna.  The  hopes  of  the  patriots  were  not  a  little 
animated  by  the  King  of  Prussia’s  failure  before  the  capital ;  but  their 
preservation  was  connected  with  one  man,  and  his  destiny  decided 
theirs.  Kosciusko  was  defeated,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Russians ;  Praga,  a  principal  suburb,  was  stormed  by  Suwarrow,  and 
all  the  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword.  Finally,  Warsaw  itself  capitulated  ; 
and,  in  1795,  the  remainder  of  the  ill-fated  country  was  divided  by 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria ;  while  the  king,  deprived  of  the  regal 
title,  subsisted  at  St.  Petersburg  upon  a  pension.  Thus,  while  protest- 


468 


MODERN  HISTORY, 


mg  against  the  horrors  of  the  French  revolution,  the  ye  royal  spoilers 
perpetrated  the  most  barefaced  act  of  injustice  recorded  in  modern 
history,  after  having  by  the  vilest  intrigues  fomented,  if  they  did  not 
actually  produce,  those  very  disorders  which  were  made  the  pretext  for 
their  aggressions. 

PRUSSIA. 

The  original  nucleus  of  this  great  and  prosperous  country  was  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  a  district  first  inhabited  by  the  Suevi,  and  subsequently,  on 
the  southern  migrations  of  that  tribe,  by  a  race  of  Sclavonic  or  Vandal  origin. 
Under  Charlemagne  and  his  successors,  the  provinces  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
empire,  called  marks  or  marches ,  were  administered  by  governors,  who  were  at 
the  same  time  supreme  judges  or  grafs,  whence  they  derived  their  title  of 
margrave  (march-graf) ;  and  these  dignities,  at  first  held  for  life  only,  ultimately 
became  hereditary  fiefs.  Between  1230  and  1283,  the  district  of  Prussia  Pro¬ 
per  was  conquered  ,by  the  'Teutonic  Knights,  an  order  of  military  monks 
resembling  that  of  Malta ;  various  adjacent  territories  subsequently  fell  under 
their  sway  ;  but  in  the  end.  after  a  long  series  of  contests,  they  became  feu¬ 
dally  subject  to  Poland.  Brandenburg,  meanwhile,  under  successive  rulers, 
made  some  figure  among  the  smaller  German  principalities;  till  at  length 
Frederick,  burgrave  of  Nuremberg  and  count  of  Hohenzollern,  obtained  from 
the  Emperor  Sigismund  the  dignity  of  hereditary  elector,  1411,  and  gave  rise 
to  a  race  of  princes  to  whose  talents  and  wisdom  the  country  owes  the  high 
rank  it  has  since  attained  among  European  sovereignties.  In  1525,  under  the 
Elector  Albert,  who  was  also  grandmaster  of  the  'Teutonic  knights,  the  lands 
of  the  order  were  secularized,  and  the  Lutheran  faith  introduced  ;  when  Prussia 
became  a  hereditary  ducal  fief  in  his  family,  dependent  on  the  Polish  crown. 
The  true  foundations  of  Prussian  greatness,  however,  were  laid  by  Frederick- 
William,  the  great  elector,  1640,  whose  energetic,  just,  and  patriotic  adminis¬ 
tration,  and  the  ability  with  whic^he  conducted  himself  in  the  northern  wars 
of  the  period,  enabled  him  to  strengthen  and  consolidate  his  dominions,  and 
eventually,  in  1660,  to  become  an  independent  prince.  By  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes  and  other  religious  persecutions  of  the  period,  he  received 
a  large  accession  of  intelligent  and  industrious  subjects;  and  at  his  death  in 
1688,  he  left  the  country  greatly  augmented  in  wealth,  power,  and  extent. 

The  son  of  Frederick- William  continued  some  years  to  administer 
the  government  by  the  simple  title  of  elector  ;  but,  in  1701,  on  condition 
of  assisting  the  Emperor  Leopold  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
he  obtained  formal  permission  to  assume  the  regal  crown  as  Frederick 
I.  On  this  occasion  he  founded  the  order  of  the  Black  Eagle;  and  his 
armies  were  subsequently  greatly  distinguished  at  the  battles  of  Turin 
and  Blenheim.  He  was  succeeded  in  1713  by  his  son,  Frederick- 
WTlliam  I.,  who,  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  signed  the  same  year,  gained 
Spanish  Cuelderland,  and  the  Swiss  canton  of  Neuchatel.  His  atten¬ 
tion  was  chiefly  directed  to  financial  reforms,  as  well  as  to  the  increase 
and  discipline  of  the  military  force;  and,  continuing  to  facilitate  the 
settlement  of  industrious  foreigners,  he  erected  various  public  buildings 
and  charitable  institutions.  In  1715,  after  the  return  of  Charles  XII. 
from  Turkey,  he  was  compelled  by  the  arrogance  of  that  monarch  to 
join  the  northern  league  against  Sweden  ;  and  though  the  warlike  opera¬ 
tions  presented  no  event  of  importance,  Prussia  again  secured  a  con¬ 
siderable  accession  of  territory  by  the  peace  of  1720.  At  his  death  in 
the  year  1740,  Frederick- William  left  9.000,000  of  dollars  in  the 
treasury,  a  regular  army  of  70.000  men,  and  a  territory  containing  about 
46,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  2,240,000. 

Frederick  II.,  surnamed  the  Great,  and  one  of  the  most  remarKable 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


469 


men  of  his  time,  had  received  a  military  education  in  his  father’s  court, 
which  was  one  large  camp,  and  imbibed  from  his  tutor,  M.  Duhan,  a 
high  relish  for  philosophical  speculations.  He  ascended  the  throne  at 
the  age  of  twenty-eight,  shortly  before  the  accession  of  Maria  Theresa 
to  the  Austrian  dominions ;  and  this  event  at  once  afforded  him  an  op¬ 
portunity  of  displaying  his  ambition  and  great  talents  for  war.  The 
contest  itself,  known  as  that  of  the  Austrian  succession,  has  been  no¬ 
ticed  under  Germany  ;  it  may  therefore  suffice  to  state,  that  during  it 
the  king  and  his  armies  acquired  a  high  degree  of  martial  renown,  and 
its  termination,  so  far  as  Prussia  was  concerned,  by  the  peace  of  Dres¬ 
den,  1745,  left  him  in  possession  of  the  valuable  province  of  Silesia.  A 
short  time  previously,  his  territories  had  been  augmented  by  the  district 
of  East  Friesland,  which  fell  to  him  on  the  death  of  the  last  count  in 
1743.  For  eleven  years  after  this  period,  Frederick  employed  himself 
with  great  activity  in  the  administration  of  internal  affairs,  the  organisa¬ 
tion  of  his  forces,  and  literary  pursuits.  Aided  by  his  chancellor, 
Cocceii,  he  framed  a  valuable  body  of  laws  for  his  dominions,  known 
as  the  “  Code  of  Frederick and,  though  engaged  in  various  other 
works,  he  found  leisure  to  visit  most  parts  of  the  country,  endeavouring 
to  stimulate  agriculture,  arts,  and  manufactures.  By  great  improvements 
in  the  revenues,  he  was  able  to  maintain  160,000  soldiers ;  while  large 
sums  were  expended  on  his  palaces  at  Berlin  and  Potsdam,  and  in  erect¬ 
ing  many  splendid  edifices  in  these  two  cities. 

Seven  Years’  War,  1756. — The  king  was  soon  summoned  from  these 
peaceful  pursuits  to  defend  himself  in  a  struggle  threatening  the  very 
existence  of  Prussia  as  an  independent  state.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  colonial  war  between  England  and  France,  he  was  induced  to  enter 
into  a  treaty  with  the  former  for  the  security  of  Hanover;  while  the  in¬ 
trigues  of  Louis  and  the  jealousy  of  the  emperor  led  to  a  secret  alliance 
between  these  powers,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Saxony,  having  in  view 
nothing  short  of  the  partition  of  his  dominions.  This  scheme  speedily 
came  to  the  knowledge  of  Frederick,  who  at  once  entered  the  last  named 
country  and  made  himself  master  of  Dresden ;  and  his  progress  to  Bo¬ 
hemia  being  opposed  by  the  elector,  he  defeated  him,  and  compelled  the 
beaten  soldiers  to  enlist  into  his  own  army.  In  1757,  he  advanced  into 
Bohemia,  where  he  gained  a  signal  victory  near  Prague  over  the  Aus¬ 
trians  under  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  and  Count  Browm  ;  that  city 
was  immediately  invested ;  but  a  fresh  army  under  Marshal  Daun  de¬ 
feated  the  Prussians  in  their  turn  at  Kolin,  and  compelled  them  to  retreat. 
Meanwffiile,  the  French  obliged  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  to  abandon 
Hanover,  the  Russians  and  Swedes  invaded  Prussia  from  the  north,  and 
a  combined  French  and  German  army  marched  into  Saxony.  The 
Prussian  monarch  immediately  attacked  this  latter  force,  twice  as 
numerous  as  his  own,  at  the  village  of  Rosbach,  and  subjected  it  to  a 
complete  and  most  disgraceful  overthrow  ;  the  Austrians,  who  had  de¬ 
feated  the  Prince  of  Bevern  and  taken  Breslau,  wTere  vanquished  at 
Lissa,  and  their  conquest  recovered  ;  the  Russians  were  forced  to  retreat 
for  want  of  supplies  ;  the  Swredes  were  driven  under  the  walls  of  Stral- 
sund;  wffiile  the  Hanoverians  rose  against  the  French,  and  assembled  a 
large  force  under  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  to  aid  the  king. 

These  successes,  and  a  British  subsidy  of  £670,000,  granted  annually, 
would  have  placed  the  affairs  of  Frederick  in  a  favourable  position,  but 
40 


470 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


for  the  inveterate  enmity  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth.  In  1758,  the  prin 
cipal  event  was  the  sanguinary  battle  at  Zorndorf,  in  which  the  Russians 
were  defeated,  but  with  immense  loss  on  both  sides.  Next  year,  Prince 
Ferdinand  repulsed  the  French  at  Minden,  and  saved  Hanover;  the 
king  himself,  resolving  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  combined  Austrian 
and  Russian  armies,  attacked  them  at  Kunersdorf,  where  he  was  defeat¬ 
ed  after  a  horrible  carnage ;  but,  by  great  military  skill,  he  almost  im¬ 
mediately  after  forced  them  to  act  on  the  defensive.  However,  in  1760, 
the  enemy  was  able  to  enter  Brandenburg  and  occupy  Berlin,  which 
was  only  saved  from  plunder  by  paying  a  heavy  contribution ;  but  that 
city  being  soon  evacuated,  Frederick  again  entered  Saxony,  and  defeated 
the  Austrians  under  Daun  at  Torgau.  Still,  notwithstanding  these  suc¬ 
cesses,  his  resources  were  melting  away;  and,  in  1761,  he  was  able  to 
do  little  more  than  watch  the  movements  of  the  enemy  from  an  intrench¬ 
ed  camp  in  Siles;  i.  In  these  circumstances,  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in 
the  beginning  of  1762,  relieved  him  from  his  apparently  desperate  situa¬ 
tion.  Her  successor,  Peter  III.,  who  admired  the  heroic  character  of 
Frederick,  formed  an  alliance  with  him,  which  was  subsequently  con¬ 
firmed  by  Catherine;  and  he  was  thereby  enabled  to  maintain  himself 
successfully  against  Austria,  while  Prince  Ferdinand  in  Westphalia, 
and  the  English  fleets  at  sea,  completely  prostrated  the  power  of  France. 
Peace  was  finally  concluded  in  1763  :  that  between  Prussia  and  Austria 
was  signed  at  Hubertsburg,  and  left  matters  in  the  same  condition  as 
before. 

The  result  of  this  sanguinary  struggle,  while  it  afforded  an  unavailing 
lesson  on  the  wickedness  and  impolicy  of  such  conflicts,  secured  to 
Prussia  a  decisive  influence  in  European  affairs ;  and  the  monarch  now 
seriously  strove  to  repair  the  evils  which  the  war  had  inflicted  on  his 
dominions.  The  chief  events  of  his  foreign  policy  have  been  noticed 
under  Germany  and  Poland,  the  part  taken  in  the  first  partition  of  the 
latter  country  being  the  least  defensible  of  his  acts  ;  but  it  is  at  all  events 
gratifying  to  know  that  his  internal  administration  secured  for  all  his 
subjects  a  rapid  increase  of  prosperity.  At  his  death  in  1786,  he  left  his 
kingdom  nearly  doubled  in  extent,  upwards  of  10,000,000  sterling  in  the 
treasury,  and  an  army  of  200,000  men. 

Frederick  was  an  avowed  unbeliever  in  revelation,  and  made  little  secret 
during  his  life  of  the  contempt  in  which  he  held  religious  institutions.  He 
entertained  a  high  admiration  for  Voltaire,  with  whom  he  maintained  a  close 
intimacy  ;  and  his  own  works,  which  are  voluminous  and  respectable,  were 
composed  in  the  French  language,  and  deeply  imbued  with  the  sceptical  philo¬ 
sophy  of  which  that  writer  is  the  great  apostle.  Being  thus  destitute  of  fixed 
principles  of  action,  his  political  and  moral  conduct  was  of  course  directed  by 
the  expediency  of  the  moment,  his  own  pleasure  and  interest  appearing  to  be 
the  ruling  motives.  Essentially  a  despot,  but  an  intelligent  and  far-sighted  one, 
he  defended  his  dominions  with  valour,  because  he  felt  he  was  fighting  for  him¬ 
self  ;  and  his  successful  efforts  for  their  internal  improvement  seem  to  have 
sprung  in  a  great  measure  from  a  similar  impulse.  Nevertheless,  he  has  been 
regarded  in  Germany  with  admiration,  nor  can  his  own  subjects  be  blamed  for 
the  enthusiasm  which  associates  with  his  memory  the  title  of  “  the  Great.” 

Frederick-William  II.  succeeded  his  uncle  under  very  favourable 
circumstances,  and  proved  himself  on  the  whole  a  respectable  sovereign. 
His  chief  public  act,  in  addition  to  the  share  taken  by  him  in  the  infa¬ 
mous-partitions  of  Poland,  was  the  crusade  against  the  French  republi- 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


471 


cans,  1792,  when  fifty  thousand  men  under  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  were 
sent  to  the  frontiers  of  France ;  but  the  failure  of  this  expedition  led  to  a 
peace  in  1795.  During  this  reign,  the  Margrave  of  Anspach  and  Baireuth  * 
resigned  his  territories  to  Prussia  for  an  annuity  of  500,000  florins.  This 
prince  was  succeeded  in  1797  by  his  son,  Frederick- William  III.,  who 
at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  endeavoured  to  maintain  peace  and 
encourage  industry  and  the  arts. 

RUSSIA. 

The  return  of  Peter  from  his  foreign  travels  was  hastened  by  an  in¬ 
surrection  of  the  Strelitzes  in  Moscow,  fomented  by  his  sister  Sophia;* 
but  it  was  suppressed  before  his  arrival  by  a  body  of  faithful  troops 
under  General  Gordon,  and  that  turbulent  corps  was  abolished  by  the 
czar,  who  caused  numbers  of  them  to  be  executed.  The  most  important 
transaction  in  the  reign  of  this  monarch  was  the  war  undertaken  with 
Poland  and  Denmark  against  Sweden,  which  he  began  in  1700  by  the 
siege  of  Narva.  Here  the  military  inferiority  of  the  Russians  was  con¬ 
spicuously  shown,  80,000  of  them  being  totally  defeated  by  8000  Swedes ; 
but  this  overthrow  only  stimulated  the  genius  of  their  sovereign,  wTho 
immediately  set  about  repairing  the  disaster,  observing  that  the  Swedes 
would  yet  teach  his  soldiers  to  vanquish  them.  While  Charles  XII. 
was  occupied  in  Poland  and  Saxony,  he  made  himself  master  of  Ingria 
and  Carelia;  in  1702,  he  took  the  town  of  Marienburg;  and  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  laid  the  foundations  of  St.  Petersburg,  which  eventually 
became  the  seat  of  the  imperial  government.!  In  the  ensuing  years  he 
overran  Livonia  and  Esthonia;  and  at  length,  in  1709,  the  Swedish 
king,  having  rashly  marched  into  the  Ukraine,  sustained  a  total  over¬ 
throw  at  Pultowa,  from  an  army  led  by  Peter  in  person,  and  was  forced 
to  seek  an  asylum  in  Turkey. 

In  1696,  the  czar  divorced  his  first  wife,  who  had  borne  him  one  son, 
Alexis;  in  1711,  he  married  his  mistress,  Catherine  Alexina,  a  native 
of  Livonia,  who  had  risen  by  a  series  of  extraordinary  adventures  from 
the  very  lowest  rank.  By  this  time  the  intrigues  of  Charles  XII.  had 
procured  a  declaration  of  war  against  Russia  on  the  part  of  the  Porte; 
and  Peter  led  an  army  into  Moldavia,  which,  encamping  on  the  banks 
of  the  Pruth,  was  surrounded  by  the  enemy,  and  exposed  to  imminent 
danger.  From  this  perilous  position  he  was  relieved  by  the  address  of 
his  empress,  who  succeeded,  unknown  to  him,  in  bribing  the  grand 
vizier  to  agree  to  a  negotiation,  which  was  at  once  concluded  by  the 
surrender  of  Azof  to  the  Turks.  Hostilities  with  Sweden  now  continued 
to  be  prosecuted  with  great  success,  so  that,  by  the  end  of  1713,  that 
country  had  been  stripped  of  every  position  which  could  prove  annoying 
to  the  new  metropolis  of  Russia.  Subsequently,  in  the  hope  of  obtain- 


*  This  princess,  who  seems  to  have  been  of  an  ambitious  disposition,  had  already 
caused  much  annoyance  to  Peter,  by  attempting  to  obtain  a  share  of  the  government 
through  her  brother  Ivan  :  she  was  now  condemned  to  permanent  seclusion. 

t  In  1713  the  senate  was  removed  from  Moscow  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  czar’s  sum¬ 
mer  and  winter  palaces  were  completed  two  years  after.  At  one  period  no  fewer  than 
40,000  men  were  employed  in  constructing  dockyards,  building  ships,  wharfs,  and  fortifi¬ 
cations;  every  means  was  employed  to  direct  trade  into  this  new  channel  ;  and,  under 
these  favourable  circumstances,  the  swampy  banks  of  the  Neva  were  speedily  crowned 
with  the  edifices  of  a  great  city,  which  has  become  an  emporium -of  vast  commerce 
and  weajtn. 


472 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


ino-  Mecklenburg,  he  dissolved  the  Northern  League,  and  formed  an 

O  O  7  O  7 

alliance  with  Sweden  ;  but  the  contest  being  again  renewed,  was  at 
length  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Nystadt,  1721,  which  secured  to  him 
the  undisputed  possession  of  all  his  conquests.  The  senate  at  this  time 
proclaimed  Peter  I.  “  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,”  and  conferred  on  him 
the  merited  title  of  the  Great. 

The  monarch  now  turned  his  undivided  attention  to  the  arts  of  peace. 
He  encouraged  the  manufacture  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  erected  mills, 
projected  navigable  canals,  instituted  hospitals,  established  uniformity 
of  weights  and  measures,  and  made  every  exertion  to  civilize  the  man¬ 
ners  of  his  subjects.  These  praiseworthy  exertions  were  only  partially 
interrupted  by  an  expedition  conducted  in  person  against  Persia  in  1723, 
by  which,  in  a  single  campaign,  he  acquired  the  provinces  of  Ghilan, 
Mazanderan,  and  Astrabad.  In  the  same  year,  he  founded  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  St.  Petersburg,  caused  Catherine  to  be  crowmed,  and 
married  his  eldest  daughter  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  His  death 
took  place  on  the  28th  January  1725. 

The  character  of  Peter  the  Great,  though  displaying  many  inconsistencies, 
was  strongly  marked  with  sound  sense  and  clear  judgment.  That  he  some¬ 
times  suffered  himself  to  be  swayed  by  passion  and  prejudice,  and  exhibited 
many  of  the  failings  common  to  the  possessors  of  irresponsible  power,  cannot 
be  doubted  ;  but  the  former  fault  may  be  fairly  attributed  to  his  very  defective 
education,  the  latter  was  of  course  the  result  of  his  position.  As  to  the  signal 
benefits  he  conferred  on  his  hitherto  barbarous  empire,  there  can  be  but  one 
opinion.  “  He  gave  a  polish,”  says  Voltaire,  “  to  his  people,  and  was  himself 
barbarous  ;  he  taught  them  the  art  of  war,  which  he  himself  had  never  learnt ; 
from  the  sight  of  a  small  boat  on  the  river  Moskva,  he  created  a  powerful  fleet, 
and  became  an  active  shipwright,  sailor,  pilot,  and  commander ;  he  reformed 
the  manners,  customs,  and  laws  of  the  Russians,  and  lives  in  their  memory  as 
the  Father  of  his  country .” 

The  prince  Alexis  had  given  great  disquietude  to  his  father  by  his 
rebellious  and  dissolute  conduct,  and  at  length  died  in  prison  in  1718. 
Prince  Menzikof,  who  had  risen  from  obscurity  to  be  governor  of  St. 
Petersburg,  accordingly  took  the  opportunity  to  proclaim  Catherine  as 
the  successor  of  her  husband ;  and  during  her  reign  he  possessed  unlim¬ 
ited  authority.  The  empress,  however,  survived  little  more  than  two 
years,  and  in  1727  was  succeeded  by  Peter  II.,  son  of  Alexis.  The 
short  reign  of  this  prince  presents  nothing  remarkable,  save  the  downfall 
of  Menzikof,  who  w’as  arrested  and  sent  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  in 
poverty,  1729.  Next  year,  Anne,  daughter  of  Ivan,  the  elder  brother 
of  1  •t.er  the  Great,  was  called  to  the  throne,  by  the  influence  of  a  faction 
among  the  nobles,  headed  by  the  Dolgoruki  family,  on  signing  an 
agreement  limiting  the  imperial  authority  ;  but  this  document  was  imme¬ 
diately  cancelled  by  the  advice  of  Chancellor  Ostermann,  the  Dolgo- 
rukis  were  exiled  to  Siberia,  and  the  empress  ruled  with  absolute  power. 
In  this  reign  the  Persian  conquests  of  Peter  were  relinquished;  but  the 
election  to  the  Polish  crown  was  decided,  in  1733,  by  the  interference 
of  a  Russian  army,  and  a  war  against  the  Porte,  in  alliance  with  Aus¬ 
tria,  amply  avenged  tie  convention  of  the  Pruth,  Azof  being  recovered 
1739.  Anne  died  in  the  following  year,  leaving  the  throne  to  her  grand¬ 
nephew  Ivan,  a  child  two  months  old  ;  but  this  arrangement  was  speedily 
set  aside  by  the  Russians,  who  proclaimed  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter 
I.  by  Catherine,  1740.  At  the  end  of  three  years,  this  princess  acquired 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


473 


part  of  Finland  from  Sweden;  in  1747,  she  sent  an  army  of  36,000 
auxiliaries  to  the  aid  of  Maria  Theresa ;  her  interference  in  the  seven 
years’  war  has  already  been  noticed.  She  died  in  1762,  regretted  by  her 
subjects,  to  whom  she  was  endeared  by  the  mildness  of  her  domestic 
rule,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew,  Peter  III.,  duke  of  Holstein 
Gottorp.  This  prince  had  his  choice  of  the  crowns  of  Sweden  and 
Russia ;  he  unfortunately  preferred  the  latter,  where  several  well-meant 
but  hasty  innovations  led  to  a  conspiracy,  fomented  by  his  own  consort 
Catherine,  by  which  he  was  deposed  at  the  end  of  six  months.  He 
died  in  prison  a  few  days  afterwards,  as  is  believed  by  poison  ;  when 
his  widow  was  called  to  the  throne  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  army 
and  the  people.  % 

The  accession  of  this  able  and  unscrupulous  princess  at  once  impressed 
on  the  policy  of  her  empire  the  aggressive  character  which  it  has  ever 
since  retained.  She  immediately  began  a  course  of  secret  intrigue  and 
open  interference  in  the  affairs  of  Poland,  which  finally  led  to  the  parti¬ 
tion  of  that  country ;  while  a  war  with  the  Porte,  consequent  on  these 
measures,  1768,  secured  some  signal  triumphs  to  her  arms.  A  Russian 
fleet  now  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  defeated 
the  Turkish  navy  at  Tchesme ;  the  land  forces,  under  Galliczin  and 
Romanzow,  subdued  Grim-Tartary,  Moldavia,  and  Wallaehia;  and  at 
length,  by  a  peace  in  1774,  she  procured  large  acquisitions,  and  com¬ 
pelled  her  opponents  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  Crim- 
Tartars.  About  this  time  the  administration  was  placed  on  a  new  foot¬ 
ing,  by  the  division  of  the  empire  into  forty-three  governments,  with 
separate  jurisdictions,  and  by  the  gradual  promulgation  of  a  new  code 
of  laws  ;  the  vast  tracts  of  the  interior  were  colonized,  and  about  200 
towns  built  by  Potemkin,  who  became  supreme  minister  in  1770.  In 
1780,  Catherine  organized  the  famous  Armed  Neutrality  of  the  northern 
powers,  to  resist  the  right  of  search  claimed  by  Great  Britain  ;  the  refusal 
of  that  country  to  sanction  the  project  of  founding  a  new  Greek  empire 
at  Constantinople,  on  the  ruins  of  Turkey,  having,  as  is  supposed,  pro¬ 
voked  her  indignation.  At  all  events,  she  speedily  renewed  her 
encroachments  towards  the  east,  Crim-Tartary  being  seized  and  incor¬ 
porated  with  her  dominions  in  1784 ;  and  this  appropriation,  though 
unopposed  at  the  time,  led  eventually  to  a  fresh  contest,  1789,  memora¬ 
ble  for  the  sanguinary  triumphs  of  Potemkin  and  Suwarrow,  the  Em¬ 
peror  Joseph  also  taking  part  in  it.  Choczim,  Oczakow,  Bender,  and 
Ismail,  were  successively  taken,  with  fearful  slaughter;  the  peace  of 
Jassy.  1792,  established  the  Dniester  as  the  boundary  of  the  two 
states ;  while  a  short  war  with  Gustavus  of  Sweden,  who  endeavoured 
to  produce  a  diversion  in  favour  of  the  Porte,  had  been  terminated  two 
years  before  without  any  territorial  change. 

During  these  contests,*  the  attention  of  the  empress  was  always 
steadily  directed  towards  Poland,  of  which  she  had  seized  a  portion  in 
1772;  and  now,  freed  from  other  enemies,  she  effected  the  second  parti¬ 
tion,  1793.  The  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution  produced  a 
change  in  her  sentiments  toward  the  cabinet  of  London,  with  which  she 
formed  a  commercial  treaty  ;  but  the  contests  of  Western  Europe  had  no 
effect  in  retarding  the  grand  aim  of  her  policy,  the  final  extinction  of 
Polish  nationality,  which  was  at  length  effected  in  1795.  She  died  in 
the  following  vear 

40* 


474 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Paul  I.,  1796,  after  two  years  spent  in  various  whimsical  innovations, 
joined  zealously  in  the  second  grand  coalition  against  France;  and  the 
Russian  forces,  under  Suwarrow  and  Korsakow,  obtained  a  series  of 
brilliant  triumphs  in  Italy  and  Switzerland  during  the  campaign  of  1799. 
His  capricious  disposition,  however,  soon  induced  him  to  abandon  the 
cause  of  the  allies,  and  conclude  a  peace  with  Bonaparte ;  and,  in  1800, 
he  became  head  of  a  union  which  revived  the  Armed  Neutrality  of  the 
North,  as  before,  in  avowed  hostility  to  England. 

TURKEY. 

The  humiliating  peace  of  Carlowitz,  1699,  the  conclusion  of' a  long 
train  of  disasters,  proved  fatal  to  the  authority  of  Mustapha  II.,  who 
was  deposed  by  an  insurrection  of  the  janissaries,  and  his  brother, 
Aciimet  III.,  succeeded  to  the  unenviable  dignity,  170*2.  His  reign 
presents  no  event  of  importance  till  1709,  when  he  gave  an  asylum  to 
Charles  XII.,  after  the  defeat  at  Pultowa;  and  subsequently,  in  a  brief 
campaign  against  Peter  the  Great,  recovered  Azof  by  the  peace  of  the 
Pruth,  1711.  But  a  period  of  repose  was  at  no  time  very  desirable  for 
the  Turkish  sultans,  who  found  in  their  own  mutinous  soldiers  the 
most  formidable  enemies  of  the  throne.  Accordingly,  though  no  advan¬ 
tage  had  been  taken  of  Austria  in  the  Spanish  succession  war,  the  first 
opportunity  was  seized  for  a  rupture  with  Venice,  whose  possession  of 
the  Morea  galled  the  pride  of  the  Ottomans  ';  and,  in  1715,  that  republic 
was  stripped  of  all  the  fortresses  she  held  in  the  peninsula.  This  con¬ 
quest  provoked  the  interference  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  as  guaran¬ 
tee  of  the  treaty  of  Carlowitz,  and  precipitated  another  Hungarian  war. 
In  1716,  the  army  of  the  sultan  was  defeated  by  Prince  Eugene  at  Pe- 
terwaradin,  and  Temeswar  reduced ;  and  in  the  following  campaign, 
another  bloody  overthrow  before  Belgrade  was  followed  by  the  loss  of 
that  important  fortress.  Alarmed  at  these  reverses,  the  sultan  sued  for 
peace,  which  was  signed  at  Passarowitz,  1718;  and  by  the  terms  then 
agreed  on,  he  was  forced  to  confirm  the  conquests  of  Austria,  but  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  retaining  the  Morea.  Achmet  now  turned  his  eyes  towards 
Persia,  then  agitated  by  the  troubles  consequent  on  the  Afghan  usurpa 
tion;  and  in  1727  he  seized  the  districts  of  Georgia  and  Armenia 
Some  time  after,  however,  Nadir,  having  defeated  the  Turkish  forces  in 
several  encounters,  the  unhappy  prince  shared  the  fate  of  so  many  of  his 
predecessors,  being  deposed  and  imprisoned  in  1730. 

Mahmoud  I.,  nephew  of  the  preceding  ruler,  was  at  first  greatly 
harassed  by  the  leaders  of  the  late  insurrection,  who,  however,  were  even¬ 
tually  ensnared  by  his  policy,  and  punished  with  death.  The  war  with 
Persia  was  prosecuted  for  some  time  with  considerable  success  ;  but  the 
death  of  his  commander,  Osman,  at  length  turned  the  tide  in  favour  of 
the  shah,  who  restored  the  original  boundaries  of  the  two  countries 
1736.  This  peace  had  been  accelerated  by  the  threatening  attitude  of 
Russia,  which  speedily  commenced  hostilities  by  an  irruption  into  the 
Crimea;  while  the  emperor,  who  at  first  offered  his  mediation,  actuated 
by  a  selfish  policy,  began  an  invasion  on  his  own  account.  rfshis  per¬ 
fidious  conduct  was  justly  punished  by  several  disastrous  defeats, 
Belgrade  was  taken,  and  the  Danube  and  Saave  became  once  more  the 
boundary  of  the  two  countries ;  while  the  Russians,  though  generally 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


475 


successful,  consented  to  surrender  their  conquests,  demolish  the  fortress 
of  Azof,  and  relinquish  all  claim  to  navigate  the  Black  Sea,  1739. 
After  a  reign  prosperous  on  the  whole,  Mahmoud  died  in  1745,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Osman  III.,  whose  history  is  chiefly  remark¬ 
able  for  an  attempt  to  poison  his  nephews,  sons  of  the  late  sultan  :  two 
of  these  princes  fell  victims  to  his  jealousy  ;  Mustapha  and  Abdul-hamid 
escaped  only  by  the  death  of  their  uncle. 

Mustapha  III.,  1757,  aided  by  his  able  and  enlightened  vizier,  Mo¬ 
hammed  Raghib,  devoted  the  first  ten  years  of  his  reign  to  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  order  and  energy  in  his  domestic  government.  But  the  continued 
encroachments  of  Catherine  II.,  who  paid  no  attention  to  the  treaty  of 
1739,  and  her  dangerous  ascendency  in  Poland,  at  length  compelled  the 
sultan  to  declare  for  war,  and  led  to  the  disastrous  contest  of  1768.  In 
1774,  Abdul-iiamid  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  immediately  afterwards 
signed  the  peace  of  Kainardge,  the  most  humiliating  ever  yet  submitted 
to  by  Turkey  ;  and,  though  the  independence  of  the  Crimea  had  been 
guaranteed  by  this  treaty,  he  was  unable  to  prevent  the  appropriation  of 
that  district  by  his  ambitious  neighbour,  1784.  But  continued  insults 
on  the  part  of  Catherine,  who  with  the  Emperor  Joseph  had  formed  the 
design  of  dividing  between  them  the  Ottoman  dominions,  as  they  had 
already  partitioned  those  of  Poland,  again  drove  the  sultan,  in  despair, 
to  take  up  arms,  1787.  The  Austrians,  who  assaulted  Belgrade  without 
even  the  formality  of  a  declaration  of  war,  were  repulsed  on  all  sides, 
and  the  vizier,  entering  the  Bannat,  spread  consternation  to  the  very 
gates  of  Vienna.  The  Russians,  however,  were  more  successful;  the 
Ottoman  fleet  was  destroyed  in  the  Dnieper,  while  Potemkin  reduced 
the  fortress  of  Oczakow,  and  barbarously  massacred  the  garrison  and 
inhabitants,  1788.  Next  year,  Abdul-hamid  was  succeeded  by  his 
nephew,  Selim  III.,  who,  regardless  of  the  hazardous  position  of  his 
empire,  began  his  reign  by  a  career  of  the  most  thoughtless  folly  and 
dissolute  extravagance.  The  Austrian  and  Russian  armies,  under  Co- 
bourg  and  Suwarrow,  having  effected  a  junction,  met  the  Turkish  forces 
on  the  plains  of  Rimnik,  and  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter  and  the 
loss  of  their  artillery  and  baggage.  The  Austrians  then  diverged  into 
Wallachia,  and  captured  Bucharest,  while  Suwarrow,  having  received 
the  submission  of  Bender,  laid  siege  to  the  strong  town  of  Ismail.  In 
December  1790,  the  place  was  carried  by  storm,  and  the  garrison  of 
40,000  men  put  to  the  sword;  while  the  fortress  of  Belgrade  shortly 
after  surrendered  to  Marshal  Laudon,  thus  leaving  Nissa  as  the  only 
barrier  of  the  Turkish  capital.  At  this  juncture,  when  the  Ottoman 
power  in  Europe  seemed  on  the  point  of  being  annihilated,  the  insurrec¬ 
tions  in  Hungary  and  the  Low  Countries,  and  the  jealousy  of  the  other 
powers,  alone  saved  it  from  utter  ruin.  By  the  mediation  of  England, 
Holland,  and  Prussia,  the  emperor  was  compelled  to  sign  a  separate 
treaty  with  the  Porte,  resigning  all  his  conquests,  1791 ;  while  Catherine, 
after  another  sanguinary  campaign,  yielding  to  the  same  solicitations, 
confirmed  by  the  peace  of  Jassy  the  former  treaty  of  1774,  retaining 
merely  the  fortress  of  Oczakow. 

This  dangerous  war,  though  terminated  with  little  territorial  loss,  had  shaken 
the  internal  organisation  of  the  empire  to  its  centre.  The  janissaries,  at  one 
time  the  most  efficient  troops  in  the  world,  had  long  been  retrograding,  and 
were  now  little  better  than  a  disorderly  crowd  ;  and  while  these  disturbed  the 


476 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


capital  with  tumults  and  insurrections,  the  provinces  set  at  nought  the  authority 
of  the  sultan.  Ali  Bey  had  assumed  in  Egypt  the  rank  of  an  independent 
sovereign,  and  his  example  was  followed  by  Ali  Pacha  of  Janina;  Paswan 
Oglou  had  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  at  Widin ;  the  Servians  were  in 
arms;  and  Arabia  was  possessed  by  the  fanatical  sect  of  the  Wahabees.  In 
these  alarming  circumstances,  the  sultan  at  length,  shaking  off  his  early  vices, 
displayed  the  possession  of  considerable  talents,  Joined  with  great  prudence  and 
humanity.  Keeping  aloof  from  the  struggles  of  Europe  consequent  on  the 
French  revolution,  he  endeavoured  to  introduce  some  degree  of  order  into  his 
government,  and  raised  a  force  disciplined  on  the  modern  plan,  preparatory  to 
an  entire  remodelling  of  the  army.  These  troops  were  afterwards  greatly  dis¬ 
tinguished  in  the  defence  of  Acre,  during  the  unjustifiable  invasion  of  Egypt 
under  Napoleon;  an  event  which  compelled  the  Porte  to  unite  with  England 
and  Russia  against  France,  1798. 


PERSIA. 

The  reign  of  the  Afghan  usurper,  Mahmoud,  was  at  first  distinguished 
by  an  ability  and  moderation  commendable  in  a  conqueror ;  but  he  sub¬ 
sequently  disgraced  himself  by  ferocious  cruelty,  and  died  insane  in 
1725.  His  position  was  far  from  being  an  easy  one  ;  for,  while  Prince 
Tam  asp,  son  of  Hussein,  held  out  in  Armenia,  Russia  and  the  Porte  had 
formed  the  design  of  seizing  the  provinces  adjoining  their  frontiers  ;  and 
hence,  in  1723,  he  actually  ceded  the  Caspian  provinces  to  Russia,  in 
return  for  a  promise  of  aid  which  was  never  fulfilled.  His  successor, 
Ashraff,  in  order  to  get  himself  recognised  sovereign  of  Persia  by  the 
Porte,  permitted  Achmet  to  seize  on  various  provinces,  1727;  but 
Tamasp  was  now  supported  by  Nadir  Kouli,  who  from  a  Turkoman 
shepherd  had,  by  the  force  of  his  character,  risen  to  power  and  import¬ 
ance.  In  spite  of  desperate  efforts  in  the  field,  and  frightful  massacres 
of  the  disaffected  citizens,  the  fortune. of  war  turned  against  the  Afghan 
monarch,  who  was  finally  slain,  and  his  adherents  driven  out  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  in  1730.  All  real  power,  however,  lay  in  the  hands  of  Nadir,  who 
received  from  the  shah  the  government  of  the  four  finest  provinces  of 
the  empire.  He  turned  his  arms  successfully  against  the  Turks ;  but, 
while  he  was  absent  in  Khorassan,  Tamasp  imprudently  encountered 
them,  was  defeated,  and  forced  to  conclude  an  ignominious  peace. 
Nadir,  inveighing  against  this  national  disgrace,  dethroned  the  unhappy 
prince,  elevating  his  infant  son,  Abbas  III.,  in  whose  name  he  governed 
as  regent,  1732;  and,  after  expelling  the  Turks  from  their  conquests, 
concluded  a  treaty  in  1736,  re-establishing  the  ancient  frontiers  of 
Persia,  while  the  districts  ceded  to  Russia  were  recovered  by  negotia¬ 
tion.  The  infant  prince  died  the  same  year,  whereupon  Nadir  formally 
declared  the  Sophi  dynasty  at  an  end,  and  himself  assumed  the  diadem 
by  the  title  of  Nadir  Shah. 

This  extraordinary  man,  by  the  sheer  force  of  natural  ability,  raised 
Persia  for  some  time  to  a  higher  degree  of  influence  than  she  had  pos¬ 
sessed  even  in  the  reign  of  Abbas.  Great  part  of  Afghanistan  yielded  to 
his  arms;  and,  in  1739,  offended  at  a  breach  of  friendship  by  the  Mogul, 
he  led  an  immense  army  into  India.  One  great  victory  near  Delhi, 
1739,  laid  the  power  of  the  descendant  of  Timour  at  his  feet;  that  city 
was  taken,  and  upwards  of  £30,000,000  sterling  of  booty,  with  the 
annexation  of  all  the  territory  west  of  the  Indus,  rewarded  the  enterprise 
of  Nadir,  who  is  said  to  have  committed  fewer  crimes  on  this  occasion 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


477 


than  almost  any  other  Asiatic  invader.  He  next  year  reduced  the  Us« 
beck  princes  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara;  while  a  second  war  with  the 
Porte,  1743,  after  several  signal  victories,  terminated  to  the  advantage 
of  Persia.  But  his  native  ferocity,  having  no  longer  foreign  enemies  on 
whom  it  might  exercise  itself,  now  broke  out  uncontrolled,  and  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life  he  perpetrated  the  most  frightful  tyranny ;  he 
blinded  his  brave  son,  Riza  Kouli,  massacred  his  subjects  by  thousands, 
and  was  at  length  assassinated  by  his  own  officers,  1747. 

The  death  of  Nadir  became  the  signal  for  a  scene  of  anarchy  and  con¬ 
fusion  :  the  Usbecks  threw  off  the  yoke,  and  Afghanistan  became  an 
independent  and  powerful  kingdom ;  while  the  crown  of  Persia  itself 
was  disputed  by  various  rival  chiefs.  At  length  all  other  claimants 
were  forced  to  yield  to  the  ability  and  merit  of  Kereem  Khan,  head  of 
the  native  family  of  Zend,  who,  in  1759,  assumed  the  government  by 
the  title  of  administrator ,  refusing  the  insignia  of  royalty.  The  rule  of 
this  excellent  man,  who  occupied  the  throne  twenty-six  years,  was 
characterized  by  a  high  degree  of  justice,  clemency,  and  moderation ; 
he  repressed  the  depredations  of  the  Turkoman  tribes,  which  in  the 
time  of  Nadir  had  overspread  Persia,  and  concluded  advantageously  a 
short  war  with  the  Porte.  But  his  death,  in  1779,  gave  rise  to  new 
troubles ;  and  during  ten  years  six  different  chiefs,  his  brothers  and 
nephews,  ascended  or  claimed  the  throne,  while  Russia  took  advantage 
of  the  turmoil  to  encroach  on  the  northern  frontier.  At  length,  in  1 789, 
the  supreme  power  remained  in  the  hands  of  Lootf  Ali  Khan,  a  brave 
though  cruel  prince,  who  maintained  his  position  till  1795,  when  he 
was  overpowered  and  put  to  death  by  his  rival,  Aga  Mohammed  Khan, 
chief  of  the  Kajirs,  a  Turkish  tribe  settled  in  Mazanderan  by  Abbas  the 
Great.  By  a  vigorous  though  sanguinary  administration,  this  monarch 
succeeded  in  consolidating  his  authority;  and  having  fixed  his  capital 
in  Teheran,  he  reduced  the  revolted  Georgians  with  the  most  ruthless 
severity.  His  cruelties,  however,  speedily  provoked  his  own  attendants 
to  assassinate  him,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Shah  Futteh 
Ali,  1797,  the  early  part  of  whose  reign  was  chiefly  distinguished  by 
the  rival  intrigues  of  France  and  England  in  reference  to  India. 

INDIA. 

Fall  of  the  Mogul  Empire. — The  temporary  impulse  which  the 
vigorous  administration  of  Aurengzebe  had  communicated  to  the  empire 
of  Delhi,  ceased  at  once  on  his  death ;  and  during  the  reign  of  his  son, 
Shah  Aulum,  1707,  enemies  arose  on  every  side.  The  Mahrattas  widely 
extended  their  conquests ;  the  Rajpoot  princes,  who  had  never  been 
effectually  subdued,  again  asserted  their  independence ;  while  the  pro¬ 
vinces  of  Delhi  and  Lahore,  the  very  centre  of  his  power,  were  convulsed 
by  contests  with  the  warlike  sect  of  the  Sikhs,  who,  by  declaring  the 
abolition  of  castes,  had  rapidly  increased' in  importance.  At  his  demise 
in  1712,  each  of  his  four  sons  contended  for  the  succession,  which,  after 
a  short  but  sanguinary  struggle,  at  length  fell  to  the  eldest,  who  became 
emperor  by  the  title  of  Jehandar  Shah.  This  prince,  abandoning  him¬ 
self  to  a  career  of  low  profligacy,  was  found  altogether  incapable  of 
ruling ;  while  among  the  nobles  bold  spirits  were  not  wanting,  ready  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity  of  advancement  thus  afforded.  Two 


478 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


brothers,  in  particular,  Abdoola  and  Hussein,  who  boasted  the  high  rank 
of  Syeds  or  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  had  the  address  to  procure  his 
dethronement  in  the  course  of  a  few  months ;  and  for  seven  years  they 
actually  administered  the  government,  setting  up  during  that  period  no 
less  than  four  successive  emperors.  The  last  of  these,  Mohammed  Shah, 
a  grandson  of  Shah  Aulum,  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  17*20,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  ridding  himself  of  these  dictators  by  means  of  assassination ; 
but  he  was  no  sooner  in  uncontrolled  possession  of  the  sovereign  autho¬ 
rity,  than  he  displayed  that  incapacity  which  seemed  now  to  have  be¬ 
come  inherent  in  the  Mogul  race.  In  consequence,  the  Deccan  became 
virtually  independent  under  the  viceroyalty  of  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  while  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  northern  provinces  was  seized  by  the  Rohillas, 
an  Afghan  people,  who  established  themselves  in  part  of  the  district 
afterwards  known  as  Rohilcund.  But  the  greatest  misfortune  of  this 
reign,  and  which  in  fact  consummated  the  downfal  of  the  empire,  was 
the  invasion  of  Nadir  Shah.  That  powerful  prince,  having  sent  an  em¬ 
bassy  to  demand  the  surrender  of  several  Persian  fugitives,  the  envoy 
and  his  suite  were  murdered  by  the  inhabitants  of  Jellalabad;  and  Mo¬ 
hammed,  by  the  advice  of  his  arrogant  courtiers,  refused  to  grant  satis¬ 
faction  for  the  outrage.  Nadir,  then  victorious  in  Afghanistan,  imme¬ 
diately  turned  his  arms  against  Delhi,  1739  ;  the  Mogul  forces  were 
defeated,  and  the  wealth  of  centuries,  to  the  amount  of  more  than 
dB30,000,000  sterling,  besides  the  provinces  west  of  the  Indus,  became 
the  prey  of  the  victor. 

Satisfied  with  the  booty  and  acquisitions  he  had  obtained,  the  Persian 
monarch  reinstated  Mohammed  on  the  throne;  and  in  1747  that  prince 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ahmed  Shah.  During  his  reign,  which  lasted 
six  years,  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  may  be  said  to  have  taken  place. 
The  northern  and  north-western  provinces  were  seized  by  the  Afghans 
and  the  Sikhs,  and  the  Rajpoots  extended  their  territory  as  far  as 
Ajmere.  Ghazee-ud-dien,  grandson  to  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  having  now  be¬ 
come  vizier,  deposed  Ahmed  in  1753,  and  raised  Aulumgire,  a  son  of 
Jehandar  Shah,  to  the  now  merely  nominal  dignity  of  emperor.  A 
period  of  unparalleled  intrigue  and  disorder  now  took  place,  during 
which  Delhi  was  exposed  to  an  assault  by  the  Afghans,  surpassing  in 
its  horrors  that  under  Nadir;  und  in  1759,  Ghazee  caused  Aulumgire  to 
be  assassinated,  and  attempted,  but  unsuccessfully,  to  set  up  some  new 
pageant  of  royalty.  Meantime,  the  restless  Mahrattas  extended  their 
conquests  on  every  side,  drove  the  Afghans  from  Moultan  and  Lahore, 
and  threatened  to  subjugate  all  India.  On  the  one  hand,  the  Moham¬ 
medan  powers  united  to  arrest  their  progress,  and  were  joined  by  Ahmed 
Abdalla  Shah,  who  had  become  Sultan  of  Afghanistan  on  the  death  of 
Nadir;  while,  on  the  other,  the  Hindoo  states  and  Ghazee  made  com¬ 
mon  cause  with  the  Mahrattas.  This  great  contest  was  at  length  decided 
on  the  plains  of  Panniput,  northward  of  Delhi.  The  Mahrattas  were 
routed  with  great  slaughter ;  but  the  victorious  Afghans,  contenting 
themselves  with  the  provinces  west  of  the  Indus  already  in  their  posses¬ 
sion,  bestowed  the  Mogul  sovereignty  on  Shah  Aulum  II.,  1761,  who, 
after  many  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  became  a  pensioner  of  the  East  India 
Company. 

Rise  and  Progress  of  the  British  Power. — At  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  three  chief  maritime  nations  of  Europe,  Eng- 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


479 


land,  France,  and  Holland,  had  obtained  possession  of  various  trading 
settlements  in  India,  and  the  wars  of  the  west  were  now  to  be  extended 
to  that  distant  region.  The  last  of  these  countries,  however,  content 
with  their  insular  possessions,  never  obtained  much  territorial  power  on 
the  Asiatic  continent ;  and  the  contest  for  supremacy  was  waged  from 
the  beginning  between  the  two  others.  These  great  rivals  came  into 
collision  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  succession  war,  when  Labourdon- 
nais,  the  French  governor  of  Mauritius,  led  a  squadron  against  the  settle¬ 
ment  of  Madras,  and  forced  it  to  surrender,  1746;  but  it  was  again 
restored,  two  years  after,  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.*  At  this 
time,  Dupleix,  who  commanded  at  Pondicherry,  having  seen  the  real 
weakness  of  the  native  powers,  formed  a  grand  plan  for  aggrandizing 
the  French  East  India  Company.  Accordingly,  on  the  death  of  Nizam- 
ul-Mulk,  the  powerful  viceroy  of  the  Deccan,  1748,  he  declared  in  favour 
of  one  of  the  rival  candidates,  and  succeeded,  by  his  intrigues  and  the 
aid  of  a  strong  body  of  troops,  in  raising  his  favourite,  Mirzapha  Jung, 
to  that  dignity.  The  nabobship  of  the  Carnatic,  a  subordinate  govern¬ 
ment  in  the  same  province,  was  obtained  for  his  ally,  Chunda  Sahib, 
1750;  while  his  own  countrymen  were  rewarded  for  their  assistance 
with  large  grants  of  territory,  and  indeed  with  the  actual  government  of 
these  districts.  Mohammed  Ali,  however,  son  of  the  late  nabob,  still 
held  the  fortress  of  Trichinopoly,  imploring  the  assistance  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  who  gave  him  some  reinforcements ;  but  the  fortune  of  war  still 
continued  against  him,  till  at  length  the  celebrated  Clive,  having  ob¬ 
tained  a  captain’s  commission,  undertook  to  make  a  diversion  by  an 
attack  from  Madras  upon  Arcot,  the  capital  of  the  Carnatic.  With  a 
small  force  he  captured  that  city,  and  though  Chunda  Sahib  besieged  it 
with  a  large  army,  repelled  the  assailants  with  amazing  talent  and 
courage.  Reinforced  by  Colonel  Kirkpatrick,  he  pursued  and  defeated 
the  enemy  on  the  plains  of  Ami ;  the  Rajah  of  Tanjore  and  other  princes 
declared  for  Mohammed  Ali;  and  Chunda  and  his  allies  were  several 
times  discomfited.  In  1754,  Dupleix  was  recalled  to  Europe,  and  a 
provisional  treaty  concluded  between  the  English  and  French,  who 
mutually  agreed  to  withdraw  from  all  interference  with  the  native 
princes  :  Salabat  Jung,  the  successor  of  Mirzapha,  was  left  in  possession 
of  the  Deccan,  while  Mohammed  Ali  remained  nabob  of  the  Carnatic. 
Both  nations,  however,  now  possessed  a  commanding  position  in 
Southern  India,  and  had  contrived  to  secure  considerable  territorial  ad¬ 
vantages. 

Meanwhile,  the  English  factory  at  Calcutta,  although  subordinate  to 
Madras,  had  continued  to  make  surprising  advances  in  wealth  and  in¬ 
fluence,  and  thereby  provoked  the  jealousy  of  the  native  princes. 
Surajah  Dowlah,  the  subahdar  of  Bengal,  a  sanguinary  tyrant,  offended 
at  some  supposed  abuse  by  the  English  of  their  privileges,  and  more 
especially  by  the  protection  of  a  nabob  who  had  fled  from  his  vengeance, 
suddenly  marched  with  50,000  men  against  Calcutta,  1756.  After  an 
ineffectual  resistance,  the  governor  and  all  but  200  of  the  garrison 
escaped  on  shipboard ;  and  these  unfortunate  persons,  along  with  Mr. 
Hoi  well,  who  had  taken  the  command,  were  speedily  made  prisoners, 
and  immured,  by  order  of  the  subahdar,  in  a  room  not  twenty  feet 

*  The  French  were  the  first  to  train  sepoys,  or  natives  disciplined  after  the  European 
manner. 


480 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


square,  during  an  intensely  hot  night  in  June.  From  this  dreadful  dun¬ 
geon,  long  after  known  as  the  Black  Hole ,  only  twenty -four  were  taken 
put  alive  in  the  morning.  The  affairs  of  the  English  in  Bengal  seemed 
entirely  ruined ;  but  the  position  of  the  Company  in  Coromandel  was 
no vV  so  much  improved,  that  they  were  able  to  send  Clive  with  a  body 
of  roops  to  Calcutta.  That  town  was  immediately  recovered,  Hoogly 
ri  t  tced,  and  Surajah  obliged  to  grant  peace  on  favourable  terms.  It  has 
been  seen  that  the  contests  of  the  French  and  English  in  India  were 
carried  on  with  little  intermission  even  when  the  two  kingdoms  were  at 
peace  in  Europe;  but  the  struggle  of  the  seven  years’  war  had  now 
broken  out,  and  gave  new  bitterness  to  their  rivalry.  The  latter,  there¬ 
fore,  in  1757,  reduced  Chandernagore,  the  principal  settlement  of  their 
antagonists  in  Bengal;  while  Clive  aimed  at  further  humbling  the 
subahdar,  who,  besides  being  backward  in  fulfilling  the  treaty,  had  set 
on  foot  negotiations  with  the  enemy.  With  this  view,  a  secret  agree¬ 
ment  was  made  with  Meer  Jaffier  and  others  of  his  ministers,  for  his 
dethronement,  and  for  raising  that  chief  himself  to  the  musnud;  while 
the  English  colonel  advanced  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops  to  seize 
the  important  post  of  Plassey.  The  enemy,  however,  had  already  occu¬ 
pied  it  with  a  force  of  nearly  70,000  men,  while  those  of  Clive  amounted 
only  to  1000  Europeans  and  2000  sepoys ;  yet  he  ventured  to  give  battle, 
and  gained  a  complete  victory.  Jaffier  was  acknowledged  subahdar; 
Surajah  was  taken  and  put  to  death  with  the  connivance  of  his  successor, 
who  agreed  to  enlarge  the  territory  of  his  allies,  and  pay  them  a  sum  of 
nearly  three  millions  sterling. 

The  war  was  now  vigorously  prosecuted  between  the  two  European 
powers  in  the  Carnatic,  where  Count  Lally,  the  French  commander, 
being  considerably  reinforced  from  home,  reduced  Cuddalore  and  Fort 
St.  David,  1758.  Next  year  he  failed  in  an  attack  on  Madras;  while 
the  British,  taking  the  field  in  earnest,  gained  several  successes  over 
him,  especially  at  Wandew'ash  under  Sir  Eyre  Coote.  Finally,  in  the 
beginning  of  1761,  the  power  of  the  French  was  utterly  destroyed  by 
the  reduction  of  Pondicherry ;  and,  though  this  and  other  settlements 
were  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  their  influence  in  India  may 
now  be  said  to  have  ended.  Meanwhile  Meer  Jaffier,  being  unable  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  English,  had  been  deposed,  and  his  son-in- 
law,  Cossim  x41i  Khan,  elevated  in  his  room,  1760.  This  prince  was 
found  still  more  intractable  than  his  predecessor,  and  soon  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  his  allies  by  attempting  to  limit  their  privileges  as  traders. 
Recourse  was  speedily  had  to  arms ;  the  nabob  was  defeated  and  set 
aside,  and  Jaffier  anew  placed  on  the  throne,  1763.  Sujah  Dowlah, 
subahdar  of  Oude,  and  the  titular  Mogul  emperor,  Aulum  II.,  having 
assisted  Cossim,  were  next  attacked  and  defeated  by  Major  Munro  at 
Buxar,  1764,  several  fortresses  at  the  same  time  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  conquerors.  The  nabob  was  glad  to  purchase  peace  by  defraying 
the  charges  of  the  war;  and,  Jaffier  having  died,  the  emperor  conferred 
on  the  victors  the  revenues  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  as  also  a  con¬ 
firmation  of  the  several  districts  conquered  by  them  within  the  nominal 
bounds  of  his  empire.  From  this  date,  1765,  commences  the  recognised 
sovereignty  of  the  British  in  Hindostan.  In  the  south,  besides  holding 
the  actual  power  throughout  the  Carnatic,  they  had  received  the  Northern 
Circars  in  grant  from  the  Nizam,  on  condition  of  giving  him  their  pro* 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


481 


t 


tection ;  but  this  alliance  involved  them  in  contests  with  Hyder  Ali,  a 
skilful  soldier,  who  had  risen  from  obscurity  to  be  sultan  of  Mysore. 

The  political  importance  acquired  hy  the  East  India  Company 
induced  the  cabinet  to  claim  a  share  in  the  government  of  their  territo- 
rie  ;  and  in  1773,  it  was  determined  in  parliament  that  a  supreme  court 
of  judicature  should  be  sent  from  England  ;  that  the  three  presidencies, 
Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay,  should  be  subject  to  a  governor-general 
and  council,  the  former  to  be  approved  by  the  king ;  and  that  all  civil 
and  military  correspondence  should  be  submitted  to  the  ministry.  Mr. 
Hastings,  the  first  who  held  this  new  authority  in  the  East,  found  the 
affairs  of  India  greatly  embarrassed,  and  a  general  confederation  against 
his  countrymen  in  progress  among  the  native  powers.  Notwithstanding 
violent  opposition  in  his  council,  he  conducted  affairs  with  great  success. 
The  French,  taking  advantage  of  the  breaking  out  of  the  American  war, 
had  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Mahrattas,  the  Nizam,  and  Hyder  Ali. 
They  lost,  however,  their  settlements  of  Chandernagore,  Masulipatam, 
and  Pondicherry,  1778.  Skilful  negotiations  weakened  the  enemy  ;  but 
in  1780,  Hyder  burst  into  the  Carnatic,  ravaging  everything  before 
him.  While  besieging  Arcot,  he  defeated  two  armies  within  six  miles 
of  each  other,  but  was  afterwards  routed  in  a  desperate  battle  by  Sir 
Eyre  Coote  at  the  head  of  7000  men.  In  less  than  a  month  afterwards 
he  experienced  another  defeat,  and  had  the  misfortune  to  learn  that  his 
fleet  had  been  destroyed  by  Sir  E.  Hughes.  After  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1782,  Tippoo  Saib  continued  the  war  with  various  success  until  the 
peace  of  1784. 

Warren  Hastings,  over  whose  head  a  public  impeachment  now  hung, 
was  succeeded  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  1786.  A  dispute  between  Tippoo 
Saib  and  the  Rajah  of  Travancore,  an  ally  of  the  English,  soon  rekin¬ 
dled  the  flames  of  war,  1790.  After  some  slight  reverses,  the  strong 
fortress  of  Bangalore  was  taken,  and  Seringapatam  threatened  w7ith  a 
siege.  To  preserve  his  capital,  the  sultan  agreed  to  resign  half  his 
dominions  to  the  English,  the  Nizam,  and  the  Mahrattas ;  to  pay  three 
millions  and  a  half  sterling  for  the  expenses  of  the  contest ;  and  to  sur¬ 
render  his  twTo  sons  as  hostages. 

The  pacific  policy  of  Sir  John  Shore  caused  much  dissatisfaction,  and 
converted  the  Nizam,  an  old  and  faithful  ally  of  the  English,  into  an 
exasperated  enemy.  Tippoo  did  not  fail  to  take  advantage  of  this 
unexpected  course  of  events,  and  negotiated  with  the  French  directory 
for  succours,  wThile  he  strengthened  his  position  by  alliances  writh  the 
native  chiefs.  Lord  Mornington,  afterwards  Marquis  of  Wellesley, 
wiio  succeeded  Shore,  commenced  hostilities,  which  wrere  rapidly  termi¬ 
ni  d  by  the  fall  of  Seringapatam  and  the  death  of  the  sultan,  w7hose 
iirji.  .  nse  treasures  became  a  prey  to  the  victors;  and  the  British 
dominion  was  established  more  firmly  than  ever  in  India,  1799.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  territory  was  restored  to  a  descendant  of  its 
ancient  princes  ;  the  remainder  became  the  possession  of  the  British  and 
their  allies. 


UNITED  STATES. 

It  has  been  seen  that,  during  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
richest  and  most  fertile  portions  of  North  America  were  extensively  colonized 
by  English  settlers,  who  sought  on  those  distant  shores  a  larger  amount  of  civil 

41 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


4S2 

and  religious  liberty  than  could  be  found  in  Europe.  These  settlements,  there 
fore,  owed  their  establishment  rather  to  private  enterprise  than  to  any  active 
interference  on  the  part  of  government,  charters  of  trade  and  occupancy  being 
obtained  by  various  associations  and  individuals ;  and  the  states  thus  founded, 
which  at  length  amounted  to  thirteen  in  number,  were  in  a  great  measure  inde¬ 
pendent  of  each  other.  The  administration  of  the  home  government,  however, 
was  gradually  substituted  for  that  of  the  various  proprietaries  under  whom  they 
had  ueen  originally  planted;  the  power  of  appointing  governors  being  vested  in 
the  crown,  while  the  colonists  possessed  the  right  of  electing  their  representative 
legislatures.  These  liberal  institutions,  as  well  as  the  spirit  of  the  people, 
fostered  the  development  of  a  strong  disposition  towards  civil  liberty  ;  while  the 
natural  advantages  of  the  country,  and  the  gradual  subjugation  of  the  Dutch 
and  French  settlements,  secured  a  rapid  increase  of  wealth  and  population. 
Their  principal  value  to  the  mother  country  consisted  in  the  right  of  exclusive 
commerce,  which  was  willingly  accorded  by  the  colonists  so  long  as  her  pro¬ 
tection  was  found  necessary  to  shield  them  from  external  enemies ;  but  no 
sooner  had  they  outgrown  this  necessity,  than  the  restrictions  which  it  imposed 
began  to  excite  their  opposition,  while  the  government  itself,  instead  of  pru¬ 
dently  relaxing  the  strictness  of  its  rule,  decided  rather  upon  an  extension  of 
authority,  and  thereby  gave  rise  to  a  contest  which  eventually  led  to  the  dis 
memberment  of  the  empire. 

Under  the  head  of  Britain  have  already  been  noticed  the  various 
attempts  made  by  parliament  to  impose  taxes  on  the  colonists,  and  the 
strong  opposition  which  these  excited  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
At  length,  in  1773,  all  these  plans  were  abandoned,  with  the  exception 
of  a  merely  nominal  duty  on  tea,  which  could  not  be  said  to  affect  the 
price  ;  and  as  it  was  never  doubted  that  this  impost  would  be  tolerated, 
large  shipments  of  that  article  were  made  from  the  English  ports.  But 
the  Americans  saw  that  the  right  of  taxation  still  lurked  under  this  con- 
cession;  and  the  approach  of  the  vessels  excited  their  resentment  in  a 
manner  altogether  unlooked  for.  At  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  the 
cargoes  were  not  allowed  to  be  landed  ;  at  Charleston,  they  were  put 
into  stores  and  prohibited  from  being  sold  ;  while  at  Boston  a  shipload 
was  seized  by  the  mob  and  thrown  into  the  sea.  This  act  of  violence 
gave  great  offence,  and  led  to  the  passing  of  an  act  in  parliament  closing 
that  port,  and  another  abolishing  the  legislative  assembly  of  Massachu¬ 
setts.  In  reference  to  this  latter  measure,  a  congress  of  representatives 
from  all  the  states  met  at  Philadelphia  in  September  1774,  when  they 
expressed  their  sympathy  with  the  disfranchised  state,  and,  in  a  petition 
to  the  king,  asserted  that  the  exclusive  power,  in  all  cases  of  taxation 
and  internal  policy,  lay  of  right  with  the  provincial  assemblies.  The 
same  body  also  denounced  other  grievances,  especially  an  act  for  trying 
in  England  Americans  accused  of  treasonable  practices  ;  and  while  still 
professing  a  desire  for  reconciliation,  framed  a  covenant  of  non-inter¬ 
course,  by  which  the  whole  advantage  of  the  colonies  to  the  home 
country,  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  was  at  once  destroyed.  Their 
petition  was  not  received  ;  the  king  and  parliament  resolved  on  strong 
measures ;  and  a  civil  war  was  the  consequence. 

The  contest  began  at  Lexington  in  the  spring  of  1775,  by  a  a  skirmish 
between  the  British  troops  and  the  armed  provincials  for  the  possession 
of  certain  magazines.  At  the  same  time,  the  deputies  assembled  at 
Philadelphia,  assuming  the  title  of  44  Congress  of  the  United  Colonies 
of  North  America,”  resolved  upon  raising  an  army  for  the  defence  of 
the  country,  and  issued  a  paper  currency  for  its  payment.  The  first 
4ttle  was  fought  at  Bunker’s  Hill,  near  Boston,  on  the  17th  June;  and 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


483 


though  neither  side  could  boast  any  decisive  success,  the  royal  troops 
suffered  severely,  and  the  real  advantage  remained  with  their  antago¬ 
nists.  George  Washington,  a  gentleman  of  fortune  in  Virginia,  who 
had  acquired  considerable  military  reputation  in  the  late  colonial  war 
with  France,  now  received  from  congress  the  command  in  chief  of  the 
insurgent  forces  ;  and  though  an  expedition  under  General  Montgomery 
failed  to  make  any  impression  on  Canada,  which  remained  faithful  to 
Britain,  the  government  had  the  mortification  to  find,  by  the  end  of  the 
year,  that  no  progress  had  been  made  in  reducing  the  Americans.  They 
stiil  continued  to  beleaguer  the  town  of  Boston,  which  the  English, 
under  General  Howe,  to  the  number  of  7000,  were  at  length  compelled 
to  evacuate  and  embark  for  Halifax,  leaving  a  quantity  of  artillery  and 
stores  behind  them  ;  and,  in  March  1776,  Washington  entered  the  place 
in  triumph. 

The  congress  now  resolved  on  the  decisive  step  of  a  declaration  of 
ndependence,  which  was  issued  on  the  4th  July  of  that  year  ;  and  they 
at  the  same  time  established  a  federative  union  among  the  belligerent 
colonies,  assuming  the  title  of  “  The  United  States  of  America.”  But 
the  slender  forces  of  the  newT  republic  were  for  some  time  hardly  able 
anywhere  to  face  the  numerous  and  well-appointed  armies  of  Britain; 
and  nothing  but  the  indomitable  spirit  of  the  people,  and  the  courage 
and  ability  of  their  leaders,  could  have  compensated  for  the  odds.  They 
lost  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  and  congress  was  compelled  to  take 
refuge  in  Maryland;  while  Howe  defeated  Washington,  with  a  loss  of 
1200  men,  near  the  Brandywine  Creek,  and  took  possession  of  Phila¬ 
delphia,  1777.  A  signal  success,  on  their  part,  however,  made  up  for 
these  disasters.  Lieutenant-general  Burgoyne  had  been  sent  from 
Canada  with  ten  thousand  men,  for  the  purpose  of  making  an  attack  on 
the  northen  states  ;  and,  advancing  to  join  General  Howe,  for  some 
time  drove  the  Americans  before  him,  and  captured  Ticonderoga.  But 
at  length  he  encountered  such  difficulties,  and  was  so  vigorously  opposed 
by  Gates  and  Arnold,  that,  in  October,  after  two  severe  actions,  his 
whole  force  was  compelled  to  surrender  at  Saratoga.  This  decisive 
event  determined  the  French  cabinet,  who  had  long  been  -watching  the 
contest,  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  States,  1778;  while  numbers  of 
their  officers,  including  the  celebrated  La  Fayette,  entered  the  insurgent 
army.  General  Clinton,  now  chief  in  command  of  the  royal  troops, 
forthwith  abandoned  Philadelphia,  and  retired  to  New  York;  but  an 
attempt  on  Rhode  Island,  by  the  American  general  Sullivan  and  the 
French  admiral  D’Estaing,  proved  a  failure.  At  this  period  commis¬ 
sioners  were  sent  from  England  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  a  reconcilia¬ 
tion  ;  but  as  the  congress  refused  to  treat  on  any  other  terms  than  a 
recognition  of  independence,  nothing  could  be  effected. 

In  the  year  1779,  various  naval  engagements  took  place  between  the 
British  and  French  fleets,  the  latter  now  aided  by  that  of  Spain,  which 
proved  very  harassing  to  the  ministry,  and  greatly  distressed  the  trade 
of  the  mother  country.  However,  in  1780,  the  states  of  North  and 
South  Carolina,  which  contained  a  large  proportion  of  persons  favoura¬ 
ble  to  royalty,  submitted  to  a  British  army  under  General  Clinton,  and 
Gates  sustained  a  severe  check  at  Camden  from  Lord  Cornwallis.* 

*In  this  campaign  occurred  the  defection  of  the  American  General  Arnold,  and  the 
detection  and  execution  of  the  British  Major  Andre,  by  whom  it  was  negotiated,  as 
a  spy. 


484 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Next  year,  the  greater  part  of  the  army  in  these  southern  states  was 
conducted  northward  by  the  latter,  in  the  hope  of  making  further  con¬ 
quests  ;  but  General  Greene,  after  greatly  harassing  the  royal  troops, 
regained  both  the  Oarolinas,  while  his  lordship  took  up  a  position  at 
Yorktown  in  Virginia;  At  this  time  Washington  was  threatening  a 
force  under  Clinton  at  New  York,  and  the  latter  tamely  suffered  him  to 
retire  to  the  southward,  and  prepare  to  attack  Cornwallis.  In  Septem¬ 
ber,  Yorktown  was  invested  by  this  and  other  corps  of  Americans  and 
French  ;  and  in  three  weeks,  the  British  batteries  being  completely 
silenced,  the  whole  army  was  compelled  to  surrender.  With  this  deci¬ 
sive  event,  hostilities  may  be  said  to  have  terminated.  In  England,  the 
hopelessness  of  the  contest  had  now  become  so  apparent,  that  early  in 
1782  a  motion  was  carried  in  parliament  for  its  discontinuance.  Provi¬ 
sional  articles  of  peace  were  accordingly  signed  at  Paris  in  the  month 
of  November;  and  in  the  ensuing  February,  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by 
which  the  United  States  were  acknowledged  as  44  free,  sovereign,  and 
independent.”  All  the  European  powers  subsequently  adhered  to  this 
arrangement;  while  Washington,  to  whose  unshaken  constancy  and 
patriotism  the  success  of  the  struggle  had  mainly  been  owing,  resigned 
his  authority  into  the  hands  of  congress,  and  retired  into  private  life. 

The  American  leaders  now  set  themselves  vigorously  to  perfect  and 
consolidate  the  independence  which  had  been  so  gloriously  achieved. 
Great  distress  prevailed  throughout  the  county,  in  consequence  of  the 
long  neglect  of  agriculture  and  commerce ;  a  heavy  debt  lay  on  the 
hands  of  government;  and  no  small  amount  of  discontent  existed.  These 
difficulties  were  met  by  various  salutary  regulations ;  and  in  1787,  a 
general  convention  met  at  Philadelphia,  of  which  Washington  was 
chosen  president,  with  the  view  of  framing  a  constitution  for  the  republic. 
That  body  established  the  form  of  government  which  has  since  prevailed 
in  the  country  :  the  different  states  were  united  for  the  purpose  of  mutual 
protection ;  the  general  legislative  powers  were  confided  to  a  congress, 
consisting  of  a  chamber  of  representatives  chosen  biennially,  and  a 
senate  elected  every  six  years  ;  the  executive  was  intrusted  to  a  presi¬ 
dent  and  vice-president  chosen  every  four  years ;  while  each  state,  pos¬ 
sessing  a  corresponding  form  of  government,  retained  the  management 
of  its  own  internal  affairs.  In  1789,  Washington  was  inaugurated  first 
president  of  the  United  States,  an  honour  which  again  devolved  on  him 
in  1793 ;  and  he  displayed  throughout  his  term  of  office  the  same  talent 
and  disinterestedness  which  had  marked  his  military  career.  He  wisely 
abstained  from  all  interference  in  the  contests  of  the  French  revolution, 
formed  treaties  of  amity  and  commerce  with  Britain,  Spain,  and  other 
nations,  and  anxiously  aided  every  scheme  of  internal  improvement,  so 
that  the  country  made  extraordinary  advances  in  wealth  and  population. 
He  finally  resigned  all  public  employment  in  1796,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Mr.  Adams,  one  of  his  coadjutors  in  the  war  of  independence. 

HAYTI. 

This  island,  the  second  in  size  and  first  in  fertility  of  the  West  India  group, 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1495,  and  received  from  him  the  name  of  His¬ 
paniola  ;  it  was  subsequently  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  who  founded  the  towns 
of  Isabella  and  St.  Domingo.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  are  believed  to  have 
then  amounted  to  nearly  1,000,000 ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  frightful  cruelties 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


485 


inflicted  on  them  by  their  European  masters,  they  were  almost  annihilated  in 
the  course  of  twenty  years,  and  during  the  next  century  their  place  was  sup¬ 
plied  by  vast  importations  of  negro  slaves.  In  1665,  the  French  obtained  a 
footing  on  the  western  coast,  and  in  1697  became  possessors  of  nearly  half  the 
island;  and  this  colony,  being  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  of  their  foreign 
settlements,  was  cultivated  with  great  care  and  success,  so  that  its  agricultural 
produce,  consisting  principally  of  sugar,  coffee,  and  cotton,  was  valued  in  1789 
at  fully  8,000,000  sterling.  The  whole  of  this  immense  wealth,  however,  as  in 
the  other  West  India  Islands,  was  raised  by  the  compulsory  labour  of  the  un¬ 
happy  Africans,  who,  after  enduring  the  horrors  of  transportation  to  the  island, 
were  forced  there  to  lead  a  life  of  cheerless  labour  and  suffering  for  the  benefit 
of  their  taskmasters. 

The  barbarities  of  the  slave-trade  had  long  excited  the  ineffectual  in- 
dignation  of  the  humane  in  Western  Europe;  and  in  Denmark,  France, 
and  England,  societies  were  formed  for  the  protection  of  the  negroes. 
In  the  last  of  these  countries,  so  early  as  1754,  the  Quaker  body  had 
universally  protested  against  the  traffic;  while,  in  1785,  public  sympa¬ 
thy  was  strongly  awakened  on  the  subject  by  the  writings  of  the  cele¬ 
brated  Clarkson.  The  philanthropists  of  France  took  a  more  decided 
course.  The  Societe  des  Amis  des  Noirs ,  1788,  advocated  the  immediate 
abolition  of  slavery  itself ;  and  by  a  decree  of  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
1791,  the  privileges  of  equality  were  conferred  indiscriminately  on  all 
persons  of  colour  born  of  free  parents.  Unfortunately,  no  precautions 
were  taken  to  ensure  that  this  great  measure  should  be  carried  into  effect 
in  a  peaceful  and  orderly  manner ;  the  whites  of  the  colony  were  generally 
opposed  to  it ;  and  the  consequence  was,  that  so  soon  as  the  news  ar¬ 
rived,  the  mulattoes  and  negroes  flew  to  arms,  and  massacred  large 
numbers  of  their  former  masters.  The  cruelties  exercised  on  both  sides 
during  this  disastrous  contest  exceed  anything  recorded  in  history.  The 
Constituent  Assembly,  at  once  astonished  and  alarmed,  in  vain  endea¬ 
voured  to  retrace  their  steps :  their  delegates,  backed  by  three  thousand 
men,  fruitlessly  strove  to  reconcile  the  discordant  inhabitants  of  the 
colony.  The  insurrection  at  last  became  universal ;  while  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  after  them  the  Convention,  proclaimed  the  unlimited 
freedom  of  the  blacks,  1793.  The  furious  civil  war  which  next  ensued 
between  the  negroes  and  mulattoes,  placed  Toussaint  L’Ouverture  at 
the  head  of  affairs,  1800.  In  the  next  year  an  assembly  of  the  leading 
chiefs,  convened  at  Cape  Town,  drew  up  a  constitution,  conferring  on 
him  unlimited  authority,  under  the  title  of  president  and  governor  for 
life.  These  proceedings  excited  the  jealousy  of  Napoleon,  who  sent 
out  an  armament  to  recover  the  island.  After  an  obstinate  resistance, 
Toussaint  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  by  whom  he  was  conveyed 
to  Europe,  where  he  was  shamefully  put  to  death.  The  blacks,  how¬ 
ever,  rallied  under  John  James  Dessalines,  who  expelled  the  invaders, 
and  erected  the  western  portion  of  the  island,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Hayti,  into  an  empire,  assuming  the  government  by  the  title  of  James 
I.  His  despotism  and  cruelty  having  rendered  him  universally  detested, 
he  was  slain  in  an  insurrection  in  1806  ;  and  the  country  divided  into 
two  states,  the  northern  coast  being  formed  into  a  negro  community  un¬ 
der  Christophe,  who,  in  1811,  was  proclaimed  king,  while  the  southern 
plains  became  a  mulatto  republic  under  Petion.  Continual  war  was 
carried  on  between  these  two  chiefs.  After  the  death  of  the  latter  in 
1818,  he  was  succeeded  as  president  of  the  commonwealth  by  Boyer; 

41  * 


486 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


and  Christophe  having  killed  himself  on  the  breaking  out  of  an  insur¬ 
rection  in  1820,  the  whole  was  united  under  his  authority,  which  was 
also  extended  over  the  Spanish  portion  of  the  island  two  years  later.  In 
1825,  an  ordonnance  was  published  by  the  King  of  France,  in  which 
he  formally  recognised  the  independence  of  the  island.  Hayti  has  almost 
ceased  to  be  an  exporting  country  ;  but  the  population  has  nevertheless 
rapidly  increased,  and  exertions  are  made  by  the  government  to  encou¬ 
rage  the  settlement  of  whites  and  promote  education.  Though  called  a 
republic,  and  ruled  by  a  president,  the  government  is  properly  a  despot¬ 
ism,  the  chief  authority  residing  in  the  army. 

THE  CHURCH. 

The  impiety  which  characterized  the  eighteenth  century  first  chal¬ 
lenged  public  attention  under  the  regency  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  whose 
palace  became  the  resort  of  the  freethinking  wits  of  the  day.  In  1751, 
De  Trades,  a  priest,  maintained  at  the  Sorbonne  a  thesis  which  was  re¬ 
garded  as  the  first  public  elfort  of  the  sceptical  philosophy.  In  the  same 
year  were  issued  the  first  two  volumes  of  the  Diclionnaire  Encyclopedique , 
an  immense  compilation,  which,  according  to  the  prospectus,  was  to  be 
a  complete  storehouse  of  human  knowledge,  instead  of  what  it  really  is, 
a  magazine  of  irreligion.  Voltaire  was  then  in  the  full  strength  of  his 
varied  genius,  and  by  his  sparkling  yet  natural  style  charmed  all  readers, 
while  he  scattered  the  seeds  of  incredulity.  The  sophisms  and  idle 
theories  of  Rousseau  on  education  attracted  the  more  serious;  while 
Diderot,  D’Alembert,  and  other  equally  zealous  disciples,  supported 
these  chiefs  of  the  philosophic  school.  Impiety  became  the  fashion ;  it 
pervaded  the  drawing-room  and  the  theatre,  and  was  above  all  predomi¬ 
nant  in  the  upper  classes  of  society  all  over  the  Continent. 

The  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  in  what  light  soever  we  may  view 
the  principles  and  practice  of  their  society,  is  the  first  link  in  the  great 
chain  of  misfortunes  that  befell  the  Roman  Catholic  church  during  this 
century.  Clement  XIV.  long  hesitated,  and  sought  a  thousand  pretexts 
for  saving  a  religious  body  that  counted  20,000  members,  all  devoted  to 
the  supremacy  of  their  spiritual  head.  This  act,  which  was  only  adopted 
at  last  (1773)  as  a  means  of  reconciling  the  Roman  Church  with  the 
heads  of  the  various  Catholic  states,  became  a  signal  for  discord  and 
insurrection  against  the  authority  of  the  holy  see.  In  Germany  espe¬ 
cially  were  the  innovators  most  numerous,  and  the  opinions  of  Febro- 
nius  (Von  Hontheim),  the  apologist  of  the  bishops  against  the  Pope, 
rapidly  gained  ground.  Joseph  II.  substituted  the  normal  for  the  eccle¬ 
siastical  schools,  and,  instead  of  the  ancient  chairs  of  theology,  esta 
blished  seminaries  independent  of  the  bishops.  A  number  of  religious 
houses  were  suppressed,  and  the  others  released  from  all  obedience  to 
their  superiors-general.  It  was,  moreover,  declared  that  the  prelates 
were  no  longer  subject  to  the  Pope.  In  Italy,  also,  Ricci,  bishop  of 
Pistoia,  adopted  all  the  German  innovations. 

The  death  of  Joseph  restored  peace  between  Germany  and  the  Pope ; 
but  the  new  irreligious  doctrines  were  elsewhere  destined  to  work  out 
their  natural  results.  The  men  who  had  adopted  them,  and  laboured  in 
their  propagation,  were  raised  to  power  in  France,  and  the  political  his 
tory  of  the  Revolution  has  shown  how  far  men  will  go  in  folly  and 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


487 


cnme,  when  unchecked  by  conscience  and  religious  feeling.  All  the 
established  forms  of  worship  were  swept  away,  although,  by  a  decree 
of  the  representative  body,  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being  and  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  were  finally  acknowledged.  The  goddess  of 
Reason,  under  the  form  of  a  woman,  was  placed  on  the  altars  of  the 
living  God,  and  received  the  homage  of  the  insensate  populace. 

The  Methodists.— This  sect,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  regu¬ 
larity  and  strict  method  of  its  followers,  was  founded  in  Oxford  by  John 
Wesley.  It  rapidly  increased  in  numbers  ;  but  its  existence  was  shaken 
in  1741  by  the  difference  arising  from  the  Arminianism  of  its  author  and 
the  Calvinism  of  Whitefield.  About  ten  years  after,  the  opposition  be¬ 
tween  the  Methodist  preachers  and  the  Anglican  clergy  led  to  a  separa¬ 
tion  from  the  Establishment,  though  in  1788  the  society  was  still  eager 
to  proclaim  its  unity  with  the  church  in  doctrine,  and  its  reluctant  differ¬ 
ence  on  matters  of  discipline.  Apart  from  the  rash  speculations  of  one 
class,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  both,  there  is  much  real  piety  and  devo¬ 
tion,  which  have  greatly  contributed  to  excite  the  exertions  of  the  regular 
clergy.  We  may  imagine  we  see  the  visible  hand  of  the  Almighty 
raising  up  this  society  as  a  new  barrier  against  infidelity,  when  unbelief 
was  most  abundant. 

Consult :  Lord  Mahon’s  History  of  England,  chap.  xix. 

LITERATURE,  ARTS,  AND  SCIENCES. 

Great  Britain. — The  literature  of  the  British  islands  during  this  century  is 
of  great  value  and  importance,  and  presents  a  vast  number  of  successful 
aspirants  in  every  walk  of  inquiry  or  imagination.  In  poetry  appear  the  names 
of  Prior,  1721,  conspicuous  for  the  graceful  ease  and  vivacity  of  his  productions  ; 
Young,  1765,  author  of  the  Night  Thoughts ,  a  work  remarkable  for  the  im¬ 
pressive  solemnity  of  its  reflections ;  and  Pope,  1744,  who  carried  to  the 
highest  perfection  correctness  of  versification  and  splendour  of  diction,  and 
whose  voluminous  works  are  a  treasury  of  keen  wit  and  elegant  satire.  Thom¬ 
son,  1748,  is  admired  for  the  pastoral  beauty  of  his  Seasons  ;  Collins,  1756,  for 
his  odes,  particularly  that  on  the  Passions  ;  and  Gray,  1771,  for  the  exquisite 
harmony  of  his  elegies.  The  most  natural  poets  of  the  period,  however,  were 
Cowper,  1800,  author  of  The  Task,  and  Robert  Burns,  1796,  whose  songs  are 
unrivalled  for  simplicity  and  real  pathos.  Steele,  1729,  and  Addison,  1719, 
contributed  to  the  drama ;  but  their  fame  depends  mainly  on  those  remarkable 
essays  on  men  and  manners  published  in  the  Tatler  and  Spectator,  —  a  species 
of  writing  of  which  they  may  be  considered  the  founders.  Vanbrugh,  1726, 
and  Congreve,  1728,  cultivated  comedy;  Defoe,  1731,  an  extensive  miscel¬ 
laneous  writer,  wrote  the  favourite  tale  of  Robinson  Crusoe  ;  and  Sterne,  1768, 
is  admired  for  the  pathetic  touches  of  his  Sentimental  Journey.  As  novel- 
writers  appear  the  distinguished  names  of  Swift,  1745,  Fielding,  1754,  Richard¬ 
son,  1761,  and  Smollett,  1771  ;  while  Goldsmith,  1774,  whose  Vicar  of  Wake¬ 
field  ranks  him  in  the  same  walk,  was  also  known  as  a  poet  and  miscellaneous 
writer.  Philology  received  its  most  valuable  contribution  in  the  Dictionary  of 
the  renowned  Samuel  Johnson,  1784,  whose  Lives  of  the  Poets  has  procured 
him  a  distinguished  reputation  in  criticism  and  biography  ;  in  history  appeared 
the  great  standard  works  of  Hume,  1776,  Robertson,  1793,  and  Gibbon,  1794; 
Isaac  Newton,  1719,  perhaps  the  greatest  man  of  his  age,  will  ever  be  remem 
bered  in  connexion  with  the  theory  of  the  planetary  motions  which  bears  his 
name  ;  and  Halley,  1742,  has  been  justly  celebrated  in  the  same  walk  of 
science.  Butler,  1752,  Sherlock,  1761,  Warburton,  1779,  Wesley,  1791,  anc. 
Paley,  1805,  were  conspicuous  in  theology  ;  and  Blackstone,  1780,  is  well 
known  to  constitutional  writers  by  his  valuable  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
England.  The  science  of  political  economy  owes  its  origin  to  Adam  Smith, 


488 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


1790,  author  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations ;  Hartley,  1757,  and  Reid,  1796,  success¬ 
fully  cultivated  metaphysics;  Franklin,  1790,  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  writer 
on  economics,  and  for  his  electrical  discoveries  ;  Priestley,  1804,  attracted  great 
attention  by  his  chemical  investigations,  and  his  writings  on  controversial 
theology.  In  the  fine  arts  may  be  selected  the  names  of  Hogarth,  1764,  who 
has  been  called  “the  painter  of  comedy;”  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  1792,  felicitous 
in  portraits,  while  his  historical  pieces  are  regarded  as  among  the  finest  produc¬ 
tions  of  the  English  school ;  and  Gainsborough,  1788,  the  beauty  of  whose 
landscapes  has  been  generally  admired.  The  manufacturing  prosperity  of 
Britain  received  a  signal  impetus  from  the  improvements  effected  in  the  steam- 
engine  by  Watt,  1819,  and  the  successive  invention  of  the  spinning-jenny, 
spinning-frame,  and  power-loom,  by  Hargreaves,  Arkwright,  and  Crompton. 

France. — The  eighteenth  century  in  France,  which  the  writers  of  the  period 
complacently  regarded  as  the  age  of  Philosophy,  exhibits  many  striking  fea¬ 
tures.  The  character  of  this  so-called  philosophy  was  cold  and  heartless ;  and 
its  aim,  while  affecting  to  attack  vulgar  prejudices  merely,  seemed  to  be  to  cast 
ridicule  on  the  sublimest  truths  of  religion,  and  by  depriving  man  of  all  lofty 
hopes  and  aspirations,  to  fix  the  sum  of  happiness  in  merely  sensual  indulgence. 
The  great  personification  and  exponent  of  this  era  is  Voltaire,  1778,  a  man 
eminent  in  every  walk  of  literature,  and  whose  numerous  works,  notwithstand¬ 
ing  their  sceptical  character,  still  received  a  large  tribute  of  admiration.  The 
same  tendencies  were  in  a  nearly  equal  degree  promoted  by  Rousseau,  1778, 
whose  celebrated  work,  Du  Contrat  Social,  is  believed  to  have  hastened  the 
revolution.  This  philosophy  was  embodied  in  a  systematic  form  in  the  cele¬ 
brated  Encycloptedia,  published  in  1751,  of  which  the  chief  editors  were  Diderot, 
1784,  and  D’Alembert,  1783,  the  latter  also  highly  distinguished  for  his  contri¬ 
butions  to  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy.  Previously  to  these  writers 
appeared  Le  Sage,  1747,  whose  amusing  novel  of  Gil  Bias  has  been  translated 
into  every  European  language.  Marmontel,  1799,  in  the  early  chapters  of 
Belisarius,  reminds  us  of  Fenelon;  in  the  Moral  Tales  he  is  more  exposed  to 
censure.  The  period  was  strikingly  deficient  in  poetical  merit.  A  high  place 
among  metaphysical  writers  is  due  to  Condillac,  1780 ;  and  Montesquieu,  1755, 
author  of  the  Esprit  des  Lois ,  has  the  merit  of  making  political  science  a 
favourite  study.  Rollin,  1741,  is  celebrated  for  his  Ancient  History ;  De 
Guignes,  1800,  for  a  history  of  the  Huns.  Reaumur,  1757,  an  ingenious  philo¬ 
sophical  naturalist,  has  associated  his  name  with  an  important  improvement  in 
the  thermometer ;  Buffon,  1788,  occupies  the  highest  rank  as  a  writer  on 
natural  history  ;  Bonnet,  1793,  and  D’Aubenton,  1799,  are  well  known  in  the 
same  path  of  research.  The  pneumatic  system  of  chemistry  owes  its  founda¬ 
tion  to  Lavoisier,  1794 ;  while  mathematical  and  astronomical  science  present 
the  conspicuous  names  of  Lalande,  1807,  and  La  Grange,  1813.  Among  the 
most  eminent  painters  are  enumerated  Vernet,  1786,  successful  in  marine  sub¬ 
jects ;  Vien,  1810,  the  restorer  of  the  French  school,  and  model  of  the  great 
masters  by  whom  it  is  now  illustrated ;  and  Grenze,  1805,  an  elegant  and 
tasteful  artist. 

Italy.  —  Italian  literature  during  this  century  assumed  a  higher  degree  of 
vigour  than  it  had  displayed  in  the  previous  epoch.  The  comedies  of  Goldoni, 
1772,  effected  a  revolution  in  the  stage ;  Metastasio,  1782,  imparted  poetical 
vigour  to  the  opera ;  and  tragedy  owes  its  creation  to  Alfieri,  1803.  The 
national  historian,  Muratori,  1750 ;  Giannone,  1748,  author  of  a  history  of 
Naples;  and  Tiraboschi,  1794,  who  wrote  the  annals  of  Italian  literature, 
infused  new  vigour  into  their  peculiar  line  of  research.  Political  economy  was 
cultivated  wdth  success  by  Filangieri,  1798,  and  other  able  writers.  Morgagni, 
1771,  is  highly  distinguished  for  his  anatomical  investigations  ;  astronomy  pre¬ 
sents  the  celebrated  names  of  Cassini,  1756,  and  Boscovich,  1787.  The  in¬ 
vestigations  of  natural  history  were  successfully  prosecuted  by  Spallanzani 
1799;  while  the  important  discoveries  of  Galvani,  1798,  and  Volta,  1827, 
raised  electricity  to  the  rank  of  a  science.  Italy,  so  long  the  nurse  of  the  fine 
arts,  presented  no  longer  that  unquestionable  ascendency  she  had  formerly 
maintained ;  but  she  still  produced  many  respectable  artists,  among  whom  the 
most  distinguished  were  Lutti,  1724,  and  Battoni,  1786. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


489 

Spain  and  Portugal. — With  the  accession  of  the  Bourbon  family,  the 
literature  of  the  peninsula  began  to  be  formed  upon  the  modei  of  that  of  France. 
Ignacio  de  Luzan,  1754,  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  this  new  school,  his 
Art  of  Poetry  having  produced  an  important  revolution  ;  the  Portuguese  writer, 
Xavier  de  Meneses,  1743,  author  oi  the  Henriqueide,  was  also  an  esteemed 
poet.  A  number  of  respectable  historians  appeared,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned.  Ferreras,  1735,  author  of  a  history  of  Spain  ;  Velasques,  1772,  who 
wrote  the  annals  of  Castilian  poetry  ;  and  Munos,  1795  (?),  celebrated  for  his 
unfinished  History  of  Spanish  America.  Feyjoo,  1765,  who  has  been  called 
the  Spanish  Addison,  is  well  known  as  a  writer  on  ethics  and  criticism  ;  Ulloa, 
1795.  cultivated  mathematics  and  various  subjects  of  scientific  investigation. 
The  natural  history  of  the  colonies  attracted  much  attention  at  this  period; 
their  zoology  was  attentively  investigated  by  Felix  d’Azara,  also  distinguished 
as  a  traveller  ;  and  i ■  uiz  and  Pavon  published  valuable  researches  into  the  floral 
productions  of  Peru. 

Germany. — During  this  century  Germany  exhibited  an  extraordinary  deve¬ 
lopment  of  literary  talent,  offering  a  host  of  great  men  which  it  would  be  im¬ 
possible  even  to  enumerate.  In  imaginative  writing  appear  the  names  of  J.  E. 
Schlegel,  1759;  Klopstock,  1803.  the  immortal  author  of  the  Ales s ia h  ;  Zim¬ 
merman,  1795,  whose  work  on  Solitude  has  been  extensively  perused  ;  and 
Wieland,  1813,  successful  alike  in  romance  and  poetry.  Gothe,  1832,  has  been 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  divinity,  and  he  is  unquestionably  the  founder  of  modern 
German  literature  ;  hardly  less  admiration  has  been  accorded  to  his  illustrious 
contemporary,  Schiller,  1805,  whose  dramatic  and  historical  works  possess  a 
constantly  increasing  reputation.  The  profound  metaphysical  views  of  Kant, 
1804.  have  created  a  wonderful  sensation  in  Europe.  Fabricius,  1736,  was 
renowned  for  his  classical  attainments;  history  has  produced  Struve,  1738; 
Mosheim,  1755;  and  Schlozer,  1809.  Gesner,  1761,  and  Ernesti,  1781,  are 
famed  for  their  philological  studies.  Chemistry  was  cultivated  by  Stahl,  1734  ; 
medicine  by  Hoffman,  1742,  as  also  by  the  celebrated  Swiss  poet  and  physician, 
Haller,  1777.  The  name  of  Fahrenheit,  1743,  is  well  known  in  connexion 
with  the  thermometer.  Euler,  1783,  rendered  important  services  to  mathe¬ 
matical  science  ;  Werner,  1817,  has  acquired  a  European  reputation  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  comparatively  new  study  of  geology  ;  and  Lavater,  1801,  attracted 
considerable  attention  by  his  fanciful  work  on  physiognomy.  The  German 
school  of  painting  was  illustrated  by  the  splendid  historical  productions  of 
Mengs,  1779;  it  also  presents  many  eminent  landscape  artists,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  Dietrich,  1774,  and  Gesner,  1788.  The  science  of  music 
is  perhaps  mainly  indebted  to  the  composers  of  Germany.  During  this  cen¬ 
tury,  she  furnished  the  great  names  of  Handel,  1759,  Mozart,  1791,  Haydn, 
1809,  Beethoven,  1807,  and  Weber,  1826. 

Holland  and  the  North. — Many  eminent  literary  and  scientific  characters 
at  this  time  appeared  in  Holland,  though  her  imaginative  writers  have  attracted 
less  attention.  Gronovius,  1716,  celebrated  for  his  classical  attainments,  wrote 
an  admired  work  on  Greek  Antiquities.  A  new  theory  of  medicine  was  founded 
by  the  illustrious  Boerhaave,  1738,  and  further  improved  by  Gaubius,  1780; 
Van  Swieten,  1772,  prosecuted  the  same  science.  Among  various  distinguish¬ 
ed  philologists  may  be  mentioned  Schultens,  1750 ;  Hoogeveen,  1794  ;  and 
Valckenaer,  1820.  In  Sweden  appeared  Dalin,  1763,  an  eminent  historian  and 
poet;  the  renowned  Linnaeus,  1778,  whose  sexual  system  of  botany  has  been 
generally  adopted  throughout  Europe  ;  and  Wallerius,  1785,  known  as  an 
mdustrious  chemist  and  mineralogist.  Denmark  produced  Holberg,  1754, 
whose  versatile  talents  were  alternately  turned  to  the  drama,  satire,  and  his¬ 
tory  ;  Ewald,  1781,  the  greatest  and  most  admired  of  modern  northern  poets  ; 
Suhm,  1798,  author  of  a  valuable  history  of  Denmark  ;  and  Pontoppidan,  1764, 
celebrated  for  his  natural  history  of  Norway..  Pallas,  18x1,  a  native  of  Prussia, 
is  connected  with  Russian  literature  by  his  travels  in  the  southern  portions  of 
that  empire,  and  his  valuable  contributions  to  its  natural  history. 


490 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Great  Britain. — 1801,  Irish  Union. — 1802,  Peace  of  Amiens. — 1805,  Victory 
of  Trafalgar. — 1808,  Peninsular  War. — 1810,  Regency. — 1812,  War  with 
the  United  States.  —  1814,  Battle  of  Toulouse.  —  1815,  Waterloo.  —  1820, 
George  IV. 

France. — 1800,  Marengo  and  Hohenlinden. — 1802,  Peace  of  Amiens. — 1804, 
Napoleon  Emperor. — 1805,  Austerlitz. — 1806,  Jena. —  Berlin  Decrees. — 
1807,  Eylau. — Treaty  of  Tilsit. — Occupation  of  Portugal;  Usurpation  in 
Spain. — 1809,  Wagram.  — 1810,  Napoleon  marries  Maria  Louisa. — 1812, 
Russian  Campaign. — 1813,  Leipsic. — 1814,  First  Treaty  of  Paris. — 1815, 
The  Hundred  Days;  Waterloo. — Louis  XVIII. ;  the  Charter. 

Spain. — 1807,  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau. — 1808,  Charles  IV.  abdicated. — Joseph 
Bonaparte;  Siege  of  Saragossa. —1 813,  Battle  of  Vittoria. — Ferdinand  VII. 

Portugal. — 1807,  French  Invasion. — 1808,  Convention  of  Cintra. — 1810,  John 
VI. — 1821,  Popular  Constitution. 

Italy. — 1799,  Parthenopean  Republic. — 1806,  Joseph  Bonaparte  King  of 
Naples. — Battle  of  Maida. — 1808,  Murat  King. — 1812,  Sicilian  Constitution. 
— 1815,  New  federal  Compact  of  Zurich. 

Germany. — 1805,  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. — 1809,  Battle  of  Aspern.— 
Tyrolese  War. — 1815,  Germanic  League. 

Holland. — 1806,  Louis  Bonaparte  King. — 1810,  Incorporation  with  France. 
1815,  William  Frederick  I.  King  of  United  Netherlands. 

Denmark. — 1801,  Battle  of  the  Baltic. — 1807,  Bombardment  of  Copenhagen. 
1814,  Cession  of  Norway  to  Sweden. 

Sweden. — 1809,  Gustavus  IV.  deposed;  Charles  XIII. — 1810,  Bernadotte 
Crown  Prince. — 1818,  Charles  XIV. 

Prussia. — 1797,  Frederick  III. — 1806,  Defeat  at  Jena. — 1813,  War  with 
France;  Landsturm ;  Blucher.  —  Lutzen  and  Bautzen;  Leipsic. — 1814, 
Restoration  of  Territories. 

Russia. — 1801,  Paul  I.  assassinated;  Alexander  I. — 1807,  Friedland;  Treaty 
of  Tilsit. — 1809-1812,  Turkish  War. — 1812,  French  Invasion;  Burning  of 
Moscow. — 1815,  Kingdom  of  Poland. 

Turkey. — 1806,  Insurrection  of  Janissaries;  Mustapha  IV. — Mahmoud  II. — • 
1812,  Peace  of  Bucharest. 

British  India. — 1803,  Mahratta  War;  Battle  of  Assaye. — 1813,  Marquis  of 
Hastings  ;  Pindaree  War. — 1818,  British  paramount  throughout  India. 

United  States. — 1801,  Mr.  Jefferson  President. — 1803,  Purchase  of  Louisiana. 
1812,  War  with  Britain. — 1814,  Treaty  of  Ghent. — 1817,  Acquisition  of 
Florida. 

Brazil. — 1822,  Declaration  of  Independence  ;  Don  Pedro  Emperor. — 1824, 
Constitution. 

Spanish  Colonies. — 1810,  Revolution  in  Caraccas. — 1816,  Buenos  Ayres. — 
1818,  Chili. — 1821,  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Guatemala. — 1824,  Victory  of  Aya* 
cucho  ;  Final  Expulsion  of  Spaniards. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


491 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

The  legislative  union  with  Ireland,  effected  on  the  first  day  of  the 
present  century,  secured  to  that  country  most  of  the  commercial  privi¬ 
leges  which  the  people  had  long  demanded  :  twenty-eight  temporal  and 
four  spiritual  peers,  with  one  hundred  commoners,  were  admitted  to  the 
British,  now  called  the  Imperial  Parliament;  while  their  proportion  of 
the  public  burdens  was  fixed  by  an  equitable  adjustment.*  On  the 
Continent,  the  events  of  the  campaign  of  1800  were  most  unfavourable 
to  Austria ;  so  that,  in  the  beginning  of  next  year,  the  emperor  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  sign  a  peace  at  Luneville,  by  wThich  the  French  became  masters 
of  all  Europe  west  of  the  Rhine  and  south  of  the  Adige.  The  Czar, 
also,  who  had  become  a  warm  friend  of  Napoleon,  seized  upon  all  the 
British  vessels  in  his  ports ;  while  Denmark  and  Sw7eden  appeared  to 
be  on  the  point  of  joining  him  in  a  confederacy  against  England.  In 
these  circumstances,  Sir  Hyde  Parker  wTas  despatched  wTith  an  arma¬ 
ment  to  the  Baltic,  under  whom  Nelson  proved  so  successful  against 
the  Danish  fleet,  as  to  reduce  that  country  to  a  state  of  neutrality. 
Further  operations  in  that  quarter  were  interrupted  by  the  death  of  the 
Emperor  Paul :  his  son  and  successor,  Alexander,  immediately  disclaim¬ 
ing  all  hostile  intentions,  formed  an  amicable  convention  with  Great 
Britain.  About  this  time,  an  army  which  had  been  sent  to  drive  the 
French  out  of  Egypt,  succeeded  in  effecting  its  purpose,  though  with  the 
loss  of  its  brave  commander,  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  who  was  mortally 
wTounded  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria,  March  21.  Nevertheless,  the 
signal  triumphs  of  France  on  the  Continent,  joined  to  the  sufferings  of 
a  famine  which  at  this  time  bore  hard  on  the  great  body  of  the  people, 
produced  a  general  desire  for  peace;  and  in  order  to  facilitate  such  an 
arrangement,  a  new  ministry  had  been  formed  under  Mr.  Addington  in 
the  beginning  of  the  year.  A  negotiation  wras  accordingly  opened, 
wThich  terminated  in  a  definitive  treaty  signed  at  Amiens,  March  27, 
1802;  England  retaining  several  of  her  colonial  conquests,  w~hile  her 
opponent  remained  unquestioned  mistress  of  the  Continent. 

The  public  joy  at  this  event  was  how’ever  destined  to  be  of  short  dura¬ 
tion.  Bonaparte,  w7ho  had  now7,  as  First  Consul,  concentrated  the  whole 
government  of  France  in  his  hands,  took  advantage  of  several  unsettled 
points  in  the  treaty,  and  showTed  a  disposition  so  evidently  unfriendly, 
as  to  provoke  the  British  to  retaliate  by  retaining  Malta,  of  which  they 
had  obtained  possession  in  1800,  and  the  war  was  accordingly  recom¬ 
menced  in  May  1803.  The  latter  immediately  laid  an  embargo  on  the 
French  shipping  in  their  ports,  and  employed  a  naval  force  to  occupy 
such  of  the  West  India  Islands  as  still  belonged  to  the  enemy;  while 
Napoleon,  seizing  upon  great  numbers  of  English  visiters  then  in  France, 
confined  them  as  prisoners  of  wrar.  He  wTas  able  also  to  overrun  Hano¬ 
ver,  and  exclude  British  commerce  from  Hamburg;  and  wdiile  an  im¬ 
mense  flotilla  w7as  collected  at  Boulogne,  for  the  avowed  purpose  of 


*  Notwithstanding  the  general  fairness  of  this  measure,  however,  the  Irish  viewed 
with  great  discontent  the  abolition  of  their  national  legislature;  and  their  feelings  in 
this  respect  led  to  a  conspiracy  in  1803,  under  Emmett  and  Russell,  for  seizing  the  seat  of 
government.  After  some  tumults  in  the  streets  of  Dublin,  in  which  several  persons  lost 
their  lives,  the  mob  was  dispersed  by  the  military,  and  their  leaders,  being  seized,  were 
tried  and  executed. 


492 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


invading  England.  In  April  1804,  Mr.  Pitt  was  again  called  to  the 
head  of  affairs ;  and  next  year  that  able  statesman  succeeded  in  organ- 
'ziiig  a  new  coalition,  consisting  of  Russia,  Sweden,  Austria,  and  Naples, 
to  oppose  the  ambition  of  the  French  ruler.  He,  on  the  other  hand 
having  become  absolute  master  of  Holland,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal, 
made  every  exertion  to  contest  the  empire  of  the  sea.  A  combined  fleet 
of  thirty-three  sail,  partly  French  and  partly  Spanish,  met  a  British 
squadron  of  twenty-seven  under  Nelson,  off  Cape  Trafalgar,  October  25, 
and  was  totally  defeated,  though  at  the  expense  of  the  life  of  the  British 
commander.  The  exertions  of  the  allies,  however,  could  oppose  no 
barrier  to  the  extraordinary  fortune  of  Napoleon  in  continental  Europe, 
where  the  decisive  victory  of  Austerlitz  once  more  prostrated  the 
power  of  Austria,  and  enabled  him  to  dictate  a  humiliating  peace  to  her 
monarch  before  the  end  of  the  year.  This  event  produced  much  gloom 
in  the  British  councils,  and  proved  a  deathblow  to  Mr.  Pitt,  who  expired 
on  the  23d  January  1806.  A  new  ministry  was  forthwith  formed  under 
his  great  political  rival,  Mr.  Fox;  but  that  statesman  dying  on  the  13th 
September  following,  it  was  in  the  next  year  succeeded  by  another,  of 
which  Mr.  Perceval  was  the  recognised  leader.  One  of  the  first  acts 
of  the  new  cabinet  was  the  despatch  of  an  armament  to  Copenhagen,  tc 
seize  and  carry  off  the  Danish  navy,  which  was  expected  to  be  imme¬ 
diately  employed  in  subserviency  to  France.  The  object  of  the  expedi- 
dition  was  easily  accomplished  ;  but  this  attack  on  a  neutral  power  was 
very  unfavourably  regarded  by  foreign  states,  and  the  Emperor  of  Rus¬ 
sia,  in  particular,  having  made  peace  with  France,  seized  the  opportunity 
to  recall  his  ambassador  from  London.  Various  expeditions  had  about 
the  same  time  been  sent  to  the  Dardanelles,  to  Egypt,  and  against  the 
Spanish  settlements  on  the  River  Plate  in  South  America,  none  of  which 
were  attended  with  any  advantage. 

In  1808,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Continent  might  be  considered  as 
arrayed  in  hostility  to  England.  The  Austrians  had  been  compelled  to 
yield  a  large  portion  of  their  territory  to  Napoleon;  by  the  battles  of 
Jena  and  Auerstadt,  he  had  annihilated  the  power  of  Prussia;  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Portugal  were  in  his  hands;  Russia  had  made  peace  with 
him  ;  and  by  his  famous  Berlin  decrees,  declaring  Great  Britain  in  a 
state  of  blockade,  he  shut  the  ports  of  Europe  against  her  merchandise. 
But  this  signal  elevation,  and  the  tyranny  which  it  produced,  began  to 
awaken  against  the  French  emperor  a  spirit  he  had  not  hitherto  encoun¬ 
tered.  Down  to  this  period,  the  contest  had  been  one  more  of  govern¬ 
ments  than  of  people,  and  the  triumphs  of  his  arms  were  viewed  with 
no  small  degree  of  sympathy  by  many  even  in  the  subjugated  countries; 
but  now  he  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  common  enemy  of  mankind, 
whose  boundless  ambition  it  was  every  one's  duty  to  repress.  The  first 
symptoms  of  this  reaction  were  manifested  in  Spain,  where  the  inhabit¬ 
ants,  exasperated  by  the  usurpations  of  the  French,  roused  themselves 
to  insurrection,  and  implored  assistance  from  Britain.  An  expedition 
of  about  ten  thousand  men  was  accordingly  fitted  out,  under  the  com¬ 
mand  of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  which,  after  some  communication  with 
the  Spanish  leaders,  was  directed  in  the  first  instance  to  Portugal.  This 
force,  having  landed  in  Mondego  Bay.  soon  afterwards  defeated  the 
French  under  Junot  at  Vimieiro,  August  21  ;  upon  which,  a  convention 
was  entered  into  with  Sir  Hew  Dalrymple,  who  had  subsequently  taken 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D 


493 


the  command,  for  the  evacuation  of  the  kingdom  by  the  enemy’s  troops. 
The  direction  of  military  affairs  was  next  conferred  on  Sir  John  Moore, 
who  arrived  in  the  month  of  November  with  large  reinforcements  ;  and 
that  general  immediately  led  the  British  army  into  Spain,  wffiere,  how¬ 
ever,  he  soon  found  himself  unable  to  withstand  the  immense  force 
brought  against  him  by  Napoleon.  *  He  wTas  therefore  compelled  to 
commence  a  retreat  towards  the  port  of  Corunna,  w  hither  he  wras  closely 
pursued  by  Marshal  Soult,  during  wffiich,  though  suffering  no  material 
check,  the  troops  wrere  exposed  to  great  hardships.  In  a  battle  fought 
at  this  place  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  embarkation,  Sir  John 
was  killed,  January  16,  1809;  but  the  French  general  being  repulsed, 
the  British  gained  their  ships  in  safety. 

Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  w7as  again  called  to  lead  an  army  to  the  Penin¬ 
sula,  and  in  April  he  landed  in  Portugal  with  a  considerable  force.  He 
obliged  his  opponents  to  abandon  Oporto,  and  then  made  a  bold  march 
upon  Madrid.  On  the  28th  July,  he  repulsed  a  formidable  army  under 
Victor  at  Talavera;  and  though  compelled  shortly  after  to  fall  back  upon 
Portugal,  this  partial  success  greatly  elevated  the  hopes  of  the  British 
nation,  and  the  general  himself  wras  raised  to  the  peerage.  About  this 
time,  also,  a  formidable  expedition  wms  sent  to  the  island  of  Walcheren 
under  Lord  Chatham,  wThich  the  unhealthiness  of  the  climate  and  the 
inexperience  of  the  commander,  combined  to  bring  to  a  disastrous  issue. 
Austria,  too,  wffiich  had  again  been  overpowered,  was  compelled  to  seal 
a  peace  b}7  the  marriage  of  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  emperor,  to 
Napoleon. 

In  1810,  the  French  ruler  largely  reinforced  his  armies  in  Spain,  and 
gave  orders  to  Massena  to  drive  the  British  out  of  the  Peninsula.  Lord 
Wellington  posted  his  troops,  eighty  thousand  in  number,  on  the  heights 
of  Busaco;  and  wTas  there  attacked,  on  the  27th  September,  by  an  equal 
number  of  enemies.  The  combined  British  and  Portuguese  army  be¬ 
haved  with  great  bravery,  and  the  assailants  were  repulsed  with  immense 
loss ;  but  the  vie*  jr  nevertheless  resolved  on  retiring  to  the  lines  of  Tor¬ 
res  Vedras,  where  he  remained  on  the.  defensive.  The  intellect  of 
George  III.,  which  had  already  displayed  several  temporary  aberrations, 
gave  way  entirely  at  the  close  of  this  year,  and  rendered  the  appointment 
of  a  regent  indispensable.  The  Prince  of  Wales  was  accordingly  in¬ 
vested  wfith  that  dignity;  and  though  he  had  hitherto  seemed  to  side 
with  the  Whig  party,  whose  proposal  of  Catholic  emancipation  he  was 
understood  to  favour,  the  same  ministry  was  continued  in  office,  and  no 
material  change  took  place  in  the  mode  of  conducting  affairs.  In  1811, 
much  hard  fighting  occurred  in  Spain,  where  the  French  under  Massena 
were  again  defeated  at  Fuentes  d’Onoro,  May  5.  The  town  of  Almeida 
subsequently  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  a  body  of  whom,  com¬ 
manded  by  General  Beresford,  gained  the  bloody  battle  of  Albuera  over 
Soult ;  wffiile  another  detachment  under  General  Graham  wras  victorious 
at  Barossa.  Wellington,  however,  was  forced  to  abandon  the  siege  of 
Badajos;  and  at  the  close  of  the  campaign  he  retired  once  more  to  his 
lines  in  Portugal.  This  year  proved  a  period  of  unprecedented  distress 
to  the  English  people.  The  decrees  of  Napoleon  against  their  commerce 
had  provoked  certain  retaliatory  orders  in  council,  wffiich,  however 
harassing  to  the  French,  only  increased  the  evil  at  home  by  interposing 

42 


494 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


new  obstacles  to  the  trade  with  neutral  powers ;  and  much  discontent 
consequently  prevailed  among  the  manufacturing  and  mercantile  classes. 

On  the  11th  of  May  1812,  Mr.  Perceval,  the  premier,  was  shot  in  the 
lobby  of  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  man  named  Bellingham,  who  had 
become  insane  in  consequence  of  private  misfortunes ;  and  Lords  Liver¬ 
pool  and  Castlereagh,  with  several  others,  were  called  to  the  direction 
of  affairs.  At  this  time  the  United  States  of  America,  now  a  powerful 
nation,  provoked  by  the  orders  in  council,  and  by  the  right  assumed  by 
the  British  to  search  for  and  impress  English  seamen  on  board  their 
commercial  shipping,  declared  war  against  Britain.  The  events  of  this 
contest  were  of  little  interest  in  comparison  with  that  waged  on  the  con¬ 
tinent  of  Europe,  consisting  chiefly  of  encounters  between  single  ships, 
and  some  detached  operations  on  the  Canadian  frontier  and  other  parts 
of  America;  and  it  ended  in  1814  without  settling  any  of  the  points  in 
dispute. 

Meanwhile,  the  tide  of  success  in  Europe  was  beginning  to  change. 
The  fatal  expedition  to  Moscow  had  annihilated  the  grand  army  of  Na¬ 
poleon;  and  early  in  1813,  the  Emperor  Alexander,  now  aided  by  the 
King  of  Prussia  and  various  minor  princes,  took  the  field  against  him  in 
Northern  Germany,  where  they  were  speedily  joined  by  the  Emperor  of 
Austria.  In  the  Peninsula,  too,  in  the  course  of  the  year  1812,  Lord 
Wellington  had  gained  the  brilliant  victory  of  Salamanca,  and  taken 
possession  of  Madrid ;  and  though  again  compelled  to  retreat  into  Por¬ 
tugal,  he  had  succeeded  in  inspiring  his  army  with  the  highest  degree 
of  confidence  and  enthusiasm,  and  was  appointed  by  the  Spanish  cortes 
generalissimo  of  their  forces.  Taking  the  field  in  May  1813,  he  soon 
after  totally  defeated  the  French  under  King  Joseph  and  Marshal  Jour- 
dan,  at  Vittoria,  June  21 ;  and,  driving  the  fugitives  across  the  Pyrenees, 
entered  France  on  the  7th  October.  In  the  spring  of  1814,  this  gallant 
army  crossed  the  Adour,  aided  hy  a  naval  squadron  under  Admiral  Pen¬ 
rose,  and  advancing  to  Bordeaux,  were  welcomed  as  deliverers ;  and 
finally,  in  a  severe  engagement  at  Toulouse,  fought  on  the  10th  of  April, 
totally  defeated  the  army  commanded  by  Marshal  Soult.  The  allies 
also,  who  had  steadily  advanced  through  Germany,  crossed  the  Rhine 
early  in  1814;  and  having  gained  a  victory  before  Paris  on  the  30th  of 
March,  took  possession  of  that  city  the  following  day.  Shortly  after,  a 
treaty  was  ratified  with  Napoleon,  by  which  he  agreed  to  resign  the 
government  and  content  himself  for  the  future  with  the  sovereignty  of 
Elba,  a  small  island  in  the  Mediterranean.  On  the  30th  May,  peace 
was  formally  concluded  with  France,  by  which  that  country  was  reduced 
nearly  to  the  limits  she  had  possessed  in  1792,  but  received  back  her 
colonies  with  a  few  exceptions  ;  England  also  retaining  Malta,  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  the  island  of  Heligoland.  The  Emperor  of  Russia 
and  the  King  of  Prussia  visited  London  soon  after,  and  were  received 
with  great  rejoicings;  while  Wellington,  now  created  a  duke,  was  pre¬ 
sented  by  the  House  of  Commons  with  a  grant  of  £400,000,  in  addition 
to  £100,000  previously  awarded.  A  congress  of  representatives  from 
the  various  powers  met  at  Vienna  on  the  2d  October,  and  proceeded  to 
settle  the  limits  of  the  different  countries,  disturbed  by  the  casualties  of 
war.  Throughout  the  whole  arrangements,  Great  Britain  acted  with 
the  utmost  disinterestedness;  a  course  of  conduct  which  could  hardly 
have  been  looked  for,  after  the  extraordinary  sufferings  and  expenses  she 
had  borne  during  the  contest. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


495 


Early  in  1815,  these  proceedings  were  interrupted  by  the  news  that 
Napoleon  had  landed  in  France,  where  he  was  joyfully  received  by  the 
soldiery.  To  oppose  him,  the  Prussian  and  British  armies,  of  100,000 
and  80,000  men  respectively,  were  quickly  collected  in  the  Netherlands, 
while  larger  bodies  of  Austrians  and  Russians  were  approaching.  After 
various  detached  operations,  and  some  severe  fighting,  in  the  course  of 
which  Napoleon  laboured  to  prevent  that  concert  which  was  desirable 
between  the  confederated  generals,  the  force  under  his  own  immediate 
command,  amounting  to  about  80,000  men,  was,  on  the  18th  June, 
directed  against  Wellington  alone,  who,  with  72,000  troops,  of  whom 
about  60,000  might  be  reckoned  effective,  had  taken  a  position  across 
the  road  to  Brussels,  near  a  village  called  Waterloo.  The  battle,  one 
of  the  most  obstinately  contested  that  history  records,  consisted  through¬ 
out  the  day  of  a  constant  succession  of  attacks  by  the  French  upon  the 
British  lines,  attended  with  immense  bloodshed,  but  in  every  case 
repelled  with  the  utmost  fortitude.  About  seven  in  the  evening,  Napo¬ 
leon  brought  up  his  reserve,  the  flower  of  his  infantry,  in  the  hope  of 
breaking  the  British  centre;  but  the  English  guards,  not  waiting  the 
charge,  rushed  to  meet  them,  and  the  enemy  fled  in  confusion.  At  the 
same  time,  the  Prussians  under  Blucher  came  up,  attacked  the  enemy 
on  the  right  flank,  and  decided  the  fate  of  the  day.  The  baffled  and 
broken  host  fled  in  all  directions,  their  disappointed  commander  taking 
the  route  to  Paris.  Finding  it  impossible  to  restore  the  confidence  of 
his  counsellors,  he  made  a  fruitless  abdication  in  favour  of  his  son,  and 
repaired  to  Rochefort,  with  the  view  of  embarking  for  America;  but, 
perceiving  that  he  could  not  escape  the  vigilance  of  the  British  cruisers, 
he  surrendered  himself  to  Captain  Maitland  of  the  Bellerophon,  and  was 
soon  after  condemned  by  the  triumphant  allies  to  perpetual  confinement 
on  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  where  he  died  in  1821. 

Thus  terminated  this  long  and  sanguinary  contest,  which  had  involved 
every  nation  in  Europe,  and  occasioned  an  amount  of  bloodshed  and 
devastation  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of  modern  times.  The  shores  of 
Britain  were  happily  protected  from  its  ravages ;  but  her  national  debt 
was  augmented  to  the  enormous  sum  of  ^£860,000,000,  and  she  may  be 
said  to  have  gained  little  besides  the  renown  accruing  from  her  great 
achievements.  Nevertheless,  Europe  was  freed  from  the  ambition  of  an 
insolent  and  unprincipled  dictator,  whom  nothing  short  of  universal  em¬ 
pire  would  have  satisfied;  and  the  nations  at  large  received  the  import¬ 
ant  lesson,  which  it  may  be  hoped  will  not  speedily  be  forgotten,  that 
an  empire  founded  on  injustice  and  aggression  can  never  attain  a  perma¬ 
nent  existence ;  and  that  a  comse  of  peaceful  improvement,  as  it  is  the 
only  means  of  securing  the  prosperity  of  the  people,  should  ever  be 
regarded  as  the  chief  aim  and  highest  glory  of  their  rulers. 

George  III.  died  on  the  29th  January  1820,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Prince 
Regent  as  George  IV.  Throughout  the  period  from  1800,  notwithstanding 
the  immense  burdens  of  the  war,  the  country  on  the  whole  presented  the 
appearance  of  prosperity,  being  able  to  preserve  her  commerce  in  consequence 
of  the  superiority  of  her  naval  force,  while  great  improvements  were  made  in 
machinery  and  agriculture.  A  remarkable  event  was  the  application  of  steam 
to  navigation,  which  was  originally  attempted  in  Scotland  in  1788 ;  in  1807, 
Fulton  launched  the  first  steam-boat  on  the  Hudson  River  in  the  United  States  ; 
and  five  years  later,  a  similar  vessel  was  tried  at  Helensburgh  on  the  Clyde. 
Great  exertions  were  made  for  the  instruction  of  children  by  means  of  Sunday 


496 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


schools ;  and  the  educational  improvements  of  Dr.  Bell  and  of  Mi  Joseph 
Lancaster  were  widely  introduced.  Various  societies  also  arose,  whose  object 
t  was  to  circulate  the  Scriptures,  and  carry  the  blessings  of  the  gospel,  by 
means  of  missionaries,  to  heathen  countries.  On  the  11th  June  1806,  chiefly 
through  the  persevering  efforts  of  .Mr.  Wilberforce,  the  African  slave-trade  was 
abolished  by  the  legislature  ;  and  great  exertions  continued  to  be  made  for  the 
extinction  of  slavery  in  the  colonies,  which  has  since  been  happily  accom¬ 
plished.  Numerous  expeditions  were  also  fitted  out  for  the  purpose  of  geo- 
gr  i pineal  discovery  ;  while  expeditious  travelling  by  stage-coaches,  and  rapid 
transmission  of  intelligence,  became  general  throughout  the  kingdom. 

FRANCE. 

The  important  revolution  which  Bonaparte  had  the  address  to  effect 
in  the  government  of  France,  actually  vested  in  himself  the  sole  autho¬ 
rity,  legislative  and  executive ;  and  the  44  new  constitution,”  as  it  was 
called,  was  solemnly  proclaimed  on  the  *24th  December  1799.  Latterly, 
so  little  confidence  had  been  felt  in  the  directory,  and  so  much  confusion 
existed  in  consequence  of  the  weakness  and  vacillation  of  its  members, 
that  this  triumph  of  despotism  was  hailed  with  general  satisfaction; 
public  credit  was  instantly  restored,  and  even  the  disturbed  districts  of 
La  Vendee  adhered  to  the  new  order  of  thino-s.  The  first  consul  now 
made  overtures  of  peace  to  England  and  Austria;  but  these  being  reject¬ 
ed  from  a  suspicion  of  his  insincerity,  he  immediately  turned  his  atten¬ 
tion  to  the  war  against  the  latter  country.  Moreau,  who  had  received 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  successfully  prosecuted  the  con¬ 
test  in  Germany;  while  Napoleon  himself,  at  the  head  of  that  of  Ital)T, 
crossed  the  Great  St.  Bernard  from  Switzerland, — an  achievement  hith¬ 
erto  deemed  impracticable.  On  the  *2d  of  June  1800,  he  entered  Milan 
without  opposition ;  and  soon  after  met  the  Austrians  on  the  plain  of 
Marengo.  Here,  on  the  14th,  he  was  attacked  by  General  Melas,  who 
had  at  first  so  much  the  advantage,  that  Bonaparte  at  one  period  wavered ; 
but  the  battle  was  restored  by  the  gallantry  of  General  Desaix,  who  was 
killed  in  the  act  of  leading  on  a  decisive  charge  of  cavalry.  A  signal 
victory  was  the  consequence ;  after  which  the  Austrian  general  obtained 
an  armistice,  withdrawing  his  troops  to  the  line  of  Mantua  and  the 
Mincio,  while  the  French  retained  the  greater  part  of  Lombardy.  The 
victor  shortly  after  returned  to  Paris,  having  established  provisional  go¬ 
vernments  in  Milan,  Turin,  and  Genoa;  and  negotiations  for  peace  took 
place  between  Austria  and  France.  These  being  broken  off  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  non-adherence  of  England,  the  war  recommenced,  and  the 
Austrians  under  the  Archduke  John  were  defeated  by  Moreau  at  Hohen- 
lin  len,  December  3.  Another  armistice  followed  ;  and  at  length,  on  the 
9th  February  1801,  the  emperor  signed  a  separate  treaty  at  Luneburg, 
by  which  he  recognised  the  independence  of  the  Batavian,  Swiss,  Cisal¬ 
pine,  and  Ligurian  republics,  and  the  Rhine  was  declared  the  boundary 
between  the  French  and  Austrian  dominions.  The  King  of  Naples  soon 
after  obtained  peace ;  and  even  the  new  Pope,  Pius  VII.,  was  acknow¬ 
ledged  by  Bonaparte,  who  left  him  in  possession  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  church  patrimony.  Malta  having  surrendered  to  the  British, anl  the 
war  in  Egypt  being  at  an  end  by  the  capitulation  of  Menou,  who  had 
succeeded  Kleber  in  the  command,  the  chief  obstacles  to  a  pacific 
arrangement  with  that  country  were  now  removed.  Preliminaries  were 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  497 

accordingly  signed  at  London  on  the  1st  October,  and  in  the  following 
March  tranquillity  was  restored  by  the  definitive  treaty  of  Amiens. 

Napoleon  seems  at  this  time  to  have  been  sincerely  anxious  for  peace, 
in  order  to  consolidate  his  position,  and  carry  into  effect  several  great 
designs  which  he  had  formed.  The  extreme  sections  of  the  republicans 
and  royalists  were  still  hostile  to  his  dictatorship ;  and  on  the  24th  Sep¬ 
tember  1800,  he  had  nearly  fallen  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  of  the  latter, 
a  wagon  containing  several  barrels  of  gunpowder  having  been  exploded 
in  a  narrow  street  as  he  was  passing  in  his  carriage  to  the  opera.  Spe¬ 
cial  tribunals  were  after  this  established  to  try  persons  accused  of  trea¬ 
son ;  while  a  secret  police  was  skilfully  organized  by  Fouche,  having 
informers  of  all  classes  in  his  pay.  A  general  amnesty,  with  some 
exceptions,  was  nevertheless  granted,  in  April  1801,  to  all  emigrants 
who  chose  to  return  to  France  and  take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  present 
government.  By  a  concordat  with  the  Pope,  published  at  Paris  in  1802, 
the  Romish  religion  was  re-established,  though  shorn  of  much  of  the 
importance  it  had  formerly  possessed  ;  the  sales  of  ecclesiastical  property 
which  had  taken  place  being  sanctioned,  and  the  Protestants  not  only 
receiving  full  liberty  of  worship,  but  even  the  support  of  a  public  endow¬ 
ment.  A  new  order  of  knighthood  was  also  established  on  the  19th 
May,  under  the  designation  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  January  1802, 
Bonaparte  assumed  the  title  of  President  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  and 
in  the  following  August  a  decree  of  the  senate  conferred  on  him  the  dig¬ 
nity  of  first  consul  for  life.  The  independence  and  neutrality  of  Swit¬ 
zerland  were  recognised,  but  the  cantons  were  required  to  maintain  a  body 
of  16,000  men  in  the  service  of  France.  The  first  consul  also  turned 
his  attention  to  the  various  branches  of  public  instruction,  though  the 
institutions  which  he  framed  for  this  purpose  were  entirely  military  in 
their  character,  and  contributed  in  a  great  measure  to  consolidate  his 
despotism.  His  most  valuable  gift  to  France  was  perhaps  the  promul¬ 
gation  at  this  time  of  the  celebrated  civil  code  which  bears  his  name, 
drawn  up  by  a  commission  of  lawyers  under  the  presidency  of  Camba- 
ceres,  at  whose  meetings  Napoleon  himself  frequently  attended. 

It  soon  became  evident  that  the  peace  of  Amiens  would  not  be  perma¬ 
nent.  In  October  1802,  Parma  was  seized  and  incorporated  with 
France,  and  a  similar  appropriation  of  Piedmont  took  place  a  month 
afterwards;  while  the  English,  who  had  agreed  to  restore  Malta  to  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  resolved  on  retaining  that  island.  Hostilities  were 
recommenced  in  May  1803,  by  the  issue  of  letters  of  marque  by  the 
Cabinet  of  London,  and  an  embargo  on  all  French  vessels  in  their  ports. 
In  retaliation  for  this,  a  decree  was  promulgated,  ordering  that  all  natives 
of  Britain,  of  whatever  condition,  then  in  the  territories  of  France  and 
Holland,  should  be  detained  as  prisoners  of  war.  At  the  same  time, 
the  French  armies  entered  Hanover,  and  took  possession  of  it  with  little 
resistance;  while  an  immense  force  was  collected  at  Boulogne,  under 
the  designation  of  “  the  army  of  England,”  for  the  invasion  of  that 
country — an  enterprise,  however,  which  Napoleon  never  found  it  con¬ 
venient  to  attempt. 

In  February  1804,  an  extensive  conspiracy  was  discovered  at  Paris 
against  the  government,  in  which  Generals  Pichegru  and  Moreau,  and 
Georges  Cadoudal,  a  Chouan  chief,  were  implicated.  Affecting  to  be¬ 
lieve  that  the  young  Duke  of  Enghien,  then  living  in  the  grand-inch  v  of 
42  * 


498 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Baden,  was  concerned  in  this  plot,  the  first  consul  sent  a  body  of 
gendarmes  across  the  frontier  to  arrest  him.  The  duke  was  accordingly 
seized  and  brought  to  the  castle  of  Vincennes  near  Paris,  where,  after  a 
mock  trial,  he  was  shot  on  the  21st  March, — an  act  which  affixes  an 
indelible  stain  on  the  memory  of  Napoleon,  not  the  slightest  evidence 
of  the  charge  having  ever  been  produced.  Pichegru  was  shortly  after 
found  dead  in  prison,  Moreau  was  banished  from  France,  and  Georges 
was  executed.  Meantime  a  motion  had  been  carried  in  the  tribunate, 
and  subsequently  passed  the  senate,  creating  Bonaparte  “  Emperor  of 
the  French,”  and  reinvesting  him  in  that  capacity  with  the  government 
of  the  republic.  He  accordingly  assumed  this  new  dignity  on  the  24th 
May ;  and  on  the  2d  December  he  was  solemnly  crowned  by  the  Pope, 
who  had  been  induced  to  come  to  Paris  for  that  purpose.  To  complete 
his  elevation,  the  ancient  iron  diadem  of  the  Longobard  kings  was 
offered  him  by  his  obsequious  creatures  in  Italy  ;  and  on  the  26th  May 
he  was  formally  anointed  sovereign  of  that  country,  Genoa  being  muted 
to  his  empire  a  few  days  afterwards. 

These  and  other  usurpations  of  the  French  ruler  at  length  induced 
Russia  and  Austria  to  listen  to  the  solicitations  of  England ;  and  in  the 
summer  of  1805  a  new  coalition  was  formed.  With  his  usual  prompti¬ 
tude,  Napoleon  in  October  burst  into  Germany,  where  he  was  joined  by 
the  Duke  of  Wurtemburg  and  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  were  rewarded 
by  his  conferring  on  each  the  title  of  king.  General  Mack,  allowing 
hirnself  to  be  surrounded  at  Ulm,  was  compelled  to  surrender  his  whole 
force  of  20,000  men  on  the  24th  ;  and  the  other  scattered  corps  of  Aus¬ 
trians,  being  unable  to  offer  any  effectual  resistance,  the  French  entered 
Vienna  on  the  13th  November.  On  the  27th  was  fought  the  great  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  which  ended  in  the  total  overthrow  of  the  combined  Rus¬ 
sian  and  Austrian  armies,  and  enabled  the  victor  to  dictate  peace  on  his 
own  terms.  By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  signed  on  the  26th  December, 
he  was  recognised  in  his  dignities  of  French  emperor  and  king  of  Italy, 
as  were  also  the  titles  of  the  newly  made  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtem- 
berg.  Venice  was  ceded  to  France,  and  the  Tyrol  to  Bavaria;  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  withdrew  his  troops  into  his  own  territories;  and  the 
King  of  Prussia  received  Hanover  as  a  reward  for  his  neutrality,  and 
perhaps  also  with  the  view  of  provoking  a  rupture  between  him  and 
George  III.  Britain  now  alone  remained  in  opposition  to  Napoleon ; 
and  the  decisive  naval  victory  achieved  by  her  fleet  at  Trafalgar  dissi¬ 
pated  all  his  hopes  of  invading  that  country.  However,  in  February 
1806,  he  sent  an  army  to  take  possession  of  Naples,  because  the  king 
had  allowed  a  Russian  and  English  force  to  land  in  his  dominions  ;  and 
in  the  following  March  the  crown  of  that  countiy  was  conferred  on  his 
brother  Joseph.  Louis  Bonaparte  was  soon  after  made  sovereign  of 
Holland  ;  various  districts  in  Italy  and  Germany  were  erected  into  duke 
doms,  and  bestowed  on  his  principal  marshals ;  while  fourteen  princes 
in  the  south  and  west  of  Germany  were  induced  to  form  what  was  called 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  place  themselves  under  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  France. 

Notwithstanding  the  bribe  of  Hanover,  this  perpetual  aggression  on 
the  part  of  the  French  ruler  had  been  viewed  by  Prussia  with  the  utmost 
alarm ;  and  though  afraid  to  break  her  neutrality  during  the  late  cam¬ 
paign  in  Germany,  she  at  length  entered  into  a  league  with  Russia,  and 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


499 


leclared  war  against  him.  Bonaparte  instantly  put  his  troops  in  mo¬ 
tion.  On  the  14th  October  he  gained  the  double  victory  of  Auerstadt 
and  Jena,  which  at  once  laid  the  whole  kingdom  at  his  feet ;  and  in  a 
few  days  he  entered  the  capital.  Here,  on  the  21st  November,  he  issued 
his  celebrated  Berlin  decrees  against  British  commerce,  preposterously 
declaring  the  whole  of  Great  Britain  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  ordering 
English  property  wherever  found  to  be  seized  as  lawful  prize.  He 
soon  afterwards  marched  into  Poland  against  the  Russians,  who  were 
advancing  to  the  Vistula  ;  but  received  a  severe  check  at  Pultusk  on  the 
28th  December.  The  sanguinary  but  undecisive  conflict  of  Eylau  fol¬ 
lowed  on  the  8th  of  February  1807  ;  and  at  length,  on  the  14th  June, 
the  Russians  were  worsted  at  Friedland,  and  driven  beyond  the  Aller. 
The  emperor  Alexander  then  entered  into  negotiations,  and  a  peaceswas 
concluded  at  Tilsit,  July  7.  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty,  Alexander 
agreed  to  aid  Napoleon  in  his  designs  against  British  commerce,  and  the 
King  of  Prussia  received  back  about  half  of  his  dominions  :  of  the  other 
half,  one  portion  was  given  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  now  honoured 
with  the  title  of  royalty  ;  the  rest  went  to  aggrandize  the  new  kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  erected  out  of  the  dominions  of  Brunswick  and  Hesse- 
Cassel,  which  w^as  given  to  Jerome  Bonaparte. 

The  French  emperor  had  now  attained  such  a  pitch  of  elevation,  that 
he  fancied  he  might  dispose  of  the  sovereignties  of  the  continent  at  his 
pleasure.  In  the  month  of  October,  the  Moniteur  contained  the  arro¬ 
gant  announcement,  that  “  the  house  of  Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign 
in  Europe.”  Marshal  Junot  was  immediately  sent  through  Spain  with 
an  army  to  invade  Portugal ;  the  prince  regent,  feeling  resistance  to  be 
vain,  quietly  embarked  for  Brazil;  and  on  the  30th  November,  the 
French  took  possession  of  Lisbon.  In  the  following  year,  the  King  of 
Spain  himself  was  compelled  to  resign  his  crown  to  the  disposal  of 
Napoleon,  who  removed  his  brother  Joseph  from  Naples  to  the  throne 
of  that  country,  and  raised  his  favourite  general  Murat  to  the  vacant 
dignity.  Both  Charles  IV.  and  his  son  Ferdinand  were  brought  to 
France,  and  retained  as  state  prisoners.  The  memorable  events  which 
resulted  from  these  nefarious  transactions  are  noticed  under  Spain  and 
Great  Britain  ;  it  may  therefore  be  sufficient  to  allude  to  the  perse¬ 
vering  resistance  of  the  Spanish  nation  as  the  first  indication  of  that 
popular  awakening  which  eventually  proved  fatal  to  the  dynasty  of 
Bonaparte.  Meantime,  a  new  war  with  Austria  was  on  the  point  of 
breaking  out.  That  country,  though  humbled,  wTas  not  subdued  :  the 
emperor  felt  impatient  under  his  past  losses,  and  eager  to  redeem  them, 
while  the  warlike  pride  of  his  subjects  writhed  under  the  consciousness 
of  defeat.  By  great  exertions  their  armies  had  been  augmented  to  nearly 
half  a  million  of  men;  and  in  the  spring  of  1809  the  Tyrolese  threw  off 
the  Bavarian  yoke.  The  Archduke  Charles  commanded  in  Germany, 
the  Archduke  John  in  Italy.  The  French  monarch  quickly  assembled 
his  forces  beyond  the  Rhine,  advanced  to  Augsburg,  and,  by  one  of 
his  most  skilful  manoeuvres,  broke  the  line  of  his  antagonists,  trained 

•  a  '  o 

the  successive  victories  of  Echmuhl  and  Essling,  and  once  more  took 
possession  of  Vienna,  May  12,  1809.  The  archduke  now  collected 
his  army  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube;  Napoleon  crossed  over  to 
attack  him  ;  and  though  worsted  in  the  obstinate  battle  of  Aspern,  May 
21,  he  speedily  reinforced  his  army,  and  on  the  6th  of  July  gained  the 


500 


MODERIN  HISTORY. 


famous  triumph  of  Wagram.  He  then  dictated  a  peace,  styled  the 
treaty  of  Schonbrunn,  which  was  ratified  on  the  14th  October. 

This  extraordinary  man  now  resolved  to  complete  his  elevation  by  a 
matrimonial  alliance  with  the  most  illustrious  house  in  Europe.  He 
divorced  the  Empress  Josephine,  to  whom  he  is  believed  to  have  been 
always  sincerely  attached,  and  received  the  hand  of  the  Archduchess 
Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Francis.  The  mar¬ 
riage  ceremony,  in  which  the  Archduke  Charles  acted  as  Napoleon’s 
proxy,  was  performed  at  Vienna  on  the  11th  March  1810;  and  the  new 
empress  shortly  after  set  out  for  Paris,  where  in  the  following  year  she 
gave  birth  to  a  son,  who  was  declared  King  of  Rome.  The  entire  con¬ 
tinent  was  now  to  all  appearance  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  French 
autocrat,  who  in  fact  controlled  the  destinies  of  eighty  millions  of  people. 
The  brave  Tyrolese  had  been  abandoned  to  their  fate.  The  Pope,  long 
dissatisfied,  having  at  length  excommunicated  him,  had  been  arrested  on 
the  5th  July  1809,  and  carried  prisoner,  first  to  Savona,  and  afterwards 
to  Fontainebleau.  Bernadotte,  one  of  his  generals,  was  elected  succes¬ 
sor  to  the  throne  of  Sweden;  and  Louis,  king  of  Holland,  having  con¬ 
nived  at  a  clandestine  intercourse  with  England,  was  dispossessed  of 
his  crown,  and  the  Dutch  territories  were  incorporated  with  France  in 
December  1810. 

Bonaparte  had  now  attained  the  crisis  of  his  destiny,  and  the  period 
was  at  hand  when  the  slumbering  energies  of  the  continental  nations 
were  to  be  effectually  roused.  The  commercial  interests  of  all  Europe 
were  fearfully  injured  by  the  effect  of  the  measures  taken  to  destroy  the 
trade  of  England,  and  every  scheme  was  tried  to  evade  them.  The 
Emperor  of  Russia,  though  he  had  hitherto  adhered  to  the  treaty  of  Til¬ 
sit,  repented  a  policy  which  was  daily  aggrandizing  his  overbearing 
rival ;  and  in  the  end  of  1810,  braving  his  resentment,  he  renewed  his 
intercourse  with  the  court  of  London,  and  began  to  prepare  for  war. 
Napoleon,  on  his  part,  made  vast  exertions  for  the  approaching  struggle. 
In  the  spring  of  1812,  an  immense  host,  numbering  nearly  half  a  million 
of  combatants,  was  assembled  on  the  banks  of  the  Niemen,  the  frontier 
rf  Russia,  where,  on  the  22d  June,  he  formally  declared  hostilities. 
Crossing  the  river  on  the  24th,  he  soon  after  took  possession  of  Wilna, 
and  arrived  at  Witebsk  about  the  end  of  July.  On  the  16th  August,  the 
two  armies  met  under  the  walls  of  Smolensk ;  but  that  city,  after  a 
vigorous  contest,  was  abandoned  by  the  Russian  general,  who  continued 
to  retreat  upon  Moscow.  At  length,  on  the  7th  September,  a  great 
battle  was  fouo-ht  at  Borodino,  a  village  near  the  banks  of  the  river 
Moskva,  where,  after  fearful  slaughter  on  both  sides,  the  French  had  the 
advantage.  Kutusoff,  the  Russian  commander,  mwv  resolved  t<>  aban¬ 
don  Moscow  to  its  fate,  rather  than  weaken  his  army  by  another  con¬ 
flict ;  and  the  invader  accordingly  entered  that  capital  on  the  14th 
September.  Here,  however,  was  the  limit  of  his  advance,  and  from 
this  moment  may  be  dated  the  destruction  of  that  mighty  host  which  he 
believed  to  be  invincible.  The  city  was  found  to  be  deserted  by  all  but 
a  few  of  the  lowest  class  of  people,  and  soon  after  the  entrance  of  the 
French  it  was  observed  to  be  on  fire  in  various  quarters.  The  soldiers, 
flushed  with  success,  were  too  intent  on  plunder  to  take  any  effectual 
steps  to  arrest  the  flames,  which,  fanned  by  a  high  wind,  raged  on  the 
night  of  the  15th  with  fearful  fury.  On  the  third  day  the  army  was 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


501 


compelled  to  evacuate  the  city,  which  it  could  not  re-enter  until  the  21st. 
Napoleon  then  took  up  his  residence  in  the  Kremlin;  and  it  was  found 
that  a  sufficient  number  of  houses  had  escaped  the  conflagration  to  afford 
quarters  for  his  men.  Here,  however,  destitute  of  all  other  supplies, 
they  were  compelled  to  subsist  upon  the  flesh  of  their  horses ;  and 
Napoleon,  despairing  of  his  position,  was  compelled  to  sue  for  peace. 
Kutusoff,  to  whom  the  proposal  was  made,  nobly  answered,  that  no 
terms  could  be  entered  into  while  an  enemy  remained  on  the  soil  of 
Russia ;  and  at  length,  all  hope  of  an  accommodation  being  at  an  end, 
the  French  army,  though  in  the  face  of  a  northern  winter,  received  orders 
to  retreat. 

The  main  body  quitted  Moscow  on  the  19th  October,  followed  by  a 
long  train  of  carriages  laden  with  spoil,  and  closely  pursued  by  the 
Russian  forces.  In  a  severe  encounter  at  Malo  Jaroslavetz,  the  French 
had  the  advantage  on  the  whole ;  but  they  were  soon  to  bear  the  assault 
of  an  enemy  against  which  skill  and  valour  were  of  no  avail, — the  snows 
of  winter  began  to  fall  on  the  6th  of  November.  From  this  period  the 
history  of  the  retreat  presents  an  unbroken  series  of  calamities  unparal¬ 
leled  in  the  annals  of  human  suffering.  Of  120,000  fighting  men  who 
had  left  Moscow,  hardly  12,000  reached  the  banks  of  the  Beresina; 
40,000  horses  had  dwindled  away  to  3000.  Here,  joined  by  50,000  of 
the  reserve  under  Victor  and  Oudinot,  Napoleon  prepared  to  cross  the 
river ;  and  in  this  enterprise,  being  opposed  by  the  enemy,  he  lost  one- 
half  of  the  army  thus  reinforced-  Soon  after,  leaving  the  miserable 
remnant  in  charge  of  Murat,  he  set  out  in  a  sledge  for  Paris,  where  he 
arrived  at  midnight  on  the  18th  of  December,  and  where  the  news  of 
these  awful  reverses,  which  fell  on  the  French  nation  like  a  clap  of 
thunder,  had  but  shortly  before  preceded  him.* 

Napoleon  made  prodigious  exertions  to  organize  a  new  army;  and 
though  fresh  levies  could  but  poorly  replace  the  veterans  lost  in  Russia, 
he  contrived,  by  the  spring  of  1813,  to  collect  a  force  of  350,000  men. 
The  King  of  Prussia  had  now  allied  himself  to  Alexander,  who  was 
also  joined  by  Sweden;  and  the  confederates  advanced  as  far  as  the 
Elbe.  Nevertheless,  the  French  emperor,  still  undismayed,  repaired  to 
Germany,  and  on  the  2d  of  May  gained  a  victory  at  Lutzen,  followed  a 
fortnight  after  by  that  of  Bautzen.  These  battles,  however,  were  not 
decisive ;  and,  on  the  mediation  of  Austria,  an  armistice  was  agreed  to, 
July  4,  and  a  congress  met  at  Prague  to  consider  terms  of  peace.  Bona¬ 
parte,  still  confident  in  his  fortune,  would  listen  to  nothing  calculated  to 
limit  his  power;  the  armistice  expired  on  the  10th  August;  and  Austria 
immediately  joined  the  allies.  After  various  desultory  engagements 
fought  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dresden  and  in  Bohemia,  during  which 
his  enemies  were  constantly  gaining  strength,  Napoleon  retreated  upon 
Leipsic,  where  he  determined  to  make  a  final  stand.  On  the  16th  Sep¬ 
tember  a  sanguinary  conflict  took  place,  with  no  decisive  result ;  but  on 
the  18th  the  French  were  signally  defeated,  and  began  a  retrograde 
movement  towards  the  Rhine.  At  Hanau,  the  army,  completely  disor¬ 
ganised,  was  forced  to  fight  its  way  through  the  troops  of  Bavaria,  which 
had  now  joined  their  enemies;  and  on  the  7th  November,  the  emperor 

*  Of  the  immense  force  which  crossed  the  Niemen  at  the  outset  of  the  campaign,  it  has 
been  calculated  that  125,000  perished  in  battle,  132,000  died  of  fatigue,  hunger,  and  cold, 
and  193  000  were  taken  prisoners,  including  48  generals  and  3000  inferior  officers. 


502 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


re-entered  France  with  a  remnant  of  only  70,000  men.  About  80,000, 
left  to  garrison  the  Prussian  fortresses,  now  surrendered  to  the  allies ; 
while  Holland  threw  off  the  yoke,  and  recalled  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

Nevertheless,  the  authority  of  the  emperor,  which  was  still  great  with 
the  French  people,  enabled  him  to  procure  a  new  levy  of  300,000  men, 
and  he  prepared  with  the  utmost  ardour  for  another  campaign.  Prince 
Schwartzenberg,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrians,  along  with  the 
Russian  generals  Barclay  de  Tolli  and  Wittgenstein,  were  advancing 
on  the  Swiss  frontier  with  150,000  men;  Blucher,  the  Prussian  leader, 
was  approaching  with  130,000  from  Frankfort;  Bernadotte,  with  100,000, 
converged  towards  the  Netherlands;  and  the  English,  under  Welling 
ton,  were  near  Bayonne.  The  confederates  crossed  the  Rhine  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year.  In  these  circumstances,  Napoleon  had  only  one 
chance  of  preserving  his  crown  and  empire.  In  January  1814,  confer¬ 
ences  were  held  at  Chatillon,  when  it  was  proposed  to  fix  the  limits  of 
France  as  they  were  in  1792  ;  but  to  this  he  would  not  listen,  and  there¬ 
fore  lost  all.  At  the  end  of  the  month  he  began  a  campaign,  which  has 
always  been  regarded  as  the  most  striking  proof  of  his  extraordinary 
military  genius.  The  body  of  the  French  nation,  exhausted  by  their 
previous  sacrifices,  had  at  length  become  dissatisfied  with  the  headlong 
proceedings  of  their  ruler,  and  both  taxes  and  conscription  were  but  par¬ 
tially  collected.  Nevertheless,  with  a  force  vastly  inferior  in  number, 
he  kept  at  bay  the  various  hostile  armies  during  two  months,  gained 
several  brilliant  successes,  and  electrified  all  Europe  by  the  rapidity  and 
skill  of  his  movements.  But  the  odds  were  too  great;  and  while,  by  a 
bold  stroke,  he  threw  himself  in  the  rear  of  the  invaders,  they  at  once 
marched  to  Paris,  and  on  the  30th  of  March,  after  a  severe  contest,  took 
possession  of  the  line  of  defence  which  protected  that  city.  The  follow¬ 
ing  day  Paris  capitulated  ;  and  on  the  2d  of  April  the  senate  decreed  that 
“  Napoleon  Bonaparte  had  forfeited  the  crown,  that  the  hereditary  right 
in  his  family  was  abolished,  and  the  people  and  army  released  from 
their  oaths  of  fidelity.” 

On  the  Gth  of  the  same  month,  Louis  XVIII.  was  solemnly  pro¬ 
claimed  ;  while  the  deposed  emperor,  finding  that  his  generals  would 
not  join  him  in  a  last  desperate  attack  on  Paris,  signed  at  Fontainebleau, 
on  the  11th,  an  act  of  unconditional  abdication,  and  shortly  after  set  out 
for  his  new  principality  of  Elba,  where  he  was  to  enjoy  a  pension  of  six 
million  francs,  and  retain  the  imperial  title. 

Louis  XVIII.  made  his  public  entry  into  Paris  on  the  3d  of  May, 
having  previously  given  his  assent  in  general  terms  to  a  constitutional 
charter  drawn  up  by  the  senate.  On  the  30th,  he  concluded  a  formal 
peace  with  the  allies,  by  which  the  continental  dominions  of  France 
were  restricted  to  what  they  had  been  in  1792;  but  England  restored  ah 
her  colonial  conquests,  except  the  West  India  islands  of  St.  Lucia  and 
Tobago,  and  the  isle  of  Mauritius.  France  thus  obtained  much  bettei 
terms  than  could  have  been  expected,  after  the  intolerable  evils  she  had 
so  long  inflicted  upon  Europe;  and  indeed,  throughout  all  the  arrange¬ 
ments,  every  care  seems  to  have  been  taken  by  the  conquerors  to  spare 
the  feelings  and  honour  of  the  nation.  On  the  4th  of  June,  the  king  pre¬ 
sented  to  the  legislature  a  constitutional  charter,  on  the  basis  of  that 
formerly  drawn  up  by  the  senate,  which  was  unanimously  accepted,  and 
became  the  fundamental  law  of  the  kingdom.  Notwithstanding  this, 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


503 


the  boastings  of  the  returned  emigrants  and  various  other  circumstances, 
soon  gave  rise  to  a  suspicion,  which  seems,  however,  to  have  been  with¬ 
out  foundation,  that  the  court  nourished  the  design  of  reverting  to  the 
despotic  principles  of  the  old  monarchy.  The  faction  of  Bonaparte,  still 
strong,  and  embracing  the  great  mass  of  the  soldiery,  besides  the  im¬ 
mense  number  of  veterans  recently  released  from  foreign  prisons,  loudly 
fomented  the  discontent;  and  at  length  a  wide-spread  conspiracy  was 
organized  for  the  recall  of  their  banished  leader.  He,  on  his  part,  gladly 
responding  to  the  invitation,  left  Elba  towards  the  end  of  February  1815, 
and  on  the  1st  March  landed  at  the  small  town  of  Cannes,  with  about 
1000  men  of  his  old  guards.  Advancing  to  Grenoble,  he  was  there  joined 
by  Colonel  Labedoyere  and  the  7th  regiment  of  the  line;  soon  after, 
Marshal  Ney,  who  had  been  sent  to  stop  his  progress,  went  over  to  him  ; 
and  by  the  time  he  reached  Fontainebleau,  nearly  the  whole  military 
force  was  once  more  under  his  standard.  On  the  evening  of  the  20th 
March  he  re-entered  the  Tuileries,  Louis  XVIII.  having  left  the  capita 
early  in  the  morning,  whence  he  fled  to  Ostend,  and  afterwards  to  Ghent 
With  the  exception  of  Augereau,  Marmont,  Macdonald,  and  a  few  others 
nearly  all  the  officials,  civil  and  military,  readily  embraced  the  imperia 
cause,  and  Napoleon  once  more  seated  himself  on  the  throne,  by  one  of 
the  most  rapid  transitions  recorded  in  history. 

After  a  futile  attempt  to  negotiate  with  the  allies,  he  made  gigantic 
exertions  to  maintain  his  recovered  dignity  by  force  of  arms.  He 
endeavoured  also  to  strengthen  his  popularity,  by  engaging  to  govern 
as  a  constitutional  sovereign;  but  as  his  chief  resource  lay  in  the  army, 
it  was  clear  that,  should  he  be  able  to  maintain  his  position,  matters 
would  soon  revert  to  their  former  condition.  The  allies,  on  their  side, 
having  declared  the  usurper  out  of  the  pale  of  national  law,  prepared 
actively  to  oppose  him  ;  and  an  army  was  speedily  assembled  in  the 
Netherlands  under  Blucher  and  Wellington.  Bonaparte,  desirous  of 
fighting  them  before  their  forces  could  be  united,  hurried  across  the 
frontier  at  the  head  of  about  125,000  select  troops,  June  15.  On  the 
16th,  Blucher,  after  a  bold  resistance  at  Liorny,  retreated  to  Wavre, 
while  on  the  same  day  Marshal  Ney  attacked  the  English  at  Quatre 
Bras.*  Preparations  were  then  made  for  concentrating  the  allied  forces 
at  Waterloo,  and  on  the  ever-memorable  18th  of  June,  Napoleon  found 
himself  face  to  face  with  a  soldier  whose  fame  only  yielded  to  his  own. 
This  great  battle  has  been  already  noticed  under  Great  Britain  ;  at 
the  close  of  the  day,  the  hero  of  Marengo,  abandoning  his  army,  escaped 
with  difficulty  to  Paris,  the  herald  of  his  own  discomfiture.  The  capital 
of  France  was  once  more  occupied  by  foreign  troops;  Bonaparte  abdi¬ 
cated  a  second  time  ;  and  after  vainly  attempting  to  escape  to  America, 
surrendered  to  the  English,  and  was  sent  by  the  allies  to  the  island  of 
St.  Helena,  where  he  died  on  the  5th  May  1821. 

The  eloquent  Charming  thus  writes  concerning  this  remarkable  man ;  and 
his  opinion,  as  being  a  native  of  a  country  that  never  was  engaged  in  war  with 
France,  may  be  considered  an  impartial  one  : — “  Bonaparte  was  brought  up  in 
a  military  school ;  his  first  political  association  was  with  the  Jacobins  ;  his  first 
command  he  secured  by  turning  his  arms  on  the  people.  His  campaigns  in 
Italy  compel  us  to  bestow  the  admiration  due  to  a  superior  power.  But  mili- 


*  The  Duke  of  Brunswick,  son  of  him  who  had  commanded  the  Prussians  at  the  outset 
of  the  Revolution,  was  killed  in  this  battle. 


504 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


tary  talent  is  one  of  the  lower  forms  of  genius ;  the  office  of  a  great  general 
not  widely  differing  from  that  of  a  great  mechanician,  whose  business  it  is  to 
frame  new  combinations  of  physical  forces,  to  adapt  them  to  new  circumstan¬ 
ces,  and  to  remove  new  obstructions. — Bonaparte’s  intellect  was  distinguished 
by  rapidity  of  thought.  He  understood  war  as  a  science  ;  but  his  mind  was  too 
bold  to  be  enslaved  by  the  technics  of  his  profession.  His  unforeseen  and 
impetuous  assaults  astonished  and  paralysed  his  enemies,  and  breathed  into  his 
own  soldiers  the  enthusiasm  of  ruder  ages.  The  signal  success  of  his  new 
mode  of  warfare  had  no  small  agency  in  fixing  his  character,  and  determining 
for  a  period  the  fate  of  empires.  To  astonish  as  well  as  to  sway  by  his  ener 
gies,  became  the  great  aim  of  his  life.  Power  was  his  supreme  object, — a 
power  to  be  gazed  at  as  well  as  felt.  In  peace  he  delighted  to  hurry  through 
his  dominions ;  to  project  in  an  instant  works  that  a  life  could  not  accomplish, 
and  to  leave  behind  the  impression  of  a  superhuman  energy.  His  history 
shows  a  spirit  of  self-exaggeration  unrivalled  in  enlightened  ages.  He  had  no 
sympathies  with  his  race,  and  this  was  the  chief  source  of  his  crimes.  Trea¬ 
ties  only  bound  his  enemies:  no  nation  had  any  rights  but  his  own  France. 
His  original  propensities,  released  from  restraint  and  pampered  by  indulgence, 
grew  up  into  a  spirit  of  despotism  as  stern  and  absolute  as  ever  usurped  the 
human  heart.  Beyond  the  camp  he  showed  no  talent  superior  to  that  of  other 
eminent  men.  With  regard  to  the  scruples  expressed  as  to  the  right  of  ban¬ 
ishing  him  to  St.  Helena,  there  are  great  solemn  rights  of  nature  which  precede 
laws,  and  on  which  law  is  founded;  there  are  awful  periods  in  the  history  of 
our  race,  which  do  not  belong  to  its  ordinary  state,  and  which  are  not  to  be 
judged  by  ordinary  rules.  Such  was  that  when  Bonaparte,  by  the  infraction 
of  solemn  engagements,  had  thrown  himself  into  France  and  convulsed  all 
Europe  ;  and  they  are  wrong  who  confound  this  with  the  ordinary  events  of 
history,  and  see  in  Napoleon  an  ordinary  foe  to  the  peace  and  independence  of 
nations.  Our  sympathies  are  not  for  the  inconveniences  and  privations  which 
he  endured  at  St.  Helena,  but  for  the  other  and  more  terrible  sufferings  of 
which  he  was  the  cause.  We  have  no  tears  to  spare  for  a  fallen  greatness, 
founded  on  crime  and  reared  by  force  and  perfidy.” 

Louis  XVIII.  once  more  returned  to  his  capital  on  the  8th  of  July  ; 
and  on  the  20th  of  November  a  second  treaty  of  Paris  was  concluded, 
nearly  on  the  basis  of  that  contracted  a  year  before,  but  with  some 
resumptions  of  territory  by  the  allies  on  the  boundaries  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  Germany,  and  Savoy.  The  French  frontiers  were  to  be  occupied 
during  three  years  by  an  allied  force  of  150,000  men,  and  700  millions  of 
francs  were  to  be  paid  as  an  indemnification  for  the  last  contest.  The 
monuments  of  art,  which  successive  armies  had  torn  from  all  parts  of 
Europe,  were  now  restored  ;  and  the  bridge  of  Jena  in  Paris,  when 
already  undermined  by  the  enraged  Prussians,  was  only  saved  Bom 
destruction  by  the  interference  of  Wellington.  Louis  XVIII.,  in  reas¬ 
cending  the  throne,  conferred  upon  his  subjects  the  most  valuable  of 
gifts, — a  free  constitution.  As  embodied  in  the  Charter,  it  had  much 
in  common  with  its  English  original  —  a  king  with  plenary  executive 
powrer,  and  who  was  the  source  of  legislation;  responsible  ministers; 
a  chamber  of  peers ;  and  a  house  of  representatives  or  deputies. 

SPAIN. 

The  government  of  Spain  continued  till  the  close  of  1807  to  be 
administered  by  the  contemptible  favourite  Godoy,  whose  folly  and 
ambition  made  him  a  passive  instrument  in  the  hands  of  Napoleon. 
The  resources  of  the  country  W'ere  placed  almost  entirely  at  the  disposal 
of  the  latter,  internal  improvement  was  neglected,  and  the  disastrous 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


505 


contest  with  England  which  this  line  of  policy  induced,  annihilated  the 
foreign  and  colonial  trade,  and  exposed  the  navy  to  signal  reverses, — 
the  severe  blow  at  Trafalgar,  in  1805,  being  one  from  which  her  marine 
has  never  recovered.  In  1807,  a  secret  treaty  for  the  partition  of  Por¬ 
tugal  was  concluded  between  France  and  Spain  at  Fontainebleau,  by 
which,  among  other  stipulations,  the  provinces  of  Alentejo  and  Algarve 
were  to  be  erected  into  a  principality  for  the  favourite,  in  return  for  aid 
to  the  French  invasion  of  that  country.  But  no  sooner  had  the  army 
under  Junot  established  itself  in  Lisbon,  than  the  emperor  refused  to 
ratify  the  conditions  of  the  treaty,  and  immediately  began  to  foment  the 
dissensions  already  existing  in  the  royal  family.  Ferdinand,  prince  of 
Asturias,  had  refused  to  marry  a  relative  of  Godoy’s,  and  addressed  a 
letter  to  his  father,  King  Charles,  exposing  the  abuses  of  the  govern¬ 
ment,  and  requesting  to  be  allowed  to  share  in  it.  The  favourite  im¬ 
mediately  took  advantage  of  this  circumstance  to  persuade  the  king  that 
his  son  had  formed  a  conspiracy  against  his  life ;  and  on  the  29th  Octo¬ 
ber,  the  latter  was  apprehended  on  this  charge,  and  kept  a  close  prisoner. 
But  the  nation  at  large  were  not  so  easily  deceived,  and  the  junta  con¬ 
vened  for  his  trial  unanimously  acquitted  him.  Meanwhile,  the  French 
had  been  allowed  to  place  garrisons  in  several  of  the  principal  fortresses 
of  the  kingdom,  and  a  strong  division  entered  Madrid  under  Murat, 
without  experiencing  any  opposition  from  the  king  or  the  minister.  But 
the  people  of  that  city,  driven  to  desperation,  flocked  to  Aranjuez,  where 
the  court  then  resided,  and  burned  the  palace  of  the  obnoxious  func¬ 
tionary  ;  while  the  king  himself,  terrified  at  the  position  in  which  he 
had  allowed  the  country  to  be  placed,  publicly  abdicated  in  favour  of 
Ferdinand,  March  20,  1808. 

This  latter  arrangement,  however,  by  no  means  suited  the  views  of 
the  French  emperor.  The  country  being  now  virtually  in  his  hands,  he 
prevailed  on  the  new  sovereign  to  meet  him  at  Bayonne,  15th  April; 
where  he  immediately  threw  off  all  disguise,  treated  the  young  king  as 
a  prisoner,  and  insisted  upon  a  formal  cession  of  the  Spanish  crown. 
Charles  IV.,  his  queen,  and  Godoy,  shortly  after  arrived  ;  and  Charles, 
who  declared  that  his  abdication  had  been  extorted  by  popular  violence, 
was  easily  induced  to  make  the  required  surrender  (May  5),  an  act  to 
which  Ferdinand  was  after  a  brief  space  compelled  to  accede.  In  the 
following  June,  Napoleon  nominated  his  brother  Joseph  sovereign  of 
Spain,  at  a  time  when  the  spirit  of  the  nation,  exasperated  by  the  inso¬ 
lence  of  the  French  troops,  had  become  thoroughly  roused.  An  insur¬ 
rection  in  the  capital,  on  the  2d  of  May,  was  the  signal  for  a  general 
rising  all  over  the  country;  Ferdinand  VII.  was  proclaimed  king; 
juntas  were  everywhere  established  to  act  against  the  invaders  ;  and 
though  the  usurper  Joseph  was  able,  by  the  aid  of  French  soldiers,  to 
enter  Madrid  on  the  20th  July,  his  power  never  extended  beyond  the 
outposts  of  the  armies  by  which  he  was  maintained  in  his  position. 
The  people,  though  nearly  undisciplined  and  rudely  armed,  performed 
prodigies  of  valour:  a  French  squadron  was  compelled  to  surrender  in 
the  harbour  of  Cadiz  ;  Dupont  was  forced  to  capitulate  with  14,000  men 
at  Baylen;  and  the  citizens  of  Saragossa,  after  sustaining  a  siege  of 
sixty-three  da}rs,  drove  the  troops  of  the  new  king  from  the  walls,  while 
in  a  second  siege,  in  1809,  the  city  was  only  reduced  after  immense 
bloodshed. 

43 


506 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Aided  by  Britain,  the  people  continued  to  maintain  the  contest  till 
1813,  when  the  triumph  of  Wellington  at  Vittoria  finally  freed  the  Pe¬ 
ninsula  from  its  invaders.  In  that  year  Ferdinand  VII.  was  set  at 
liberty  by  Napoleon,  and  immediately  returned  to  his  dominions,  where 
he  was  received  with  enthusiastic  demonstrations  of  joy.  The  expecta¬ 
tions  which  had  previously  been  formed  of  his  character,  however,  wrere 
soon  disappointed.  A  meeting  of  the  cortes,  convoked  at  Cadiz  by  the 
central  junta  at  the  close  of  1810,  had  formed  a  liberal  constitution  for 
the  country,  abolished  the  inquisition,  and  decreed  various  ecclesiastical 
reforms.  The  restored  monarch  refused  to  take  the  oath  to  observe  this 
new  constitution,  dissolved  the  cortes,  which  he  declared  to  have  been 
illegally  assembled,  and  resumed  the  powers  of  absolute  government. 
The  inquisition  was  of  course  re-established,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press 
abolished ;  and  the  nation  became  once  more  subjected  to  the  same 
vicious  system  of  administration  from  which  it  had  already  suffered  such 
manifold  evils. 

PORTUGAL. 

The  pacification  of  Amiens,  i802,  allowed  Portugal  to  resume  her 
commercial  intercourse  with  England ;  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  hos¬ 
tilities  in  the  following  year,  Bonaparte  required,  through  his  ambassa¬ 
dor,  that  the  ports  should  again  be  closed.  After  various  attempts  to 
elude  this  ruinous  demand,  the  prince-regent  was  compelled  to  purchase 
exemption  from  it  by  the  payment  of  d£40,000  sterling  monthly  to  France 
during  the  continuance  of  the  contest.  Tire  neutrality  thus  disgracefully 
obtained  was  permitted  to  exist  until  1807  ;  when  Bonaparte,  determined 
that  all  Europe  should  acquiesce  in  his  continental  system,  not  only 
insisted  on  the  cessation  of  the  trade  with  Britain,  but  on  the  confisca¬ 
tion  of  all  English  property  in  the  country.  To  this  demand  Prince 
John  could  not  be  brought  to  consent;  and  Napoleon,  declaring  the 
dynasty  of  Braganza  at  an  end,  sent  Junot  with  an  army  to  invade  the 
country.  A  British  fleet  in  the  Tagus  was  provided  to  convey  the  royal 
family  to  Brazil ;  and  as  no  measures  whatever  had  been  taken  for  the 
national  defence,  the  French  general  obtained  possession  of  Portugal 
without  difficulty,  treating  it  in  all  respects  as  a  conquered  province. 

This  state  of  affairs  greatly  exasperated  the  people.  In  the  northern 
provinces,  numerous  bodies  took  up  arms  in  defence  of  national  inde¬ 
pendence;  a  junta  was  established  at  Oporto  to  conduct  the  government; 
and  on  the  21st  August  1808,  the  British  auxiliary  army  under  Sir  Ar¬ 
thur  Wellesley  defeated  the  troops  of  Junot,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
the  celebrated  convention  of  Cintra,  and  the  evacuation  of  the  country 
by  the  invaders.  The  Portuguese  were  afterwards  greatly  distinguished 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Peninsular  war. 

In  1810,  on  the  death  of  Maria  Isabella,  the  regent  was  called  to  the 
throne  as  John  VI. ;  but  he  still  continued  to  reside  in  Brazil.  The 
peace  of  Paris,  in  1814,  gave  little  satisfaction  to  the  Portuguese,  wrho 
were  obliged  to  restore  some  portion  of  French  Guiana,  which  they  had 
conquered  during  the  war,  while  several  harassing  disputes  with  Spain 
also  arose.  The  king,  after  an  absence  of  nearly  fourteen  years,  returned 
to  his  native  country  in  1821,  having  previously  to  his  landing  confirmed 
a  constitution  demanded  by  the  people. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


507 


ITALY. 

Naples. — The  kingdom  of  Naples  did  not  escape  the  contagion  of  the 
French  revolution.  After  an  ineffectual  endeavour  to  oppose  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  the  invading  armies,  the  king  was  compelled  to  make  peace 
with  Napoleon  in  1796,  and  close  his  ports  against  the  enemies  of 
France.  A  popular  insurrection,  1799,  ended  in  the  temporary  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  Parthenopean  Republic  ,*  but  it  was  soon  after  replaced  by 
the  old  government.  Ferdinand  IV.  joined  in  the  coalition  of  1800 
against  France ;  but  his  aid  was  of  little  value,  and  his  continental  terri¬ 
tories  were  speedily  occupied  by  hostile  armies.  In  1805,  when  these 
were  withdrawn  to  operate  against  Austria,  a  combined  Russian  and 
British  force  landed  at  Naples,  but  speedily  retired;  a  circumstance 
which  Napoleon  made  the  pretext  for  sending  a  new  army  into  the  coun¬ 
try,  and  conferring  the  crown  on  his  brother  Joseph,  March  1806.  It 
was  in  Calabria  that  the  revived  system  of  attacking  in  column,  so  ad¬ 
mirably  suited  for  raw  levies,  and  which  had  hitherto  led  to  victory,  was 
found  unavailing  against  a  line  of  British  soldiers,  Sir  J.  Stuart  with  a 
small  force  defeating  Regnier  at  Maida,  4th  July.  On  the  transference 
of  Joseph  Bonaparte  to  Spain,  Murat  became  king  of  Naples,  1808,  all 
whose  attempts  to  reduce  Sicily  were  frustrated  by  General  Stuart  and 
Admiral  Martin.  In  1812,  Lord  W.  Bentinck  was  instrumental  in  form- 
ino'  a  new  and  liberal  constitution  for  that  island.  Murat,  who  had  ne- 
gotiated  both  with  the  allied  sovereigns  and  the  French  emperor  during 
the  hundred  days,  ultimately  sided  with  the  latter,  and  invaded  the  Papal 
territories,  threatening  also  Northern  Italy.  The  rout  at  Waterloo  de¬ 
cided  his  fate :  exiled  from  his  throne,  he  perished  in  a  rash  descent  on 
Calabria,  1815;  Ferdinand  IV.  having  shortly  before  been  reinstated  in 
his  dominions. 

Upper  Italy. — During  the  contests  of  the  Republic  and  the  Empire 
this  portion  of  the  peninsula  became  the  theatre  of  great  events,  which 
together  with  the  changes  undergone  by  its  various  states,  have  alread) 
been  incidentally  noticed  under  France.  The  congress  of  Vienna 
1815,  again  re-established  the  preponderance  of  Austria,  and  erectet 
northern  Italy  into  the  following  six  governments:  —  1.  The  kingdom 
of  Sardinia,  under  Victor  Emmanuel,  who  regained  the  whole  of  his 
continental  territories  except  Savoy,  together  with  the  duchy  of  Genoa ; 
2.  The  Venetian  provinces,  with  Mantua  and  Milan,  were  erected  into 
the  kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice,  and  given  to  Austria  ;  3.  The 
house  of  Austro-Este  was  replaced  in  the  sovereignty  of  Modena  ;  4.  The 
sovereign  duchy  of  Parma  became  a  principality  for  the  ex-empress, 
Maria  Louisa;  5.  The  Archduke  Ferdinand  of  Austria  wTas  reinstated  as 
grandduke  of  Tuscany ;  and,  6.  Lucca  became  a  sovereign  state  for  the 
ex-queen  of  Etruria.  Sardinia  was  afterwards  increased  by  the  addition 
of  Savoy,  taken  from  France  at  the  second  peace  of  Paris. 

Switzerland. — This  country  underwent  the  same  vicissitudes  as  its 
neighbours,  Italy  and  France.  At  last,  after  several  petty  revolutions 
general  tranquillity  was  restored,  and  a  new  federal  compact  formed  a? 
Zurich,  1815.  The  cantons  were  increased  from  nineteen  to  twenty-two 
by  the  addition  of  Geneva,  Neuchatel,  and  Vallais,  all  recovered  from 
France. 


508 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


GERMANY. 

Francis  II.  succeeded  to  the  dominions  of  Austria  and  the  imperial 
title  at  the  period  of  the  first  war  of  the  revolution,  1792,  in  which  he 
struggled  long,  and  at  last  successfully,  against  a  most  formidable 
enemy.  By  the  battle  of  Marengo,  1800,  and  of  Austerlitz,  1805,  Ger¬ 
many  was  twice  laid  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  Napoleon.  The  main 
result  of  the  latter  defeat  was  the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine,  under  the  protectorate  of  the  French  ruler;  and  as  this  event 
put  an  end  to  the  old  German  or  Roman  empire,  after  a  duration  of  a 
thousand  years,  Francis  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria  and 
King  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  He  now  availed  himself  of  an  interval 
of  peace  to  repair  the  ravages  which  war  had  made  in  his  dominions, 
and  felt  bound  to  maintain  neutrality  in  Bonaparte’s  contest  with  Prussia, 
while  he  made  every  exertion  to  augment  his  own  financial  and  military 
resources.  The  French  monarch,  on  his  part,  effected  various  changes 
in  the  constitution  of  the  confederacy,  conferring  new  titles  on  several 
of  the  princes,  while  his  own  general,  Murat,  was  created  Grandduke  of 
Berg;  and  in  order  to  complete  the  humiliation  of  the  country,  various 
counts  and  princes  were  mediatized ,  that  is,  deprived  of  all  immediate 
government  in  their  respective  states,  and  their  sovereign  rights  given 
over  to  contiguous  princes. 

The  embarrassments  of  the  French  in  Spain  in  1809,  again  induced 
the  Austrian  government  to  make  an  effort  for  the  independence  of  Ger¬ 
many.  The  war  which  then  took  place  differed  in  character  from  for-  J 
mer  contests,  inasmuch  as  the  people  generally  took  part  against  the 
French,  who  were  annoyed  on  all  sides  by  vigorous  and  enterprising 
corps  of  partisans  under  various  leaders.  The  Archduke  Charles  de¬ 
feated  Bonaparte  in  person  at  Aspern;  and  though  fortune  again  changed 
sides  at  Wagram,  the  Austrians  retired  in  good  order  to  Bohemia,  where 
an  armistice  was  concluded,  followed  by  the  peace  of  Schonbrunn. 
Shortly  after,  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  emperor,  was  married  to 
the  Emperor  of  France. 

By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  1805,  the  mountainous  district  of  the  Tyrol 
had  been  ceded  to  Bavaria;  but  early  in  1809,  the  inhabitants  com¬ 
menced  an  insurrection  under  a  native  chief  named  Hofer,  aided  by  the 
Austrians.  A  murderous  conflict  was  sustained  against  the  Bavarians 
and  French  with  varying  success,  until  the  end  of  November,  its  ulti 
mate  issue  depending  on  the  greater  contest  decided  in  the  two  dreadful 
days  of  Wagram.  The  cruel  execution  of  Hofer  and  others  of  his 
heroic  associates,  after  an  amnesty  had  been  proclaimed,  added  another 
stain  to  the  reputation  of  Napoleon. 

After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  the  restoration  of  the  Austrian  monarchy 
was  effected  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  by  means  of  the  dissolved  king¬ 
dom  of  Italy,  of  the  reconquered  Illyrian  provinces,  and  by  the  recovery 
of  the  cessions  formerly  made  to  Bavaria. 

The  battle  of  Leipsic  and  the  subsequent  disasters  of  the  French  in 
1813  dissolved  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  ;  and  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  after  indemnif3ring  Prussia  and  other  powers  at  the  expense 
of  those  princes  who  had  most  eagerly  supported  the  invader,  by  an  act 
dated  9th  June  1815,  formed  the  German  states,  including  portions  of 
the  dominions  of  Austria,  Prussia,  and  the  Netherlands,  with  the  free 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


509 


cities,  into  a  new  federal  relation  called  the  Germanic  League,  This  union, 
which  was  left  without  any  acknowledged  head,  has  in  view  the  preser¬ 
vation  of  the  security  of  Germany,  and  the  independence  of  the  respec¬ 
tive  states ;  the  members  of  the  confederation  have  equal  rights,  and 
meet  in  diet  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine. 

HOLLAND. 

From  1795  this  country  continued  in  a  state  of  hopeless  dependency 
on  France,  losing  her  commerce  and  colonies  in  constrained  hostilities 
with  Britain.  In  1806,  the  Batavian  Republic  was  converted  jnto  the 
kingdom  of  Holland,  and  Louis  Bonaparte  placed  upon  the  throne. 
This  prince  was  of  an  amiable  character,  and  really  exerted  tde  little 
power  reposed  in  him  for  the  benefit  of  his  subjects.  In  particular,  he 
readily  connived  at  the  evasion  of  the  decrees  of  his  imperious  brother, 
prohibiting  intercourse  with  England  ;  but  this  policy,  so  consonant  with 
the  true  interests  of  his  people,  soon  exposed  him  to  such  a  series  of 
reproaches  as  to  render  his  position  insupportable.  In  1810,  he  abdi¬ 
cated  in  favour  of  his  eldest  son ;  but  this  change  not  meeting  with  the 
approbation  of  the  head  of  the  family,  Holland  was  without  ceremony 
incorporated  with  France.  At  length  the  people,  whose  dreams  of 
liberty  had  been  fearfully  dispelled  by  the  painful  realities  of  despotism, 
in  the  shape  of  the  conscription  and  the  most  grinding  exactions,  rose 
against  the  oppressor ;  the  popular  cry,  “  Up  with  the  house  of  Orange  !” 
once  more  resounded  over  the  land  ;  and  a  provisional  government  being 
formed  at  Amsterdam,  William  Frederick  of  Nassau  arrived  from 
England,  and  wras  proclaimed  sovereign  of  the  United  Netherlands  in 
December  1813. 

In  October  1814,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  with  Great  Britain, 
by  which  that  country  was  allowed  to  retain  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice,  but  restored  Batavia,  the  Moluccas, 
Surinam,  and  all  other  places  taken  from  Holland  during  the  war.  The 
congress  of  Vienna,  by  an  act  dated  31st  May  1815,  reunited  the  ten 
provinces  of  the  Low’  Countries,  formerly  subject  to  the  Dukes  of  Bur¬ 
gundy  (nowT  the  kingdom  of  Belgium),  under  the  authority  of  William 
Frederick,  who  thereupon  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the  United 
Netherlands.  The  government  was  declared  a  limited  hereditary 
monarchy,  with  a  representative  legislature. 

'  DENMARK. 

V 

During  the  French  wars,  Denmark  twice  suffered  from  the  arms  of 
Britain:  her  fleet  engaged  in  the  defence  of  Copenhagen  wTas  sunk, 
burnt,  or  captured  by  Nelson,  1801 ;  and  after  the  bombardment  of  the 
capital  by  an  armament  under  Admiral  Gambier  and  Lord  Cathcart,  all 
her  ships  of  war  w’ere  surrendered,  1807.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  she 
was  compelled  to  cede  Norway  to  Sweden,  in  exchange  for  Swedish 
Pomerania  and  the  Isle  of  Rugen ;  but  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  June 
1815,  these  districts  were  transferred  to  Prussia,  the  Danish  king 
receiving  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg  as  a  trifling  compensation. 

43  * 


510 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


SWEDEN. 

Gustavus  IV.  attained  his  majority  in  1796 ;  but  his  conduct  showing 
that  he  laboured  under  mental  derangement,  he  was  deposed  in  1809, 
and  his  uncle,  Charles  XIII.,  proclaimed  king.  The  aristocracy  took 
this  opportunity  to  effect  several  modifications  in  the  constitution,  tend¬ 
ing  to  diminish  the  power  of  the  crown;  the  general  outline  remaining 
as  settled  in  1772.  Charles  now  concluded  the  war  which  had  broken 
out  with  Russia  and  Denmark  in  the  preceding  year,  ceding  to  the  former 
power  the  whole  of  Finland,  with  East  Bothnia  and  Aaland  ;  an  arrange¬ 
ment  which  stripped  the  country  of  one-fourth  of  its  territory  and  one- 
third  of  its  inhabitants.  After  this  heavy  blow,  he  joined  the  continental 
system  of  Napoleon,  1810,  receiving  back,  as  a  reward  for  his  adherence, 
the  district  of  Pomerania,  which  had  been  wrested  by  the  French  from 
his  predecessor.  In  the  same  year,  on  the  sudden  death  of  Prince 
Christian,  who  had  been  nominated  to  succeed  Charles,  the  diet 
elected  Bernadotte,  prince  of  Ponte-Corvo,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Bona¬ 
parte’s  marshals,  as  successor  to  the  throne,  under  the  title  of  Charles 
John. 

The  crown-prince  saw  too  clearly  the  real  interests  of  his  country  to 
allow  it  to  remain  long  in  the  state  of  subserviency  to  France  to  which 
it  had  been  brought;  and  he  was  easily  induced  to  abandon  the  conti¬ 
nental  system  on  the  first  favourable  opportunity.  In  1812,  the  Swedish 
ports  were  again  thrown  open  to  all  nations;  and  early  in  1813,  he 
formed  an  alliance  with  England,  and  soon  after  openly  entered  the  field 
against  his  former  commander.  In  return  for  the  important  aid  thus 
afforded  to  the  allies,  he  was  gratified  by  obtaining  the  valuable  territory 
of  Norway  at  the  peace  of  Kiel  with  Denmark  in  1814,  the  natives  being 
permitted  to  retain  their  own  constitution.  The  people,  who  were  much 
attached  to  their  Danish  rulers,  made  some  opposition  to  this  arrange¬ 
ment,  and  set  up  Prince  Christian  Frederick  of  Denmark  as  their  king; 
but  they  were  speedily  compelled  to  yield.  Bernadotte  attained  the 
crown  of  the  united  kingdoms,  as  Charles  XIV.,  in  1818. 

PRUSSIA. 

Frederick  III.  succeeded  his  father  in  1797,  prudently  announcing 
his  design  to  maintain  the  peace  with  France.  He  applied  his  attention 
to  the  re-establishment  of  the  finances,  by  introducing  a  wise  economy 
into  all  parts  of  the  administration,  hoping  thereby  in  a  few  years  to  pay 
the  debts  left  by  his  father,  and  even  part  of  those  of  Poland,  with  which 
he  had  been  charged  by  the  last  partition.  After  a  long  neutrality,  the 
country  was  rashly  hurried  into  a  war  with  Napoleon,  when  the  double 
defeat  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt,  1806,  placed  it  at  the  mercy  of  an  unspar 
ing  conqueror.  By  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  1807,  Prussia  lost  half  her  terri 
tories :  Westphalia  w7as  given  to  Jerome  Bonaparte ;  Warsaw,  erected 
into  a  grand-duchy,  was  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  king  of 
Saxony ;  Dantzic  was  declared  a  free  town ;  and  the  other  remaining 
ports  were  closed  against  the  commerce  of  England.  This  last  stipula¬ 
tion  was  but  the  prelude  to  the  most  oppressive  pecuniary  exactions,  and 
every  species  of  insult  and  degradation.  In  no  one  of  the  subjugated 
European  states  was  the  insolence  of  the  French  domination  carried 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


511 


to  a  greater  height,  and  in  none  did  it  produce  so  bitter  a  feeling  of  exas¬ 
peration.  Accordingly,  in  the  beginning  of  1813,  the  whole  population 
rose  en  masse  at  the  call  of  their  sovereign,  resolving,  in  the  emphatic 
terms  used  at  the  time,  that  this  new  contest  should  end  either  “  in  an 
honourable  peace  or  a  glorious  destruction.”  The  newly  armed  levies, 
or  landsturm ,  as  they  were  called,  filled  with  patriotic  enthusiasm,  de¬ 
feated  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  30,000  French  under  Eugene  Beau- 
harnois,  at  Mockern.  The  battles  of  Lutzen  and  Bautzen  led  to  an 
armistice  on  the  4th  of  June,  during  which  a  foul  attempt  was  made  by 
Arrighi,  a  countryman  of  Napoleon’s,  to  cut  off  Lutzow’s  free  corps  near 
Leipsic,  where  Korner,  the  patriotic  poet,  was  severely  wounded.  On 
the  resumption  of  hostilities,  August  17,  the  Prussian  arms  attained  a 
series  of  brilliant  successes.  The  renowned  Blucher,  whom  his  soldiers 
afterwards  styled  Marshal  Forwards ,  defeated  Macdonald  on  the  Katz- 
bach,  and  drove  him  from  Silesia;  Vandamme  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
his  army  annihilated  near  Culm;  and  Ney,  to  whom  the  crown  of  Prus¬ 
sia  had  been  promised,  was  totally  defeated  at  Dennevitz,  September  6, 
and  pursued  to  the  Elbe.  These  triumphs,  together  with  the  storming 
of  General  Bertrand’s  fortified  camp  by  Blucher,  October  3,  enabled  the 
allies  to  unite  before  Leipsic,  and  to  contend  for  three  days  against  the 
emperor  in  person  (16th,  18th,  and  19th  October),  who  never  recovered 
from  the  terrible  blow  here  inflicted  on  him.  France  was  now  in  her 
turn  condemned  to  be  trodden  down  by  invading  armies,  and  the  war 
was  prosecuted  with  varying  but  hardly  doubtful  success.  Napoleon’s 
forces  were  indeed  increased,  and  from  acting  on  an  internal  line,  were 
easily  concentrated  in  overwhelming  numbers  on  any  point.  The  valour 
of  Blucher,  however,  at  the  battle  of  Laon,  9th  March  1814,  decided  the 
campaign,  and  Paris  was  soon  after  entered  by  the  allies.  Much  of  this 
success  must  be  attributed  to  the  patriotic  exertions  of  Baron  Stein, 
prime-minister  in  1808,  and  to  a  secret  patriotic  association  formed  at 
that  time,  called  the  Tugendbund  (or  bond  of  virtue),  which  led  to  the 
formation  of  voluntary  corps,  as  well  as  to  the  promise  of  political  insti¬ 
tutions  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  age. 

By  the  congress  of  Vienna,  1814,  Prussia  recovered  what  it  had 
resigned  at  Tilsit,  and  in  exchange  for  sacrifices  in  Poland,  received 
half  of  Saxony,  and  a  considerable  accession  of  provinces  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine. 

RUSSIA. 

The  odious  tyranny  of  the  Emperor  Paul,  which  seemed  to  verge  on 
insanity,  became  at  length  insupportable  to  his  subjects ;  and  in  March 
1801,  he  met  the  fate  of  many  other  despotic  princes,  being  murdered  in 
his  palace  by  a  band  of  conspirators.  Alexander  I.,  his  son  and  suc¬ 
cessor,  began  his  reign  by  various  judicious  and  patriotic  measures; 
while,  by  agreeing  to  an  amicable  convention,  he  put  a  stop  to  the  im¬ 
pending  hostilities  with  England,  consequent  on  his  predecessor’s  scheme 
of  armed  neutrality.  The  peace  of  Amiens,  180*2,  was  the  almost  imme¬ 
diate  consequence;  but  the  young  monarch  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
title  of  the  French  emperor,  and,  joining  the  Austrian  coalition  against 
him,  was  present  in  person  at  the  great  defeat  of  Austerlitz.  In  1806, 
he  endeavoured  to  continue  the  war  in  alliance  with  Prussia;  but  the 
rapid  overthrow  of  that  power,  and  the  severe  losses  of  his  own  troops 


512 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


at  Eylau  and  Friedland,  led  to  an  armistice  in  June  1807,  during  which 
the  two  emperors  met  personally  on  a  raft  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
Niemen.  The  result  of  this  interview  was  an  apparently  warm  friend¬ 
ship  between  Alexander  and  Napoleon,  and  the  celebrated  treaty  of 
Tilsit,  July  7,  by  which  the  former  joined  the  continental  system,  and 
soon  after  declared  war  against  England  and  Sweden,  the  latter  of  which 
countries  was  forced  to  cede,  in  1809,  all  Finland,  East  Bothnia,  and 
Aaland. 

Three  years  previously  to  this  period,  an  alliance  between  Turkey 
and  France  had  been  used  as  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  with  the  former 
state  ;  but  the  hostilities  were  languidly  conducted  till  1809,  wThen  they 
were  resumed  with  fresh  vigour.  The  Russians  easily  passed  the  forti¬ 
fied  line  of  the  Danube ;  but  the  Turks,  being  strongly  encamped  at 
Shumla  in  Bulgaria,  were  assailed  without  success,  and  the  grand-vizier 
routed  one-half  of  the  invaders,  1810.  These  last  were  then  driven  bad 
across  the  Danube,  when  the  vizier,  having  imprudently  crossed  in 
pursuit,  was  surprised  and  defeated  by  Kutusoff,  he  himself  escaping 
with  difficulty.  Peace  was  soon  after  concluded  at  Bucharest,  through 
the  mediation  of  England,  when  Turkey  relinquished  all  claims  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Pruth,  1812. 

Meanwhile,  the  effects  of  the  continental  system  had  become  con¬ 
spicuous  in  the  ruin  of  the  national  commerce,  and  excited  a  universal 
feeling  of  discontent  throughout  Russia.  At  the  end  of  1811,  a  dispute 
arose  with  the  court  of  Paris  in  consequence  of  the  seizure  of  the  terri¬ 
tories  of  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg  by  Napoleon ;  and  it  speedily  became 
evident  that  a  rupture  was  impending.  Accordingly,  on  the  19th  March 
1812,  having  previously  formed  an  alliance  with  Sweden,  Alexander 
declared  war  against  the  French  emperor,  who  on  his  part  announced 
his  intention  to  drive  back  the  Russian  monarchy  to  Asia.  The  tremen¬ 
dous  contest  that  followed,  so  important  for  the  independence  of  Europe, 
has  already  been  detailed  under  France.  The  steady  valour  and  heroic 
sacrifices  of  the  Russian  people  saved  their  country  and  preserved  the 
liberties  of  mankind ;  and  an  unprincipled  and  insatiable  ambition 
received  its  most  awful  lesson  amid  the  horrors  which  attended  the 
retreat  from  Moscow.  After  this  period  they  experienced  an  almost  un¬ 
interrupted  triumph,  till,  on  the  31st  March  1814,  their  victorious  troops, 
in  conjunction  with  those  of  the  other  allies,  took  possession  of  the 
French  capital.  Their  sovereign  obtained  a  considerable  share  of  the 
fruits  of  these  signal  successes.  By  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815, 
the  city  of  Warsaw,  with  a  large  adjacent  territory,  was  erected  into  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  and  annexed  to  his  empire  ;  several  provinces 
bordering  on  Persia  had  previously  (1813)  been  ceded  to  him  by  the 
peace  of  Goolistan  ;  whilst  the  important  acquisition  of  Finland,  obtained 
from  Sweden  in  1809,  proved  a  source  of  great  benefit  and  security  to 
his  normern  dominions.  The  remainder  of  his  reign  was  passed  in 
various  useful  measures  of  internal  improvement. 

TURKEY. 

The  unprovoked  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  French,  and  their  subse¬ 
quent  successes,  compelled  Sultan  Selim  to  form  a  defensive  alliance 
with  Russia  and  England  in  1798,  and  the  great  exertions  of  the  latter 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


513 


power  at  length  restored  that  important  province  to  the  dominions  of  the 
Porte.  Meanwhile,  the  introduction  of  modern  tactics  into  the  army, 
and  the  favour  shown  to  the  new  corps  disciplined  after  this  manner, 
which  were  known  by  the  designation  of  the  Nizam  Djedit ,  had  excited 
the  deadly  hostility  of  the  janissaries,  who  foresaw  in  the  advancement 
of  this  body  a  presage  of  their  own  downfal.  In  the  midst  of  these  dis¬ 
contents,  the  intrigues  of  France  so  far  prevailed  in  the  Ottoman  councils 
as  to  precipitate  a  war  with  their  late  allies,  England  and  Russia,  1806. 
The  latter  power  immediately  occupied  the  provinces  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia;  while  an  English  fleet,  under  Admiral  Duckworth,  passed 
the  Dardanelles  and  approached  the  capital,  but  was  speedily  compelled 
to  retreat.  A  strong  force  being  now  sent  under  the  vizier  to  the  Rus¬ 
sian  frontiers,  the  janissaries  seized  the  opportunity  to  give  vent  to  their 
long-cherished  resentment,  and  with  loud  cries  demanded  the  deposition 
of  the  sultan.  Mustapha  IV.,  his  nephew,  was  accordingly  raised  to 
the  throne,  the  whole  authority,  at  the  same  time,  passing  into  the  hands 
of  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection,  who  conducted  themselves  with  the 
utmost  insolence.  This  state  of  things,  however,  was  speedily  put  an 
end  to  by  Bairactar,  pasha  of  Rustchuk,  who  hastened  to  the  capital  at 
the  head  of  40,000  Albanians ;  and  though  too  late  to  prevent  the  assas¬ 
sination  of  his  former  master  Selim,  whom  he  desired  to  reinstate,  he 
pulled  the  usurper  from  the  throne,  to  which  he  immediately  elevated 
Mahmoud  II.  By  way  of  avenging  the  death  of  the  late  sultan,  the 
usual  barbarous  executions,  or  rather  massacres,  now  took  place  ;  but 
the  janissaries  still  retained  so  much  influence  as  to  procure,  some  time 
after,  the  death  of  Bairactar  himself.  In  18T2,  the  war  with  Russia  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  peace  of  Bucharest;  and  the  sultan,  now  at 
liberty  to  devote  himself  to  the  internal  affairs  of  his  empire,  began  to 
display  those  qualities  of  energy,  courage,  and  political  talent,  which 
marked  him  as  one  of  the  ablest  potentates  of  his  time.  He  resolutely 
prepared  to  reduce  his  rebellious  viceroys  in  the  provinces,  abolished 
the  hereditary  pashaliks,  and  at  length  entirely  suppressed  the  insolent 
janissaries,  w’ho  had  so  long  held  the  capital  in  thraldom.  The  reduc¬ 
tion  of  the  Wahabees  in  Arabia  was  intrusted  to  Mehemet  Ali,  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  wTho  had  some  time  before  made  himself  absolute  master  of 
chat  important  province  by  a  barbarous  massacre  of  the  Mamelukes ; 
and,  after  two  years  of  dangerous  warfare,  his  son  Ibrahim  entirely  sub¬ 
dued  the  enthusiastic  sectarians,  and  took  their  chief  prisoner.  In  1820, 
a  struggle  arose  in  the  Morea,  which,  after  ten  years  of  warfare,  terminated 
in  the  independence  of  Greece, — in  the  first,  instance  as  a  republic  under 
the  presidency  of  Count  Capodistria,  and  eventually,  in  1833,  as  a 
limited  monarchy  under  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria. 

BRITISH  INDIA. 

The  progress  of  the  British  power  in  Hindostan  during  the  preceding 
century,  so  marvellous  in  every  point  of  view,  is  particularly  striking 
from  the  fact  that  it  took  place  against  the  direct  wishes  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  at  home ;  and  that  almost  every  successive  war  and  negotiation 
terminated,  as  it  seemed  inevitably,  in  that  very  extension  of  territory 
which  had  been  so  anx’ously  deprecated.  Hardly,  therefore,  had  the 
conquest  of  Mysore  freed  the  Company  from  a  powerful  enemy,  and 


514 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


promised  an  opportunity  of  peacefully  pursuing  those  commercial  objects 
which  were  always  deemed  paramount  in  importance,  ere  anoiher  career 
of  conquest  was  opened  up.  This  event  arose  from  the  jealousy  of  their 
late  allies,  the  Mahrattas,  qow  the  most  formidable  native  power  in 
Hindostan,  both  on  account  of  the  personal  qualities  of  the  chiefs  who 
ruled  the  confederacy,  and  from  having  French  officers  employed  in  their 
armies.  Scindia,  one  of  these  princes,  had  pushed  his  conquests  so 
successfully  in  the  north,  as  to  obtain  possession  of  the  provinces  of 
Delhi  and  Agra;  and  eventually,  by  the  reduction  of  the  city  of  the 
former  name  in  1788,  the  person  of  the  Mogul  himself  fell  into  his 
hands,  the  conquered  territories  being  placed  under  the  government  of 
General  Perron,  a  French  officer  in  his  service.  The  powerful  chief, 
having  taken  offence  at  a  treaty  formed  by  the  British  with  the  Peishwa 
of  Poonah,  declared  war  against  them  in  1803,  in  which  he  was  joined 
by  the  Rajah  of  Berar.  General  Lake  immediately  took  the  field  in  the 
north,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Perron ;  but  having  soon  after  captured 
the  important  fort  of  Allighur,  he  succeeded  in  inducing  that  officer  to 
quit  the  service  of  Scindia,  rapidly  overran  the  northern  provinces,  and 
took  possession  of  Delhi  and  of  the  person  of  the  Mogul.  In  the  south, 
where  the  operations  were  conducted  by  Major-general  Wellesley  (after¬ 
wards  Duke  of  Wellington),  the  success  was  if  possible  still  more 
decisive.  At  the  great  battle  of  Assaye,  fought  on  the  23d  September, 
with  a  force  of  5000  men,  he  totally  defeated  60,000  under  Scindia  and 
the  rajah  in  person,  gaining  one  of  the  most  complete  victories  recorded 
even  in  the  annals  of  Indian  warfare.  A  peace  was  the  immediate  con¬ 
sequence,  by  which  the  victors  obtained  extensive  territories  in  central 
Hindostan,  including  Delhi  and  Agra,  with  the  custody  of  the  Mogul 
emperor,  who  henceforth  subsisted  on  a  British  pension  till  his  death  in 
1807. 

This  treaty  was  scarcely  concluded,  ere  a  new  contest  broke  out  with 
Holkar,  another  powerful  Mahratta  sovereign,  1804.  He  made  a  rapid 
incursion  into  the  Doab,  and  attempted  to  seize  Delhi  by  stratagem,  but 
was  gallantly  repulsed;  his  infantry  were  defeated  by  Major-general 
Fraser  at  Dieg,  while  Lord  Lake,  having  pursued  the  cavalry  to  Fur- 
ruckabad,  took  them  by  surprise,  and  routed  them  with  great  slaughter. 
His  territories  were  now  speedily  occupied  by  the  British  troops ;  but  in 
1805,  in  consequence  of  a  change  of  policy  on  the  part  of  the  victors 
and  the  removal  of  Lord  Wellesley  from  the  post  of  governor-general 
nearly  the  whole  were  restored  to  him. 

The  pacific  policy  of  Sir  George  Barlow  and  Lord  Minto,  the  lattei 
of  whom  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  conquest  of  the  French  posses¬ 
sions  in  the  eastern  seas,  began  to  produce  its  invariable  effects  upon  the 
native  chiefs,  who  increased  in  insolence  in  exact  proportion  to  the 
supineness  of  the  British.  Accordingly,  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,  who 
arrived  as  governor-general  in  1813,  felt  the  necessity  for  a  display  of 
vigour  in  order  to  repress  their  encroachments.  His  first  operations 
were  directed  against  the  Gorkhas,  a  warlike  people  who  had  established 
themselves  in  the  alpine  regions  of  the  Himmalehs,  whence  they  were 
continually  making  encroachments  on  the  Company’s  frontier;  and  in 
two  active  campaigns  their  territory  was  entirely  subdued,  and  a  large 
mountain-tract  permanently  retained,  1816.  The  depredations  of  the 
Pindarees,  an  association  of  freebooters,  who  were  secretly  aided  by  the 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


515 


Mahratta  chiefs,  were  next  punished  by  several  successive  defeats,  and 
the  utter  dispersion  of  their  hordes.  The  Peishwa  of  Poonah,  Holkar, 
and  the  Rajah  of  Nagpore,  having  taken  part  in  this  contest,  were  all 
finally  subdued,  and  their  territories  occupied  ;  so  that  in  1818,  the  power 
of  the  British  was  extended  over  the  entire  peninsula,  leaving  only 
some  small  states,  too  weak  even  if  hostile  to  make  any  formidable 
resistance. 

Hindostan,  or  India  within  the  Ganges,  contains  1,280,000  square  miles,  with 
a  population  of  134  millions ;  the  immediate  territories  of  the  Company 
amounting  to  512,900  square  miles,  with  about  eighty-five  millions  of  inhabi¬ 
tants.  This  numerous  people,  besides  various  national  distinctions,  is  divided 
into  two  great  religious  classes,  Mohammedans  and  Hindoos,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  to  seven.  The  supreme  deity  of  the  Hindoos  is  the  ineffable  Brahm, 
who  is  worshipped  in  the  triple  form  of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  ;  the  two 
last  being  believed  to  have  undergone  a  number  of  avatars  or  incarnations,  and 
each  successive  avatar  furnishing  a  new  object  of  religious  homage.  Boodh  or 
Buddha  is  the  ninth  avatar,  but  he  is  worshipped  in  a  different  manner  from 
Brahma.  Besides  these  deities,  every  object  in  nature  has  its  presiding  divinity, 
and  nothing  is  believed  to  take  place  without  the  intervention  of  some  superior 
power.  The  direct  objects  of  Buddhist  worship  are  a  sort  of  heroes  or  demi¬ 
gods — men  of  saintly  life,  who  have  been  translated  to  a  state  of  supreme  bliss. 

The  people  are  divided  into  four  castes  or  tribes  :  the  Brahmins,  teachers  and 
ministers  of  religion  ;  Khetries,  magistrates  or  warriors  ;  Bice,  merchants  and 
husbandmen  ;  and  Soodras,  artisans  and  servants  of  every  class.  There  is  also 
a  race  of  Pariahs,  outcasts  from  their  original  rank,  and  who  are  in  the  lowest 
state  of  degradation. 

The  government  of  British  Hindostan  is  very  peculiar,  being  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  East  India  Company  and  the  ministers  in  England.  Twenty-four 
directors  manage  all  the  Indian  correspondence  and  confer  all  the  patronage ; 
the  former  being,  however,  subject  to  the  Board  of  Control,  nominated  by  the 
sovereign,  and  the  latter  requiring  the  royal  approbation  of  the  selected  govern¬ 
ors  and  commanders-in-chief.  Each  of  the  three  presidencies  has  a  governor 
and  council,  the  governor-general  residing  in  Calcutta.  All  the  officers,  civil 
and  military,  except  in  the  lower  ranks,  are  Europeans,  who  go  out  in  early 
youth,  and  are  frequently  appointed  to  the  most  important  charges,  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  their  merit,  while  others  of  the  same  age  at  home  have  scarcely  left  the 
school  or  university.  The  united  army  amounts  to  upwards  of  200,000  men, 
partly  Europeans,  and  partly  natives  called  sepoys,  under  British  officers.  The 
laws  are  Mohammedan,  varying  in  each  locality  ;  but  the  English  system  of 
jurisprudence  is  established  in  certain  districts.  The  revenues  are  estimated 
at  fourteen  millions  sterling. 

UNITED  STATES. 

During  the  scenes  of  violence  and  bloodshed  which  desolated  Europe 
at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  the  United  States,  remote  from  the 
scenes  of  warfare,  and  guided  by  the  cautious  policy  of  their  rulers, 
preserved  a  strict  neutrality,  and  continued  to  advance  steadily  in  the 
career  of  commercial  and  agricultural  prosperity.  With  the  exception 
of  several  unimportant  civic  disputes  and  contests  between  the  two 
great  national  parties  known  as  republicans  and  federalists ,  which  were 
carried  on,  however,  with  considerable  warmth,  no  event  occurred  to 
disturb  the  internal  tranquillity  of  the  republic.  In  1801,  Mr.  Adams 
was  succeeded  in  the  office  of  president  by  Mr.  Thomas  Jefferson,  cele¬ 
brated  as  the  author  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence ;  and  in  1803, 
this  statesman  concluded  a  treaty  with  France,  by  which  the  immense 
territory  of  Louisiana  was  ceded  to  the  republic  for  a  payment  of  fifteen 


516 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


millions  of  dollars.  The  number  of  states  was  also  increased  from  se¬ 
venteen  to  twenty-four,  by  the  elevation  of  various  western  territories  to 
that  rank ;  and  by  a  census  taken  about  this  time,  it  was  found  that  the 
population  had  increased  to  five  and  a  half  millions,  or  nearly  double 
wThat  it  was  at  the  period  of  the  revolt  from  England,  while  the  exports, 
imports,  and  revenue  presented  a  still  more  gratifying  result.  In  1803, 
a  naval  expedition  was  fitted  out  against  the  piratical  state  of  Tripoli, 
which  had  greatly  annoyed  the  American  commerce  in  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean  ;  and  after  several  vigorous  operations,  the  bashaw  was  compelled 
to  sign  a  favourable  peace. 

Unfortunately  for  both  nations,  causes  of  difference  with  Great  Britain 
now  began  to  arise.  That  country  claimed  a  right  of  searching  the 
vessels  of  neutral  powers,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  whether  they 
were  not  employed  in  carrying  military  stores  for  the  assistance  of  her 
enemies ;  and  she  also  subjected  American  ships  to  a  rigorous  scrutiny, 
in  order  to  recover  British  seamen  liable  to  impressment.  These  claims, 
and  the  abuses  to  which  they  almost  inevitably  gave  rise,  were  very 
unwillingly  acquiesced  in  by  the  republicans ;  and  their  feelings  of  ex¬ 
asperation  were  excited  to  the  highest  pitch,  when  the  decrees  of  Napo¬ 
leon  and  the  British  orders  in  council  virtually  put  an  end  to  their 
commerce  both  with  England  and  the  continent  of  Europe.  At  length, 
in  1809,  Mr.  Madison  being  president,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  federal 
government,  prohibiting  all  intercourse  as  well  with  France  as  with 
Britain  for  one  year,  or  until  either  country  should  recall  her  edicts. 
This  measure  produced  the  desired  effect  with  France  before  the  close 
of  1810,  but  England  still  adhered  to  her  orders  in  council  ;  and  finally, 
after  various  unsatisfactory  negotiations,  and  some  hostile  encounters 
between  ships  of  the  two  countries,  war  was  declared  against  Great 
Britain  in  June  1812.  Brigadier  Hull  was  immediately  despatched  with 
an  army  to  invade  Canada  ;  but  he  was  repulsed,  pursued,  and  compelled 
to  surrender  his  whole  force  to  Major-general  Brock  at  Fort  Detroit.  A 
second  expedition  for  the  same  purpose  met  with  no  better  fortune ;  but 
at  sea  the  Americans  were  generally  triumphant.  In  consequence  of  the 
superiority  of  their  frigates  in  number  of  men  and  weight  of  metal,  they 
succeeded,  when  singly  opposed  to  British  “vessels  of  the  same  class,  in 
effecting  several  captures ;  while  their  opponents  could  only  boast  one 
instance  of  naval  victory,  which  was  gained  after  a  sanguinary  encounter 
between  the  ships  Shannon  and  Chesapeake.  The  following  year  was 
chiefly  spent  in  conflicts  on  the  Lakes  and  their  vicinity,  the  preponder¬ 
ance  of  success  being  there  also  in  favour  of  the  republicans ;  but  in 
1814,  a  detachment  of  British  troops  was  sent  to  America  under  Major- 
general  Ross,  who,  co-operating  with  Admiral  Cockburn,  took  the  city 
of  Washington  and  destroyed  its  public  buildings.  At  the  close  of  the 
season,  however,  another  army  of  nearly  14,000  men,  under  Sir  Edward 
Packenham,  which  made  an  attack  on  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  was  re¬ 
pulsed  with  great  loss  by  an  inferior  force  under  General  Jackson.  A 
few  days  previous  to  this  event,  a  treaty  had  been  concluded  at  Ghent 
between  the  two  powers,  December  24,  which,  though  it  left  the  matters 
in  dispute  undecided,  was  highly  desirable  for  both  parties. 

In  1817,  Mr.  Madison  was  succeeded  as  president  by  Mr.  James 
Monroe,  who  shortly  after  obtained  the  cession  of  Eastand  West  Florida 
from  the  Spanish  government ;  which  important  districts  were  formally 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A. D. 


517 


taken  possession  of  in  1821.  The  territories  of  the  states  now  extended 
from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific;  their  progress  in  wealth  and  population  continued  to  be  very 
great,  while  their  commerce  spread  over  every  sea. 

BRAZIL. 

When  the  French  invaded  Portugal  in  1807,  the  royal  family  of  Bra- 
ganza  removed,  under  British  protection,  to  their  transatlantic  capital, 
Rio  Janeiro,  where  they  remained  until  1821,  at  which  period  John  the 
Sixth  was  recalled  to  Europe  by  the  cortes.  During  his  residence  in 
Brazil,  that  prince  raised  the  colony  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom ;  while 
the  ports  were  thrown  open  to  all  nations,  and  other  efforts  made  to  im¬ 
prove  the  condition  of  the  country.  It  soon  became  evident  that  a  terri¬ 
tory  larger  in  extent  than  Russia  in  Europe,  and  far  more  richly  endowed 
by  nature,  could  not  long  remain  in  dependence  on  so  feeble  a  power  as 
Portugal,  after  the  departure  of  the  sovereign.  John  had  left  behind 
him  his  eldest  son,  Don  Pedro,  to  administer  affairs  in  the  quality  of 
regent,  having  shortly  before  his  retirement  agreed  to  a  constitution 
similar  to  that  established  in  the  mother  country.  But  the  cortes  having 
signified  an  intention  to  recur  to  the  old  system  of  monopolizing  the 
Brazilian  trade,  the  colonists  took  the  alarm ;  and  on  the  12th  October 
1822,  they  adopted  the  decisive  step  of  a  declaration  of  independence, 
while  the  prince-regent,  who  had  the  sagacity  to  yield  to  the  course  of 
events,  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  emperor.  He  succeeded  without 
difficulty  in  compelling  the  Portuguese  troops  to  embark  for  Europe; 
and  this  important  revolution  was  accomplished  with  no  other  blood¬ 
shed  than  a  slight  skirmish  at  the  town  of  Bahia.  By  a  constitution 
finally  agreed  to  in  1824,  Brazil  was  declared  an  hereditary  monarchy, 
with  two  legislative  bodies,  a  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies,  the  one 
appointed  by  the  emperor,  the  other  chosen  by  the  people.  The  Roman 
Catholic  faith  was  established  as  the  religion  of  the  state;  but  all  other 
Christian  sects  are  tolerated. 

SPANISH  COLONIES. 

From  the  period  of  their  first  settlement  till  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  colonists  of  Spain  remained  in  a  state  of  quiet  submission 
to  the  government  of  Madrid,  which  was  carried  to  a  pitch  of  despotism 
almost  beyond  belief.  From  the  viceroys  to  the  lowest  clerks,  every 
official  situation  was  filled  with  persons  sent  from  Europe,  by  whom 
justice  was  unblushingly  bought  and  sold,  wffiile,  in  other  respects,  the 
utmost  venalty  everywhere  prevailed.  Commerce  of  all  kinds  was 
made  a  complete  monopoly  for  the  benefit  of  the  home  country,  which 
compelled  the  colonists  to  take  its  commodities  in  exchange  for  bullion ; 
and,  in  order  to  put  an  effectual  stop  to  all  improvement,  intercourse  of 
every  kind  with  other  nations  was  strictly  prohibited.  After  the  sup¬ 
pression  of  the  Jesuits,  the  ranks  of  the  priesthood  were  recruited  by 
monks  of  the  lowest  description  from  the  Spanish  monasteries,  who,  by 
maintaining  superstition  and  ignorance,  formed  the  strongest  props  of  the 
degrading  policy  adopted  by  the  ruling  faction.  As  a  matter  of  course, 
printing  and  liberty  of  discussion  were  altogether  unknown. 

-  44 


518 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


But  notwithstanding  all  this  machinery  of  tyranny,  the  new  principles 
evolved  by  the  American  and  French  revolutions  began  to  gain  ground 
even  in  those  darkened  regions;  and,  so  early  as  1806,  Miranda,  a 
Mexican  officer  who  had  served  under  Dumouriez,  attempted  with  a 
small  force  to  create  an  insurrection  in  Caraccas.  This  effort,  which 
seems  -to  have  been  premature  and  ill-considered,  failed ;  but  the  dispo¬ 
sition  to  shake  off  the  tyranny  of  Spain  continued  to  increase  in  strength, 
till  at  length,  in  1810,  the  liberals  deposed  the  captain-general  and 
assembled  a  congress  to  organize  an  independent  government  for  the 
state  of  Venezuela.  This  conduct  was  soon  after  imitated  at  Bogota, 
the  capital  of  New  Grenada.  In  the  contests  which  now  took  place 
with  the  European  troops,  the  most  frightful  atrocities  were  committed 
on  both  sides  ;  but  the  eminent  abilities  of  Simon  Bolivar,  who  com¬ 
manded  the  liberating  armies,  eventually  achieved  the  task  of  inde¬ 
pendence.  Buenos  Ayres  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1816;  and  in 
1818  its  example  was  followed  by  the  patriots  of  Chili.  Mexico,  Peru, 
and  Guatemala  were  not  declared  independent  till  1821.  At  length,  in 
December  1824,  the  united  forces  of  the  patriots,  under  Generals  Sucre 
and  Miller,  totally  routed  the  Spaniards  in  the  great  battle  of  Ayacucho, 
and  placed  the  freedom  of  the  colonies  beyond  further  opposition  from 
that  quarter. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  tranquillity  is  even  yet  far  from  being 
established  in  these  new  republics.  Throughout  the  contest,  the  diffi¬ 
culties  of  the  leading  chiefs  were  greatly  increased  by  disunion  and 
want  of  confidence,  the  great  Bolivar  himself  being  frequently  exposed 
to  the  most  injurious  suspicions  ;  and  since  that  time,  they  have  shown 
themselves  signally  deficient  in  that  political  talent  and  moral  worth 
which  are  so  necessary  to  secure  the  prosperity  of  states  under  every 
form  of  government. 

LITERATURE,  ARTS,  AND  SCIENCES. 

Britain. — The  most  striking  feature  in  the  literature  of  England  during  the 
early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  the  splendid  array  ot  poetical  genius 
which  it  displays.  The  severe  but  truthful  delineations  of  Crabbe,  1832 ;  the 
glowing  fancy  of  Shelley,  1822  ;  the  gorgeous  chivalric  legends  of  Scott,  1832 ; 
the  lofty  but  misanthropic  muse  of  Byron,  1824;  together  with  the  contribu¬ 
tions  of  other  great  writers,  some  of  whom  are  still  living,  as  Moore,  Camp¬ 
bell,  Southey,  and  Wordsworth,  present  a  combination  unparalleled  in  any 
former  age.  An  entirely  new  character  was  imparted  to  the  romance  and  the 
novel  by  the  genius  of  Scott,  who  produced  a  succession  of  works  in  this 
department,  wonderful  alike  for  their  masterly  sketches  of  character  and  for 
the  extraordinary  facility  with  which  they  were  composed.  Senatorial  oratory 
may  also  be  mentioned  here  as  a  new  department  of  English  literature  ;  and  in 
the  preserved  speeches  of  Burke,  Fox,  Pitt,  Sheridan,  Erskine,  Grattan,  and 
others,  may  be  seen  the  revival  in  modern  times  of  the  glories  of  classic  elo¬ 
quence.  Stewart,  1828,  and  Brown,  1820,  though  perhaps  contributing  little 
to  the  researches  of  former  writers,  threw  over  the  department  of  metaphysics 
the  refinements  of  literary  taste  and  elegant  composition  ;  Ricardo,  1823,  and 
Malthus,  1834,  have  contributed  valuable  assistance  to  the  science  of  political 
economy  ;  Playfair,  1819,  and  Leslie,  1832,  were  distinguished  in  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy.  To  no  other  philosopher  does  the  science 
of  chemistry  owe  such  deep  and  manifold  obligations  as  to  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
1829  :  Wollaston,  1828,  was  also  celebrated  in  the  same  pursuit.  Natural  his¬ 
tory,  which  was  extensively  prosecuted  at  this  period,  presents  the  distinguished 
name  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  1820  ;  medicine  was  cultivated  by  Gregory,  1821 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D. 


519 


and  by  many  eminent  coadjutors,  among  whom  the  highest  place  must  be 
assigned  to  Jenner,  1823,  w'hose  great  discovery  of  vaccination  has  conferred 
the  highest  practical  benefits  upon  mankind.  The  interesting  astronomical  dis¬ 
coveries  of  Herschel,  1822,  belong  also  to  this  period.  The  most  liberal  pa¬ 
tronage  was  given  by  all  classes  to  the  cultivators  of  the  fine  arts,  who  increased 
beyond  enumeration ;  among  the  most  eminent  may  be  mentioned  the  well- 
known  names  of  Lawrence,  1830,  Wilkie,  1841,  and  the  eminent  sculptor, 
Chantrey,  1841. 

France.  —  The  stormy  period  of  the  Revolution  undoubtedly  tended  even¬ 
tually  to  give  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  literature  of  France,  which,  since  the 
Restoration,  has  produced  a  vast  number  of  eminent  authors ;  but,  during  the 
period  here  more  particularly  embraced,  its  effect  was  unfavourable,  little  else 
besides  journals  and  political  pamphlets  being  in  demand.  Among  the  literary 
characters  who  lived  within  the  limits  of  this  era,  may  be  mentioned  Denlle, 

1813,  whose  poetry,  however,  belongs  to  the  old  monarchy;  and  St.  Pierre, 

1814,  author  of  the  well-known  Studies  of  Nature ,  and  several  elegant  and 
beautiful  tales.  In  the  latter  department  may  also  be  mentioned  the  names  of 
Madame  Cottin,  1807,  and  Madame  de  Genlis,  1830.  Another  female  writer 
who  has  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  the  modern  literature  of  France,  is 
Madame  de  Stael,  1817,  daughter  of  the  finance  minister  Necker,  distinguished 
both  in  history  and  fiction.  The  travellers  Volney,  1820,  and  Denon,  1825, 
deserve  to  be  recorded,  the  latter  especially  in  connexion  with  the  splendid 
work  on  the  antiquities  of  Egypt,  compiled  after  the  return  of  the  French  expe¬ 
dition  to  that  country.  In  mathematics  appears  the  illustrious  La  Place,  1827  ; 
Cuvier,  1832,  possesses  a  European  reputation  for  his  researches  in  natural 
history,  particularly  for  many  splendid  discoveries  among  the  remains  of  those 
species  of  animals  now  extinct;  and  Jussieu,  1836,  by  his  natural  system  of 
botany,  ranks  among  the  most  distinguished  prosecutors  of  that  science. 

Germany. — The  extraordinary  development  of  intellectual  power  manifested 
in  Germany  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  continued  to  increase 
in  the  nineteenth  ;  and  at  this  moment  the  literature  of  that  country  presents  a 
spectacle  of  mental  energy,  activity,  and  genius,  unequalled  in  any  other 
quarter  of  the  world.  In  metaphysical  research,  a  study  in  which  the  Ger¬ 
mans  are  pre-eminently  distinguished,  the  short  period  here  embraced  presents 
the  illustrious  names  of  Fichte,  1819,  Schelling,  and  Hegel,  1831,  who  have 
conferred  the  highest  reputation  on  their  country.  The  researches  of  Dr.  Gall, 
1828,  have  excited  great  interest  throughout  Europe,  as  laying  the  foundations 
of  what  is  believed  to  be  a  new  mental  science  —  phrenology.  In  dramatic 
literature  the  number  of  aspirants  almost  exceeds  belief;  and  translations 
besides  exist  of  every  eminent  foreign  author,  Shakspeare  and  Calderon  being 
perhaps  more  extensively  read  and  admired  in  Germany  than  even  in  their  own 
countries.  In  other  departments  of  poetry  and  imaginative  writing  are  found 
the  names  of  Korner,  1813  ;  Chamisso,  Heine,  Schenkendorf,  1817,  Tieck, 
and  Uland.  Richter,  1825,  is  celebrated  as  a  humorous  and  original  novelist ; 
F.  Schlegel,  1829,  was  successful  alike  in  the  novel,  poetry,  and  history.  In 
this  last  branch  the  scholars  of  Germany  have  produced  many  great  standard 
works:  Herder,  1803,  Von  Muller,  1809,  were  distinguished  towards  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  Heeren  and  Eichhorn  have  written  eminent  works 
both  on  ancient  and  literary  history  ;  Niebuhr,  1831,  is  admired  for  his  History 
of  Rome.  Heyne,  1812,  and  Wolff,  may  be  mentioned  among  a  host  of  cele¬ 
brated  critics.  The  distinguished  traveller,  Humboldt,  whose  numerous  works 
have  been  translated  into  various  European  languages,  is  also  a  native  of  Ger¬ 
many.  In  theology  this  country  has  produced  an  extraordinary  number  of  able 
writers,  wflio  have  brought  to  their  peculiar  subject  an  immense  amount  of 
learning  and  critical  acumen.  Olbers,  the  well-known  discoverer  of  the 
asteroids,  and  Blumenbach,  1840,  are  conspicuous  among  a  vast  array  of  emi¬ 
nent  scientific  characters. 

The  other  European  communities,  though  possessed  of  many  respectable 
writers,  offer  nothing  during  this  period  to  be  put  in  competition  with  the  litera¬ 
ture  of  the  three  great  dominant  languages  just  alluded  to.  The  United  States 


520 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


are  yet  too  young  as  a  nation  to  possess  a  distinct  position  in  this  respect,  apart 
from  that  of  England,  though  the  histories  of  Bancroft  and  Prescott,  with  the 
lighter  works  of  Irving  and  Cooper,  are  creditable  to  transatlantic  talent. 
Italy  can  boast  of  Denina,  author  of  a  history  of  Italian  Revolutions;  Foscolo, 
eminent  in  poetry  and  the  drama;  and  the  great  sculptor,  Canova,  1822. 
Danish  literature  presents  the  name  of  Rask,  a  man  of  astonishing  philological 
acquirements;  and  Malte-Brun,  1826,  well  known  throughout  Europe  for  his 
work  on  geography  :  the  celebrated  scidptor,  Thorvaldsen,  also  belongs  to  this 
country,  the  capital  of  which  he  has  decorated  with  many  fine  specimens  of 
his  genius. 


CONCLUSION. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTEMPORARY  HISTORY  SINCE  THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA. 

The  important  arrangements  effected  by  the  representatives  of  the 
European  powers  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  as  well  as  the  sufferings 
and  exhaustion  consequent  on  twenty-five  years  of  bloodshed,  laid  the 
foundations  of  a  lasting  peace ;  and  the  era  thus  signalized  affords  a 
fixed  and  definite  point,  at  which  the  record  of  modern  history  may  be 
appropriately  closed.  Still,  it  may  not  be  improper,  by  way  of  conclu¬ 
sion,  to  take  a  rapid  glance  at  subsequent  events,  many  of  which  spring 
from  that  awakening  of  the  democratic  principle,  of  which  the  revolt  of 
the  British  North  American  colonies  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  strik¬ 
ing  indication,  but  which  neither  the  fearful  scenes  of  the  French  Revo¬ 
lution,  nor  the  sanguinary  contests  of  the  Republic  and  the  Empire, 
have  been  able  to  allay.  This  spirit,  indeed,  in  whatever  light  it  may 
be  regarded,  is  now  the  most  active  political  element  in  civilized  society, 
and  its  progressive  development  in  different  states,  constitutes  the  main 
fact,  as  well  as  the  chief  interest  of  contemporary  history.  At  no  former 
period  of  the  world  have  the  principles  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  been 
more  widely  diffused,  or  their  blessings  more  generally  enjoyed;  and 
there  seems  good  reason  to  hope,  that,  guided  by  the  lessons  of  experi¬ 
ence,  a  career  of  improvement,  peaceful  and  gradual,  will  effectually 
check  those  fiery  ebullitions  which  have  hitherto  agitated  and  terrified 
mankind. 

The  reio-n  of  Louis  XVIII.,  after  his  restoration  to  the  throne  of 
France,  in  1815,  presents  no  domestic  event  of  importance,  though  tran¬ 
quillity  continued  from  time  to  time  to  be  disturbed  by  growing  disputes 
between  the  royalist  and  liberal  parties,  to  the  former  of  whom  the  court 
showed  an  obvious  partiality.*  In  1824,  Louis  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  the  Count  d’Artois,  as  Charles  X. ;  but  this  monarch,  who  was 
decidedly  inferior  in  ability  to  his  predecessor,  from  the  first  identified 
himself  with  the  legitimists,  and  in  1829  placed  the  administration  of 
affairs  in  the  hands  of  Prince  Polignac,  an  extremely  unpopular  per¬ 
sonage.  On  the  26th  July  1830,  this  minister,  with  singular  infatuation, 
induced  his  majesty  to  issue  six  ordinances,  by  which  the  liberty  of  the 
press  was  abolished,  and  the  constitution  of  the  chamber  of  deputies 

*  in  1823,  Louis,  in  concert  with  the  allied  sovereigns  assembled  at  Verona,  sent  an 
army  into  Spain,  under  his  nephew  the  Duke  of  Angouleme,  to  aid  Ferdinand  in  quell¬ 
ing  the  political  discontents  of  that  country. 


CONCLUSION. 


521 


entirely  remodelled.  These  measures  being  a  palpable  subversion  of 
the  character  which  the  king  had  sworn  to  maintain,  were  not  long  in 
producing  results  that  might  easily  have  been  foreseen.  The  people  of 
Paris  immediately  rose  in  insurrection;  and  after  a  three  days’  contest 
in  the  streets,  during  which  they  were  joined  by  several  regiments  of 
the  line,  the  royal  forces  were  compelled  to  evacuate  the  city.  A  pro¬ 
visional  government  having  been  formed,  and  the  national  guard  placed 
under  the  command  of  the  veteran  La  Fayette,  the  deputies  invited  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  government,  by  the 
title  of  Lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom.  On  the  2d  of  August, 
Charles  was  compelled  to  sign  an  act  of  abdication,  and  shortly  after 
departed  for  England ;  while,  on  the  9th,  the  chambers,  after  a  thorough 
revision  of  the  charter,  bestowed  the  vacant  throne  on  the  duke,  by  the 
title  of  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French,  declaring  the  succession 
hereditary  in  the  direct  male  line.  Ever  since,  the  new  sovereign  has 
conducted  the  affairs  of  government  with  great  firmness  and  ability.* 

The  second  revolution,  thus  suddenly  effected  in  France,  produced  a 
powerful  sensation  throughout  Europe.  The  Belgians,  who  had  never 
assimilated  with  the  Dutch,  judged  the  period  favourable  for  dissolving 
the  union  between  the  two  countries.  In  the  month  of  August,  the 
populace  of  Brussels  rose  against  the  royal  troops,  who  were  compelled 
to  retire  to  Antwerp,  wrhere  they  were  subsequently  besieged  by  a  French 
army,  and  forced  to  capitulate.  Meantime,  Belgium  was  declared  an 
independent  kingdom,  and  so  recognised  by  all  the  great  European 
powers.  On  the  21st  July  1831,  the  crown  was  conferred  on  Prince 
Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg. 

The  patriotic  party  in  Poland,  also,  w’ere  encouraged  to  attempt  the 
reassertion  of  their  national  independence.  On  the  29th  November  1830, 
an  insurrection  took  place  at  Warsaw,  headed  by  the  pupils  of  the  mili¬ 
tary  school.  Being  joined  by  the  army,  their  efforts  were  at  first  suc¬ 
cessful  :  a  provisional  government  was  formed ;  the  army  placed  under 
the  command  of  Chlopiki,  a  veteran  general ;  and  the  Grand  Duke 
Constantine,  brother  to  the  Russian  emperor,  compelled  to  resign  his 
authority.  But  immense  bodies  of  Russian  troops  were  speedily  poured 
into  the  country ;  and  though  the  Poles,  who  were  subsequently  headed 
by  Prince  Adam  Czartoriski,  behaved  with  great  gallantry,  they  were 
at  length  overwhelmed  by  superior  numbers,  their  capital  being  entered 
by  the  enemy,  8th  September.  The  most  severe  measures  were  now 
taken  by  the  victors  for  extinguishing  the  national  spirit,  w'hile  numbers 
of  the  insurgents  w^ere  sent  to  Siberia,  or  retired  into  voluntary  exile. 

In  Britain,  during  the  first  years  of  George  IV.,  fewT  events  of  national 
importance  occurred.  The  year  1824  was  signalized  as  a  period  of 
extraordinary  speculation  among  the  mercantile  community,  and  was 
followed  in  1825-1826  by  an  equally  great  amount  of  bankruptcy  and 
depression.  At  the  same  time,  the  public  mind  was  violently  agitated 
by  the  question  of  Catholic  emancipation;  and  at  length,  in  1829,  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  being  at  the  head  of  the  administration,  a  bill  was 
carried  through  both  Houses  under  his  auspices,  by  which  Romanists 


*  In  May  1830,  the  Polignac  ministry  sent  a  formidable  armament  against  Algiers, 
which  was  taken  possession  of  and  declared  a  Colony  of  France.  Much  fighting  has 
Since  occurred  between  the  French  troops  and  the  natives  of  the  country,  who  are  yet 
far  from  being  subdued. 

44* 


522 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


were  declared  eligible  to  seats  in  Parliament,  and  to  other  civil  and 
political  offices  from  which  they  had  hitherto  been  excluded. 

George  IV.  was  succeeded  in  1830  by  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Cla¬ 
rence,  as  William  IV.,  the  Duke  of  Wellino-ton  beino*  continued  as 
prime-minister.  But  the  desire  for  parliamentary  reform,  long  cherished 
by  the  liberal  party,  had  nowr  become  so  powerful  with  the  nation,  that 
the  elections  to  the  new  House  of  Commons  were  eminently  unfavour¬ 
able  to  a  Conservative  cabinet,  and  another  administration  was  accord¬ 
ingly  organized  under  Earl  Grey.  Notwithstanding  the  most  strenuous 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Tories,  this  statesman,  supported  by  the 
general  voice  of  the  nation,  at  length  succeeded,  in  1832,  in  carrying 
through  Parliament  the  celebrated  Reform  Bill,  by  which  the  electoral 
franchise  was  placed  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  middle  classes,  whose 
general  influence  has  since  been  greatly  augmented  by  reforms  of  the 
municipal  corporations  in  the  three  kingdoms.  In  the  following  year, 
an  act  was  passed  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  colonies,  twenty 
millions  sterling  being  given  to  the  planters  as  an  indemnification  for 
the  loss  of  property  thereby  occasioned.  In  1837,  King  William  was 
succeeded  by  her  present  majesty,  Queen  Victoria,  who,  in  1840,  mar¬ 
ried  her  first  cousin,  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  The  year 
of  her  majesty’s  accession  was  disturbed  by  a  rebellion  in  Canada, 
which  was  speedily  suppressed ;  but  the  chief  grievances  complained 
of  have  since  been  removed.* 

The  Peninsular  kingdoms,  during  the  whole  period  since  1814,  have 
presented  a  scene  of  great  disorder.  In  1820,  an  insurrection  of  the  sol¬ 
diery  compelled  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain  to  abandon  his  absolute  prin¬ 
ciples  and  adopt  the  constitution  of  1812;  but  the  monarchical  party, 
aided  by  the  monks,  contrived  so  to  foment  disorder,  as  to  afford  a  pre¬ 
text  for  the  French  invasion  in  1823.  The  patriots  made  a  stout  resist¬ 
ance,  but  were  eventually  compelled  to  yield ;  and  the  appearance  of 
tranquillity  was  for  some  time  restored.  A  still  more  sanguinary  strug¬ 
gle  arose  on  the  death  of  the  king,  who,  having  no  male  heirs,  had  abro¬ 
gated  the  salic  law  in  favour  of  his  infant  daughter  Isabella,  thereby 
depriving  his  brother  Don  Carlos  of  the  succession.  The  Queen-mother 
Christina  had  also  been  appointed  regent;  while  the  disappointed  prince, 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  party,  prepared  to  maintain  his  pretensions  by 
force  of  arms.  A  dreadful  civil  war  was  the  consequence,  during  which 
the  prisoners  taken  on  both  sides  were  frequently  massacred  in  cold 
blood ;  while  the  queen-regent,  wTho  found  her  chief  support  in  the  libe¬ 
ral  party,  after  adopting  various  popular  measures,  finally  embraced  the 
constitution  of  1812.  Her  majesty  received  assistance,  indirectly  at 
least,  both  from  France  and  England  ;  the  contest  continued  to  be  wrnged 
with  various  success  till  1839,  when  the  cause  of  Don  Carlos  began  tc 
lose  ground;  and  finally,  in  1840,  a  general  pacification  was  effected. 
In  the  same  year  the  regent  resigned  her  authority,  and  the  cortes  con¬ 
ferred  that  dignity  on  General  Espartero,  j  duke  of  Vittoria,  who,  how- 

*  During  the  disturbances  in  Canada,  the  stream  of  emigration,  which  had  hitherto 
flowed  into  that  country,  was  directed  towards  the  islands  of  Eastern  Asia.  The  pro¬ 
gress  made  in  the  colonization  of  Australia,  Van  Diemen’s  Land,  and  New  Zealand,  has 
been  rapid  beyond  all  precedent ;  and  these  distant  but  valuable  dependencies  now  form 
a  most  important  field  for  the  unemployed  capital  and  population  of  the  mother-country. 

f  General  Espartero  was  a  man  of  humble  origin,  who  owed  his  elevation  mainly  to  his 


CONCLUSION. 


523 


ever,  retained  his  power  but  for  a  short  period,  being-  driven  into  exile 
in  1843,  and  the  government  reverting  once  more  into  that  condition  of 
disorder  and  uncertainty  which  has  for  so  many  years  marred  the  pros¬ 
perity  of  this  unhappy  country. 

The  adjoining  kingdom  of  Portugal  has  been  a  prey  to  nearly  similar 
commotions.  John  VI.  survived  his  return  to  Europe  nearly  six  years, 
during  which  the  country  was  distracted  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Infante 
Don  Miguel,  who,  at  the  head  of  what  was  called  the  apostolical  party, 
contrived,  though  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  father,  to  procure  the 
abrogation  of  the  constitution  adopted  in  1820.  On  the  death  of  his 
majesty  in  1826,  the  crown  fell  to  Don  Pedro,  emperor  of  Brazil,  who, 
however,  resigned  his  right  in  favour  of  his  infant  daughter,  Donna 
Maria,  at  the  same  time  granting  a  liberal  constitution  to  the  country, 
and  appointing  Don  Miguel  regent.  But  this  prince  was  no  sooner 
installed  in  his  new  dignity  than  he  began  openly  to  aspire  to  the  throne  ; 
and  having  assembled  the  cortes  in  1829,  succeeded  in  getting  himself 
proclaimed  sovereign  of  Portugal.  Don  Pedro,  on  his  part,  prepared  to 
assert  the  rights  of  his  daughter;  and,  having  repaired  to  Europe,  vigor¬ 
ous  preparations  were  made  to  dethrone  the  usurper,  in  which  he  was 
aided  by  Britain  and  France.  A  sanguinary  struggle  of  two  years  was 
waged  between  the  forces  of  the  royal  brothers,  till,  in  1834,  a  treaty 
was  signed  at  Lisbon  between  France,  Spain,  and  England,  for  the  ex¬ 
pulsion  of  the  younger  from  the  Portuguese  territories.  The  contest 
was  soon  after  terminated  by  the  capitulation  of  Miguel  at  the  conven¬ 
tion  of  Evora,  by  which  he  gave  up  his  pretensions,  and  was  permitted 
to  leave  the  kingdom  unmolested.  The  young  queen  was  now  firmly 
seated  on  the  throne,  her  father  being  appointed  regent;  but  the  state  of 
his  health  having  shortly  after  induced  him  to  resign  that  office,  the 
cortes  declared  Donna  Maria  of  age,  wTho,  having  taken  the  oath  to  the 
charter,  assumed  the  exercise  of  the  royal  authority.  The  country  has 
since  that  time  been  comparatively  tranquil. 

The  revolution  in  Greece  forms  another  interesting  episode  in  con¬ 
temporary  history.  When  the  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  Morea  and 
Archipelago  in  1820,  the  cause  of  the  Greeks  wTas  enthusiastically  advo¬ 
cated  throughout  Europe,  and  particularly  in  England,  where  the  me¬ 
mory  of  their  ancient  renown,  as  well  as  classical  associations,  induced 
many  to  volunteer  in  their  cause.  A  barbarous  intestine  warfare  con¬ 
tinued  to  be  waged  about  six  years,  till  in  1827,  England,  France  and 
Russia  united  to  put  a  stop  to  its  horrors.  The  Porte,  however,  refused 
to  accede  to  negotiations,  and  additional  reinforcements  were  brought 
from  Egypt,  under  Ibrahim  Pacha,  for  the  final  reduction  of  the  insur¬ 
gents.  The  armament  of  this  chief,  which  consisted  of  ninety-two  sail, 
including  transports,  found  itself  intercepted  off  Navarino,  where  the 
Turkish  fleet  was  also  at  anchor,  by  a  combined  fleet  of  British,  Rus¬ 
sians,  and  French,  assembled  for  the  protection  of  the  Greeks.  An 
armistice  of  twenty  days  was  soon  after  agreed  on;  but  in  consequence 
of  an  accidental  collision,  a  fierce  engagement  ensued  between  the  op¬ 
posing  squadrons,  which  ended  in  the  entire  destruction  of  the  Ottoman 


own  exertions  during  the  civil  war.  In  1836  he  succeeded  Cordova  in  the  command  of 
the  Queen’s  armies,  after  which  time  his  power  and  influence  steadily  advanced  until 
he  was  temporarily  placed  at  the  head  of  the  government. 


524 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


armament.  The  sultan  now  declared  war  against  the  three  powers,  and 
a  sanguinary  contest  took  place  between  the  Turks  and  Russians,  the 
latter  of  whom  were  finally  successful.  After  a  long  series  of  internal 
disorders,  Greece  was  at  length  erected  into  an  independent  kingdom, 
and  its  crown  conferred  on  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria  in  1833.  In  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  lengthened  degradation  and  ignorance  of  the  people,  the 
country  cannot  yet  be  said  to  be  in  a  prosperous  condition;  but  there  is 
reason  to  hope  that  a  continuance  of  peace  and  regular  government  will 
yet  develop  its  great  internal  resources.  As  for  the  Turkish  empire 
itself,  it  is  only  prevented  from  falling  to  pieces  by  the  mutual  jealousies 
of  the  great  European  cabinets.  The  province  of  Egypt  alone,  under 
the  able  government  of  Mehemet  Ali,  seems  to  be  advancing  in  civilisa¬ 
tion;  and  though  that  prince  has  recently  been  compelled  by  the  Chris¬ 
tian  powers  to  abandon  his  pretensions  to  supreme  sovereignty,  and  to 
acknowledge  a  nominal  subjection  to  the  Porte,  the  pashalic  has  been 
declared  hereditary  in  his  family,  and  he  still  retains  all  the  weight  of 
an  absolute  ruler. 

The  states  of  Germany,  since  1815,  have  continued  to  advance  steadily 
in  the  career  of  prosperity.  In  1833,  an  important  commercial  league, 
called  the  Zollverein,  under  the  auspices  of  Prussia,  was  entered  into 
by  most  of  the  governments,  by  which  internal  trade  was  freed  from  all 
restrictions,  and  a  uniform  system  of  duties  agreed  on.  This  union, 
though  entirely  commercial  in  its  character,  owes  its  origin  in  some 
measure  to  a  general  desire  for  nationalization,  and  cannot  fail  to  exer¬ 
cise  a  material  influence  on  the  future  destinies  of  the  country.  Prussia, 
in  particular,  under  the  wise  and  paternal  rule  of  Frederick- William  IV., 
has  made  a  surprising  progress  in  wealth  and  intelligence ;  while  the 
recent  grant  of  a  representative  legislature  (1842),  though  under  great 
restrictions,  ranks  her  among  the  number  of  constitutional  monarchies. 

Events  of  considerable  interest  have  also  taken  place  in  the  East.  In 
India,  in  1824,  during  the  presidency  of  Lord  Amherst,  a  war  broke  out 
with  the  Burmese,  who  had  for  many  years  annoyed  the  eastern  frontier 
of  the  British  territories.  An  expedition  was  sent  to  Rangoon,  which  in 
the  second  campaign  advanced  nearly  to  Ava,  the  capital,  and  the  Bur- 
man  government  were  glad  to  purchase  peace  in  1826  by  the  cession  of 
Assam,  Aracan,  and  the  Tenasserim  provinces.  In  1840,  the  necessity 
of  securing  the  western  frontier  from  encroachment  involved  the  Indian 
government  in  a  dangerous  contest  with  the  rude  tribes  of  Afghanistan, 
which  has,  however,  been  happily  brought  to  a  termination. 

The  opening  of  the  China  trade  to  all  British  subjects,  by  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  the  East  India  Company’s  monopoly  in  1833,  gave  rise  to  a 
series  of  disputes  with  the  native  rulers,  which  at  length  led  to  open 
hostilities.  These  disputes,  relating  at  first  mainly  to  the  legal  rights 
and  immunities  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  commercial  superintendents  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  British  cabinet,  came  eventually  to  be  merged  in  the 
greater  question  touching  the  traffic  in  opium,  which  had  all  along  been 
in  some  measure  declared  contraband  by  the  Imperial  government.  It 
was  not,  however,  peremptorily  prohibited  till  1836;  and  even  after¬ 
wards,  through  the  connivance  of  the  inferior  authorities,  an  active 
smuggling  trade  continued  to  be  carried  on  till  1839,  when  the  Imperial 
Commissioner  Lin,  determined  on  its  forcible  suppression,  seized  the 


CONCLUSION. 


525 


persons  of  the  British  merchants  at  Canton,  and  of  Captain  Elliot,  the 
superintendent.  That  functionary  was  then  compelled,  by  threats  of 
personal  violence  to  himself  and  fellow-prisoners,  to  issue  an  order  for 
the  surrender  of  all  the  opium  on  board  the  vessels  in  the  vicinity  of 
Canton,  which,  to  the  value  of  above  ^£2,000,000  sterling,  vras  accord- 
ingly  given  up  to  the  Chinese,  who  destroyed  it, — the  captain  at  the 
same  time  pledging  the  faith  of  the  English  government  for  compensa¬ 
tion  to  the  merchants.  After  various  fruitless  attempts  to  obtain  satis¬ 
faction  for  this  outrage,  or  even  an  accommodation  by  which  the  regular 
trade  might  be  resumed,  the  cabinet  of  London  resolved  on  hostilities. 
These,  which  have  since  been  vigorously  prosecuted,  have  given  the 
Chinese  a  salutary  lesson  as  to  their  inferiority  to  Europeans  in  military 
science  and  discipline;  and  they  have  ended  in  a  peace,  signed  August 
29,  1842,  by  which  the  emperor  agrees  to  pay  twenty-one  million  dollars 
by  way  of  compensation,  to  open  five  of  his  principal  ports  to  foreign 
commerce,  and  to  surrender  the  island  of  Hong-Kong  to  the  British 
crown  for  ever. 


THE  END 


T?r  i  v. 


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QUESTIONS 

TO 


WHITE’S  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY, 

/ 

BY 


JOHN  S.  HART,  A.M., 

Principal  of  the  Philadelphia  High  School,  and  Profesaa* 
of  Moral  and  Mental  Science,  Member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  &c. 


PHILADELPHIA  . 

W.  A.  LEAKY  &  CO. 

No.  138  NORTH  SECOND  STREET. 

1850.  , 


' 


#7Tiflfe 


■ 


* 

' 

- 

QUESTIONS 


TO 

WHITE’S  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Into  what  three  portions  is  Universal  History  divided?  What  are  the 
dates  and  events  that  mark  these  three  periods  ?  How  may  Ancient  History 
be  subdivided  ?  What  are  the  dates  and  events  that  mark  these  four  pe¬ 
riods  ?  Give  similar  answers  in  regard  to  the  subdivisions  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  Modern  History. 

FORTY-FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  13.) 

What  are  the  leading  events  of  this  century  as  described  by  Moses  ? 
What  account  of  creation  is  given  by  geologists  ? 

THIRTY-NINTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  14.) 

Give  the  history  of  Cain  and  Abel.  Describe  the  descendants  of  Cain 
and  Seth.  What  progress  in  the  arts  during  this  century  ? 

THIRTY-FOURTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  14.) 

What  was  the  great  event  of  this  century?  Describe  the  Deluge.  What 
was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  consequences  of  the  Deluge  ?  Describe 
the  progress  of  mankind  after  the  Deluge. 

TWENTY-THIRD  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  15.) 

How  was  the  world  divided  among  the  descendants  of  Noah  ?  Give  an 
account  of  the  origin  of  Babylon.  What  do  we  learn  from  Scripture  respect¬ 
ing  the  Abyssinian  empire.  What  was  the  probable  origin  of  the  Chinese  ? 
What  nations  have  sprung  from  Japhet?  What  from  Shem?  What  from 
Ham  ?  What  were  the  three  primitive  languages,  and  what  have  sprung 
from  each  ? 

TWENTY-SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  17.) 

What  is  the  character  of  early  Egyptian  history  ?  Give  the  substance 
of  what  is  known  in  regard  to  the  first  settlement  of  Egypt.  Wi*h  whom 
does  Egyptian  history  properly  begin  ?  What  have  been  the  conjectures  in 
regard  to  Menes  ?  What  is  the  account  of  him  given  by  Herodotus  ?  What 
was  the  leading  doctrine  of  the  Egyptian  religion?  What  were  its  leading 
deities?  What  are  some  of  its  extravagancies?  What  traits  of  Egyptian 
superstition  are  found  in  subsequent  Jewish  history  ?  Give  some  account 
of  the  government  of  Ancient  Egypt.  What  proofs  remain  of  the  progress 
of  the  Egyptians  ?  What  is  said  of  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  ? 


4 


QUESTIONS  TO 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  19.) 

When  was  Abraham  born,  and  why  did  he  leave  his  native  country  ?  In 
what  military  expedition  was  he  engaged  after  settling  in  Palestine  ?  What 
great  catastrophe  did  he  afterwards  endeavour  to  prevent  ?  Give  an  account 
of  Ishmael  and  his  descendants.  What  striking  evidence  of  piety  did  Abra¬ 
ham  afterwards  give  ?  When  and  at  what  age  did  he  die  ?  Give  his  cha¬ 
racter  ? 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  20.) 

What  kingdom  was  founded  in  this  century  ?  What  great  event  of  Egyp¬ 
tian  history  is  supposed  to  have  happened  in  this  century ,?  Give  some 
account  of  the  invasion  of  the  Shepherd  Kings.  What  are  some  of  the  con¬ 
tradictory  statements  in  regard  to  these  events  ? 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  21.) 

Give  the  character  and  history  of  Isaac.  Give  the  history  of  Jacob  and 
Esau.  How  were  the  possessions  of  Isaac  divided  between  them  ?  What 
were  the  circumstances  that  brought  the  Israelites  at  this  time  into  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  Egyptians  ?  What  are  some  of  the  measures  of  Joseph  while 
governor  of  Egypt?  Why  was  Goshen  selected  for  the  residence  of  the 
Israelites  ?  What  was  the  condition  of  Egypt  at  this  time  ?  What  other 
nation  besides  the  Hebrews  had  their  refugees  in  Egypt  during  this  cen¬ 
tury?  What  elements  of  science  and  art  did  both  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks 
derive  from  the  Egyptians  ? 

SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  22.) 

Give  the  conclusion  of  Jacob’s  and  Joseph’s  history.  What  change  in 
their  mode  of  living  was  effected  by  their  residence  in  Egypt  ?  What  two 
branches  of  the  Pelasgic  race  first  settled  Greece?  What  is  the  origin 
of  the  Ionian s  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Hellenes  ?  What  barbarous  tribes 
occasionally  mingled  with  these  ?  What  was  the  character  of  the  Scythians  ? 
What  remains  of  Pelasgian  architecture  exist,  and  what  is  its  character  ? 
What  foreign  influences  gave  the  first  impulse  towards  civilizing  the  Pe- 
lasgians  ?  What  became  of  the  Pelasgians,  or  primitive  Greeks,  after  the 
settlement  of  the  Egyptians  under  Cecrops  and  Inachus  ?  What  other  colo¬ 
nies  reached  Greece  during  this  century,  and  what  was  their  character  ? 

SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  23.) 

What  happened  to  the  Israelites  after  the  death  of  Joseph?  Give  the 
history  of  Moses  to  the  time  of  his  divine  appointment  as  leader  of  the 
Israelites  ?  What  distinguished  patriarch  flourished  in  Idumea  about  the 
time  of  Moses?  Give  some  account  of  Job.  What  are  some  of  the  con¬ 
jectures  as  to  the  time  that  he  lived  ?  What  cities  of  Greece  were  founded 
about  this  time  ?  What  circumstances  in  Egypt  added  new  colonies  to 
Greece  ?  Describe  two  remarkable  inundations  or  floods  that  occurred  in 
Greece  at  this  age.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Amphyctionic  O  uncil 
established  ?  Give  some  account  of  this  famous  Council.  What  was  the 
most  celebrated  exertion  of  its  authority  ? 

FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  25.) 

How  was  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  accomplished  ? 
What  signa1  deliverance  did  they  experience  just  after  leaving  Egypt? 


white’s  universal  history. 


5 


What  was  the  number  of  Israelites  at  this  time  ?  Describe  the  events  of  the 
first  three  months  after  their  march.  What  happened  at  Mount  Sinai? 
Why  did  they  not  proceed  at  once  to  Palestine  ?  What  was  the  penalty  of 
this  disobedience?  Wh  it  were  the  circumstances  of  the  death  of  Moses? 
Ho  w  was  Moses  esteemed  by  the  ancients  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Pentateuch, 
and  the  institutions  of  Moses  ?  What  evidence  is  given  in  the  Pentateuch 
of  the  progress  of  the  arts  among  the  Hebrews  ?  Give  an  account  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Israelites  into  Canaan,  and  the  capture  of  Jericho  and  Ai. 
In  what  manner  did  Joshua  divide  the  land  of  Canaan  after  its  conquest  ? 
What  took  place  after  his  death  ?  What  are  the  leading  features  of  Jewish 
polity  and  religion,  as  unfolded  by  Moses  in  the  Pentateuch  ?  What  great 
Egyptian  hero  flourished  during  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  character  of  Sesostris.  Where  is 
Phoenicia,  and  what  was  its  oldest  city  ?  What  were  some  of  the  commercial 
enterprises  of  the  Sidonians  ?  What  progress  had  they  made  in  the  arts  ? 
What  was  the  great  city  of  Phoenicia  ?  What  religious  festival  of  the  Athe¬ 
nians  was  instituted  in  this  century  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  Areopagus. 
What  other  Grecian  city  was  founded  in  this  century  ?  What  great  event  in 
the  history  of  Grecian  literature  occurred  in  this  century  ?  What  great 
event  in  its  religious  history  ?  What  great  men  and  events  were  contempo¬ 
rary  with  the  introduction  of  the  letters  of  Cadmus  and  the  oracle  of  Delphi 
into  Greece  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  Greek  language  and  its  dialects. 

FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  29.) 

What  were  the  leading  features  of  the  Jewish  government  after  the  death 
of  Joshua  ?  What  is  the  character  of  their  history  for  the  next  three  or 
four  centuries  ?  What  signal  deliverance  at  the  hands  of  a  woman  during 
the  fourteenth  century  ?  What  beautiful  pastoral  narrative  belongs  to  this 
period  ?  Give  the  story  of  Ruth.  What  famous  lawgiver  flourished  soon 
after  the  death  of  Moses  ?  What  were  the  principal  features  of  the  legisla¬ 
tion  of  Minos  ?  In  what  respects  was  the  commonwealth  of  Crete  similar  to 
that  of  the  Hebrews  ?  Whence  the  similarity  between  the  legislation  of 
Minos  and  of  Moses  ?  What  celebrated  architect  about  half  a  century  later, 
and  what  extraordinary  work  did  he  execute  ? 

THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  30.) 

What  deliverance  did  the  Jews  experience  in  the  thirteenth  century  ? 
What  events  succeeded  the  death  of  Gideon  ?  What  are  the  circumstances 
relative  to  the  building  and  early  history  of  Corinth  ?  What  famous  expedi¬ 
tion  occurred  about  this  time  ?  What  were  the  circumstances  and  the  prin¬ 
cipal  adventurers  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  ?  What  two  Grecian  heroes 
were  contemporary  with  Gideon  and  the  Argonautic  expedition  ?  In  what 
relation  does  Theseus  stand  to  Athens  ?  What  were  the  leading  measures 
in  the  administration  of  Theseus  ? 

TWELFTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  31.) 

Give  the  story  of  Jephtha  and  his  daughter.  How  is  this  event  signalized 
m  Grecian  fable  ?  What  new  deliverer  appeared  to  the  Jews  soon  after  the 
death  of  Jephtha  ?  Give  the  story  of  Sampson.  What  fabulous  accounts  of 
other  nations  seem  based  upon  the  history  of  Sampson  ?  What  celebrated 
war  occurred  about  this  time  ?  What  has  given  so  much  celebrity  to  the 
Trojan  war?  What  was  the  origin  of  this  war?  What  was  its  result? 
What  was  the  subsequent  career  of  its  leaders  ?  What  was  its  general  influ 
ence  upon  Grecian  civilization  ? 

1  * 


6 


QUESTIONS  TO 


ELEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  33.) 

What  distinguished  personage  appeared  in  Judea  early  in  this  century  * 
In  what  relation  did  Samuel  stand  to  the  judges  and  the  prophets?  What 
change  of  government  took  place  in  Judea  under  the  administration  of  Sa¬ 
muel  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  conduct  and  exploits  of  Saul,  the  first  king 
of  Judea?  What  were  the  circumstances  attending  the  succession  of  David 
to  the  throne?  What  extensions  did  he  give  to  the  territories  of  Judea? 
What  were  some  of  his  domestic  difficulties  ?  What  general  change  took 
place  in  the  civil  and  religious  polity  of  the  Jews  under  the  administration 
of  David  ?  What  is  remarked  of  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Jews  at  this  period  ? 
Give  some  account  of  the  life  and  actions  of  Solomon.  What  is  remarked  of 
his  political  talent  and  performances  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  return  of 
the  Heraclidae  to  the  Peloponnesus.  What  act  of  heroic  patriotism  in  Athe¬ 
nian  history  about  this  time?  What  change  in  the  government  of  Athens 
occurred  upon  the  death  of  Codrus  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  origin  and 
progress  of  Grecian  colonization  in  this  century.  What  was  the  condition 
and  character  of  the  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  ?  Enumerate  the  leading  Gre¬ 
cian  colonies  in  the  world  at  the  close  of  this  century. 

TENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  37.) 

What  schism  in  the  government  of  Judea  on  the  death  of  Solomon  ?  What 
were  the  leading  events  in  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  from  the 
division  of  the  kingdom  to  the  end  of  the  tenth  century?  What  religious 
deterioration  did  the  kingdom  of  Israel  experience  after  its  separation  from 
Judah?  What  were  the  leading  events  in  the  kingdom  after  its  separation? 
What  two  great  poets  flourished  in  Greece  about  this  time?  Give  some 
account  of  the  life  and  writings  of  Homer.  Of  Hesiod.  What  are  the  lead¬ 
ing  features  of  the  Grecian  mythology,  as  found  in  the  writings  of  Homer 
and  Hesiod?  What  was  the  condition  of  Syria  at  this  time?  What  was 
the  career  of  Hadarezer  ?  Of  Rezon  ?  Of  Benhadad  I.  ?  Of  Hazael  ? 

NINTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  41.) 

What  signal  deliverance  did  the  kingdom  of  Judah  experience  during  the 
reign  of  Jehoshaphat  ?  What  particulars  are  related  of  his  successor  Jeho- 
ram?  What  loss  of  territory  was  experienced  in  the  reign  of  Jehoram? 
What  was  the  fate  of  his  successor  ?  What  circumstances  are  related  of 
Joash  ?  Of  Amaziah  ?  What  was  the  religious  condition  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  at  this  time?  What  was  the  career  of  Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel? 
Of  his  brother  Jehoram?  In  what  manner  was  the  siege  of  the  capital  of 
Moab  raised  ?  What  remarkable  deliverance  did  Jehoram  subsequently 
experience?  What  were  the  character  and  career  of  Jehu?  Of  Jehoahaz? 
Of  Jehoash  ?  Of  Jeroboam  II.  ?  What  distinguished  prophet  flourished  in 
this  century  ?  What  famous  Grecian  lawgiver  was  contemporary  with 
Elisha?  From  what  sources  did  Lycurgus  derive  many  of  the  principles  of 
his  legislation  ?  What  was  there  peculiar  in  the  mode  of  their  introduction  ? 
What  had  he  in  view  probably  in  some  of  the  leading  provisions  of  his  con¬ 
stitution  ?  What  were  the  provisions  of  his  constitution  in  regard  to  reli¬ 
gion  ?  Honours  to  the  dead  ?  Form  of  government  ?  Division  of  property? 
Money  ?  Mode  of  living  ?  Children  ?  Education  ?  Dress  ?  Military 
stratagems?  Literature?  What  was  the  great  defect  in  the  legislation  of 
Lycurgus  ?  How  was  the  population  divided  ?  How  were  the  powers  of  the 
state  distributed  ?  What  was  the  condition  of  some  of  the  social  virtues 
among  the  Dorian  race  ?  What  famous  queen  was  contemporary  with  Ly¬ 
curgus  and  Elisha  ?  Describe  the  origin  and  early  history  of  Carthage.  It* 


white’s  universal  history.  7 

civil  polity  ?  Its  religion  ?  Its  commerce  ?  What  empire  afterwards  famous 
traces  its  origin  to  this  century  ? 

EIGHTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  45.) 

Judea. — What  successful  enterprise  did  Azariah,  king  of  Israel,  undertake  ? 
What  was  his  end  ?  What  were  the  character  and  history  of  Jonathan  ?  Ahaz  ? 
What  danger  threatened  Judah  during  the  reign  of  Ahaz?  How  was  it 
averted  ?  What  was  the  subsequent  career  of  Ahaz  ?  What  religious  reforms 
were  effected  by  his  successor  Hezekiah  ?  What  did  the  kingdom  suffer 
from  foreign  oppression  during  his  reign  ?  What  unexpected  deliverance 
did  they  experience  ?  What  events  succeeded  the  destruction  of  Sennache¬ 
rib’s  army  ?  What  distinguished  prophet  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  ? 
What  was  the  general  condition  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  during  the  first 
part  of  this  century  ?  What  are  some  of  the  leading  events  of  its  history  * 
What  were  the  circumstances  and  the  date  of  its  melancholy  termination? 
Where  were  the  inhabitants  carried  ?  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Sama¬ 
ritans  ? 

Greece, — What  was  the  origin  of  the  Greek  Olympiads?  Give  some 
account  of  the  Grecian  games. 

Assyria. — What  account  is  given  in  the  Bible  of  the  origin  of  Assyria  ? 
Give  some  account  of  the  intervening  history  from  Ashur  to  Ninus. 
What  conquests  did  Ninus  achieve  ?  What  great  projects  were  exe¬ 
cuted  by  his  queen  and  successor,  Semiramis  ?  What  is  known  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  from  Semiramis  to  Sardanapalus?  What  was  the  character 
of  Sardanapalus  ?  What  was  his  fate  ?  How  was  the  Assyrian  empire  di¬ 
vided  on  the  death  of  Sardanapalus  ?  Who  was  the  first  king  of  the  Ninevite 
portion  of  this  empire,  or  the  new  Assyrian  monarchy  ?  What  steady  line 
of  policy  was  pursued  by  Pul  and  his  descendants  ?  Give  some  account  of 
his  successor  Tiglath-Pileser.  Of  Shalmanezer.  Of  Sennacherib.  Who 
was  the  first  king  of  the  Babylonian  portion  of  the  old  Assyrian  empire,  or 
the  new  Babylonian  empire  ?  What  doubts  have  been  raised  in  regard  to 
Belisis  and  Nabonasar  ?  What  else  is  known  of  the  next  Babylonian  empire 
in  this  century  ? — [N.  B.  The  third,  or  Median  portion  of  the  old  Assyrian 
empire,  will  be  noticed  in  the  following  centuries  under  the  title  of  Media,  or 
the  Median  empire.] 

Lydia.  —  What  are  some  of  the  traditions  respecting  the  kingdom  of 
Lydia?  With  what  monarch  does  the  genuine  history  of  Lydia  begin? 
What  natural  phenomenon  is  celebrated  in  this  period  of  Lydian  his¬ 
tory  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Croesus,  and  the  subsequent  history  of 
Lydia  ? 

Rome. — What  are  some  of  the  earliest  traditions  of  Italy  ?  What  was  the 
origin  of  Rome  ?  What  line  of  policy  did  Romulus  and  the  Romans  after 
him  adopt  towards  conquered  nations  ?  Who  was  the  successor  of  Romulus, 
and  what  was  his  character  ?  Give  the  dates  of  the  following  personages 
and  events :  Isaiah,  Hezekiah,  Sardanapalus,  Gyges,  Romulus,  the  captivity 
of  the  ten  tribes,  the  first  Olympiad,  the  downfall  of  the  old  Assyrian  em¬ 
pire,  and  the  building  of  Rome. 

SEVENTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  53.) 

Judea. — What  disasters  befel  Judea  after  the  death  of  Hezekiah?  What 
Ivas  the  conduct  of  Manasseh  after  being  restored  to  the  throne  ?  What 


8 


QUESTIONS  TO 


deliverance  was  experienced  by  the  Jews  at  the  hands  of  a  woman  ?  What 
were  the  principal  events  of  the  reign  of  Josiah  ?  What  ensued  from  the 
death  of  Josiah  to  the  captivity  of  Judah? 

Assyria. — What  were  the  principal  events  in  the  second  empire  of  Nine¬ 
veh,  under  the  reign  of  Esarhaddon  ?  Saosduchin  ?  Saracus  ?  What  were 
the  principal  events  in  the  second  empire  of  Babylon,  in  the  beginning  of 
this  century  ?  In  the  reign  of  Nabopolasar  ?  What  were  the  circumstances 
of  Nebuchadnezzar’s  first  expedition  against  Jerusalem? 

Media. — What  circumstances  indicate  the  early  importance  and  civilization 
of  Media?  What  is  known  of  its  history  prior  to  Deioces  ?  What  hap¬ 
pened  under  Deioces  ?  Phaortes  ?  Cyaxares  ?  What  has  in  all  ages  been  the 
character  of  Asiatic  revolutions  ? 

Persia. — What  circumstances  are  known  of  the  early  history  of  the  Per¬ 
sians  ?  What  w~as  their  condition  at  the  time  of  their  subjugation  by  the 
Medes  ?  What  were  their  religious  opinions  and  customs  ?  Give  some 
account  of  Zoroaster  and  his  opinions. 

Egypt. — What  notices  of  Egyptian  history  are  found  from  the  time  of 
Solomon  to  that  of  Psammitichus  ?  By  what  means  did  the  latter  succeed 
to  the  throne  of  Egypt  ?  What  circumstances  render  his  reign  one  of 
peculiar  interest?  What  great  plan  of  conquest  was  undertaken  by  his 
successor,  Pharaoh  Necho  ?  In  what  other  great  undertakings  did  he 
engage  ? 

Greece.  —  What  Athenian  lawgiver  flourished  in  this  century  ?  What 
were  the  character  and  fate  of  the  laws  of  Draco  ?  What  circumstances 
led  to  the  appointment  of  Solon  as  supreme  lawgiver  of  Athens  ?  What 
circumstances  are  known  of  the  early  history  of  Messenia  ?  What  was  the 
origin  of  the  quarrei  between  the  Messenians  and  the  Lacedaemonians  ? 
What  were  the  principal  occurrences  of  the  first  or  twenty  years’  war  ? 
What  was  the  condition  of  the  Messenians  for  the  next  thirty  years  ?  State 
the  events  and  melancholy  termination  of  the  second  war.  What  Grecian 
colonies  were  founded  about  this  time  ? 

Rome. — What  military  achievements  were  accomplished  by  the  Romans 
under  Tullius  Hostilius  ?  What  works  of  peace  were  executed  under  his 
successor,  Ancus  Martius  ?  What  were  the  leading  events  in  the  history  of 
Tarquin  the  Elder  ? 

SIXTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  61.) 

Judea. — What  led  to  Nebuchadnezzar’s  second  expedition  against  Jerusa¬ 
lem  ?  W’hat  was  its  result  ?  What  were  the  circumstances  attending  his  third 
expedition  against  the  sacred  city  ?  How  and  when  did  the  captive  Jews 
return  and  rebuild  the  city  and  temple  ?  What  change  did  the  seventy  years’ 
captivity  effect  in  the  character  of  the  Jews  ?  What  change  took  place  also 
in  their  language  ?  What  are  seme  of  the  facts  in  the  history  of  the  Jews 
that  go  to  illustrate  the  character  of  Divine  Providence  ?  What  interesting 
episode  in  Jewish  history  occurred  during  the  time  of  their  residence  at  Ba¬ 
bylon  ? 

Assyria. — What  was  the  condition  of  the  Babylonian  empire  under  Nebu¬ 
chadnezzar  the  Great  ?  W^hat  were  his  conquests  ?  What  works  of  peace  did 
he  execute?  What  signal  calamity  befel  him?  What  distinguished  pro¬ 
phet  flourished  at  his  court  ?  What  were  the  character  and  history  of  Evil- 
Merodach  ?  Nenglissar  ?  Belshazzar  ?  Queen  Nitocris  ?  What  were  the 


white’s  universal  history. 


9 


circumstances  of  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  ?  What  is  the  conjecture 
of  Dr.  Hales  in  regard  to  the  death  of  Belshazzar,  and  the  succession  of  Cya- 
xares,  or  Darius  the  Mede  ? 

Persia. — What  was  the  career  of  Daniel  after  the  capture  of  Eabylon  ? 
What  further  particulars  of  the  history  of  Cyrus  are  gathered  from  the 
sacred  writings  ?  What  are  the  origin  and  early  history  of  Cyrus,  as  gathered 
from  the  Greek  historians  ?  Who  succeeded  Cyrus  the  Great?  What  are 
the  principal  events  in  the  life  of  Cambyses  ?  What  events  occurred  under 
his  successor,  Darius  Hystaspes  ?  What  change  took  place  during  this  cen¬ 
tury  in  the  mode  of  life  and  policy  of  the  Persians  ? 

Egypt. — In  what  manner  did  the  family  of  Psammitichus  in  Egypt  ter¬ 
minate  ?  Give  an  account  of  the  revolt  of  Amasis.  What  line  of  policy  did 
he  pursue  towards  the  Greeks  ?  What  were  some  of  the  rest  of  his  acts  ? 
What  befel  Egypt  soon  after  his  death?  How  does  its  subsequent  history 
fulfil  the  prediction  of  Ezekiel? 

Greece. — What  famous  Athenian  lawgiver  flourished  early  in  this  cen- 
tury  ?  What  provision  did  Solon  make  respecting  the  relation  between 
debtor  and  creditor  ?  Where  did  he  establish  the  sovereign  power  ?  What 
division  of  the  people  did  he  make  ?  How  did  his  legislation  compare  with 
that  of  Lycurgus?  Give  the  character  and  history  of  Pisistratus  ?  What 
events  followed  his  death?  What  is  said  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton? 
What  difficulties  arose  from  the  contentions  of  Clisthenes  and  Isagoras  ? 
What  successes  did  the  city  obtain,  notwithstanding  its  internal  dissensions  ? 
What  was  the  condition  and  history  of  Lacedsemonia  at  the  same  time  ? 
Enumerate  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece. 

Rome. — What  wise  measures  were  adopted  in  Rome  by  Servius  Tullius  ? 
What  was  the  policy  of  his  successor,  Tarquin  the  Proud?  What  were  some 
of  his  public  acts  ?  What  were  the  principal  features  in  the  constitution  of 
Rome  as  it  existed  at  this  time  ? 

China. — What  account  is  given  of  Confucius  ? 

FIFTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  71.) 

% 

Judea. — What  was  the  origin  of  the  expedition  of  Ezra  to  Jerusalem  ? 
What  was  its  result?  What  further  is  related  of  Judea? 

Greece. — What  led  to  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Darius  ?  What  great 
battle  ensued  ?  What  circumstances  of  that  battle  are  given  ?  What  was 
the  subsequent  career  of  Miltiades  ?  What  two  individuals  now  took  the 
lead  in  Athenian  affairs  ?  What  more  formidable  invasion  of  Greece  fol 
lowed  ?  What  particulars  are  related  of  the  battle  of  Thermopylae  ?  What 
great  naval  battle  soon  followed  ?  What  were  the  particulars  of  this  battle  ? 
What  defeats  did  Mardonius  experience  after  Xerxes  returned  to  Persia  ? 
What  were  the  general  results  of  the  Persian  invasion  upon  Grecian  affairs  ? 
What  distinguished  writers  flourished  about  this  time  ?  What  was  the  ca¬ 
reer  of  Themistocles  after  the  victory  at  Salamis?  What  was  the  character 
of  Cimon  ?  What  were  some  of  his  exploits  ?  Who  was  his  rival  ?  What 
dreadful  catastrophe  befel  Sparta  about  this  time  ?  What  are  some  of  the 
particulars  of  that  event  ?  What  other  imminent  peril  ensued,  and  how  was 
it  avoided  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Pericles  ?  What  was  the  condition 
of  Athens  under  his  administration  ?  What  celebrated  war  grew  out  of  the 
rivalry  between  Athens  and  Sparta  ?  What  were  the  real  grounds  of  this 
rivalry  ?  In  the  Peloponnesian  war,  what  states  were  found  on  the  side  of 


10 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Athens  ?  What  on  the  side  of  Sparta  ?  What  was  the  great  event  of  the 
war  ?  Who  were  the  great  men  engaged  in  it  ?  What  great  calamity  befel 
Athens  during  the  early  part  of  the  war  ?  What  distinguished  leader  died  of 
the  plague  ?  What  terrible  domestic  tragedy  occurred  at  Lacedaemon  at  this 
time  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Alcibiades  ?  What  was  the  origin  of 
the  Sicilian  expedition  ?  What  were  its  results?  What  victories  were  won 
by  the  Athenians  after  the  recal  of  Alcibiades  ?  What  great  naval  victory 
was  achieved  by  the  Spartans  soon  after,  under  the  conduct  of  Ly sander? 
How  did  Lysander  follow  up  his  victory?  What  terms  did  he  prescribe  to 
the  vanquished  city  ?  What  were  the  general  effects  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  upon  Greece  ?  What  was  the  condition  of  literature  and  the  arts  in 
Greece  at  this  time  ?  What  effort  was  made  by  Thrasybulus  to  restore 
Athens  to  her  former  condition  ?  How  did  Alcibiades  terminate  his  career  ? 
What  mode  of  banishment  existed  at  Athens  ?  What  instances  are  given 
of  Athenian  ingratitude  ? 

Persia. — What  notices  of  Xerxes  are  given  besides  his  expedition  into 
Greece  ?  What  were  the  events  of  the  empire  under  Artaxerxes  Longima- 
nus  ?  What  were  the  particulars  of  the  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  younger, 
and  the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  ? 

Rome. — What  were  the  particulars  of  the  attempts  to  restore  royalty  at 
Rome  ?  What  contentions  ensued  between  the  Plebeians  and  the  Patri¬ 
cians  ?  What  were  the  origin  and  object  of  the  office  of  tribune  ?  In  what 
manner  did  Coriolanus  distinguish  himself?  What  was  the  origin  of  the 
Agrarian  laws  ?  To  what  controversies  did  they  give  rise  ?  To  what  new 
office  did  these  contentions  lead  ?  What  was  the  history  of  the  decemviri  ? 
What  was  the  general  result  of  the  disputes  between  the  Patricians  and  Ple¬ 
beians  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  Volscian  and  Veientine  wars.  Give  some 
account  of  the  twelve  tables,  and  of  the  origin  of  Roman  jurisprudence. 

Carthage. — What  is  said  of  the  extent  of  the  Carthaginian  possessions  at 
this  time  ?  What  contests  between  the  Greeks  and  Carthaginians  ?  What 
was  the  origin  of  the  long  contest  between  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians  ? 

FOURTH  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  82.) 

Greece. — What  great  philosopher  flourished  in  Greece  in  the  beginning 
of  this  century  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Socrates  ?  What  was  the 
Socratic  mode  of  philosophizing?  On  what  charge  and  how  did  he  die? 
What  were  the  two  great  schools  of  philosophy  ?  Into  what  sects  was  the 
Ionian  school  subdivided,  and  who  were  the  principal  philosophers  in  each 
sect  ?  Give  a  similar  account  of  the  Italian  school.  What  was  the  character 
of  Agesilaus  ?  What  were  the  principal  transactions  between  the  Greeks 
and  the  Persians  during  his  reign  ?  What  new  line  of  policy  did  Persia 
adopt  towards  the  Greeks  about  this  time  ?  By  what  circumstances  was 
Thebes  first  brought  into  notice  ?  What  was  the  career  of  Epaminondas  ? 
Give  some  account  of  the  early  history  of  Macedon.  What  led  to  the  Sacred 
War  ?  What  were  its  consequences  ?  What  course  was  pursued  by  De¬ 
mosthenes  in  this  war  ?  What  was  the  first  expedition  of  Alexander  the 
Great  ?  What  terrible  vengeance  did  he  execute  upon  Thebes  immediately 
after  ?  What  preparations  did  he  make  for  the  invasion  of  Asia  ?  Describe 
the  battle  of  the  Granicus  ?  What  were  the  immediate  consequences  of  this 
battle  ?  What  are  the  particulars  of  Alexander’s  progress  through  Syria  ? 
Egypt?  His  return  to  Persia?  His  last  great  battle  with  Darius?  His 
march  to  Babylon?  To  Persepclis  ?  What  adverse  events  occurred  in 


white’s  universal  history. 


il 


Greece  during  this  victorious  career  of  Alexander  abroad?  How  did  Darius 
finally  die  ?  "What  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Alexander’s  life  ?  What 
instances  of  ungovernable  passion  did  he  exhibit  ?  What  means  did  he  take 
to  consolidate  and  perpetuate  his  conquests  ?  Where  and  how  did  he  die  > 
What  was  the  condition  of  the  empire  after  his  death  ?  What  commotions 
arose  in  Greece  after  his  death  7  What  were  the  circumstances  of  the  death 
of  Demosthenes  ?  What  were  the  character  and  fate  of  Phocion  ?  Deme¬ 
trius  Phalereus  ?  Demetrius,  son  of  Antigonus?  How  was  the  empire 
finally  partitioned  among  the  generals  of  Alexander  ?  What  account  is 
given  of  Grecian  architecture  ?  Sculpture?  Painting?  Music?  Poetry? 
Writing?  Eloquence?  History?  Philosophy?  What  errors  have  been 
propagated  respecting  the  character  of  Alexander  ?  What  was  the  influence 
of  his  reign  upon  the  human  race  ? 

Rome. — What  was  the  condition  of  the  Gauls  when  first  brought  into  con¬ 
tact  with  the  Romans  ?  Give  some  account  of  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the 
Gauls  under  Brennus.  What  measures  were  taken  to  rebuild  Rome  after  its 
destruction  by  the  Gauls  ?  What  account  is  given  of  the  Licinian  laws  ? 
Of  the  wars  with  the  Samnites  ?  What  alterations  were  effected  in  the  con¬ 
stitution  of  the  commonwealth  ? 

Judea. — What  account  is  given  of  the  crime  of  the  High  Priest  Jonathan  ? 
Of  the  treatment  of  the  Jews  by  Alexander  ?  By  Ptolemy  Soter  ?  By  Pto¬ 
lemy  Philadelphus  ?  What  is  the  history  of  the  Septuagint  translation  of 
the  Bible  ?  Of  the  completion  of  the  ancient  Scriptures  ? 

Persia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  Persia  after  the  retreat 
of  the  ten  thousand  ?  Under  Artaxerxes  ?  Under  Ochus  ?  What  was  the 
character  of  Darius  III.  ? 

THIRD  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  95.) 

Rome. — What  account  is  given  of  Tarentum  ?  The  war  on  its  account 
between  the  Romans  and  Pyrrhus  ?  Syracuse  ?  The  origin  of  the  first 
Punic  war  ?  The  condition  of  Rome  on  entering  upon  these  wars  ?  The 
events  of  the  first  Punic  war  ?  The  conflicts  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Gauls?  The  origin  of  Hannibal  ?  His  line  of  policy  ?  His  victorious  ca¬ 
reer  in  Spain  and  Italy  ?  The  conclusion  of  the  war  ?  The  subsequent 
career  of  Hannibal  ?  His  death  ?  The  influence  upon  Rome  of  her  contests 
with  Greece  and  Carthage?  The  state  of  the  world  at  the  end  of  the  second 
Punic  war  ?  The  affairs  of  Macedon  after  the  death  of  Alexander  ?  The 
expedition  of  the  Gauls  into  Greece  ?  The  Acheean  League  ? 

Egypt. — What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  Egypt  under  Ptolemy 
Soter  ?  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  ?  Ptolemy  Euergetes  ?  Ptolemy  Philopator  ? 
Ptolemy  Epiphanes  ?  The  general  condition  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  ? 

Parthia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  this  kingdom?  Its 
contests  with  the  Romans  ?  Its  political  institutions  ? 

SECOND  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  101.) 

Rome. — What  account  is  given  of  the  conquest  of  Macedon  ?  The  origin 
of  the  war  with  Antiochus  ?  The  events  of  the  war  ?  Its  results  ?  The 
renewal  of  hostilities  in  Macedon  ?  Their  termination  under  Paulus  iEmi- 
lias  ?  The  terms  prescribed  to  the  vanquished  Macedonians  ?  The  conquest 
of  Greece  ?  The  origin  of  the  third  Punic  war  ?  Its  bloody  termination  ? 
The  character  of  the  Spaniards  ?  The  origin  of  the  contest  between  them 


12 


QUESTIONS  TO 


and  the  Romans  ?  The  events  of  the  war  under  Sempronius  ?  Cato  T 
Paulus  iEmilius  ?  Sempronius  Gracchus  ?  Piso?  Nobilior  ?  Mummius  ? 
The  victories  and  death  of  the  peasant  Viriathus  ?  The  conclusion  of  the 
war  under  Scipio  iEmilianus  ?  The  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Gauls  undei 
Hamilcar  ?  The  success  of  the  Romans  ?  The  final  conquest  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul  under  Scipio  Nasica  ?  The  origin  of  the  Ligurian  war  ?  The  conduct 
of  Popilius  ?  A  remarkable  incident  in  the  conquest  of  Istria  ?  The  effect 
upon  Rome  of  the  downfall  of  her  enemies  ?  The  influence  of  Greece  arid 
the  East  upon  Roman  manners  ?  The  efforts  of  Cato  to  revive  the  ancient 
manners  ?  The  oppression  of  the  provinces  ?  The  struggles  for  office  among 
the  nobles  ?  The  altered  condition  and  character  of  the  plebeian  order  ? 
The  struggles  between  the  Senate  and  the  Knights  ?  The  circumstances 
calculated  to  aggravate  these  disorders  ?  The  condition  and  extent  of  slavery 
in  Italy  ?  The  Servile  war  ?  The  origin  of  Tiberius  Gracchus  ?  His  pro¬ 
ject  ?  His  fate  ?  The  measures  of  Caius  Gracchus  ?  His  fate  ?  The 
measures  of  the  aristocratic  party  after  the  death  of  the  Gracchi  ?  The 
Jugurthine  war  ?  The  invasion  of  Gaul  by  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  ? 
Their  defeat  by  Marius  ?  His  triumph  ?  His  innovation  in  favour  of  the 
lowest  populace  ? 

Judea  and  Syria. — What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  Judea  under 
Ptolemy  Lagus  ?  The  persecutions  of  the  Jews  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ? 
The  sufferings  of  Eleazar  and  his  seven  sons  ?  The  successful  enterprise  of 
Judas  Maccaboeus  ?  The  subsequent  struggles  of  the  Maccabees  with  Anti¬ 
ochus  Eupator  and  Demetrius  ?  The  death  of  Judas  Maccabseus  ?  The 
subsequent  career  of  Jonathan  ?  Of  Simon  ?  Of  John  Hyrcanus  ?  Of 
Aristobulus  ? 


FIRST  CENTURY  B.  C.  (Page  112.) 

Rome. — What  account  is  given  of  the  decline  of  Marius  in  popular  favour  ? 
His  intrigues  to  maintain  his  ascendency  ?  The  progress  of  the  democratic 
principle  ?  The  attempts  of  Livius  Drusus  to  reconcile  the  parties  ?  His 
fate  ?  The  bloody  struggles  between  the  metropolis  and  the  Italian  towns  ? 
The  character  and  resources  of  Mithridates  ?  His  conduct  towards  the 
Romans  ?  The  struggle  between  Marius  and  Sylla  ?  The  expedition  of 
Sylla  against  Mithridates  ?  Its  result  ?  The  outrage  of  the  Marian  party 
at  Rome  during  Sylla’s  absence  ?  death  of  Marius  ?  return  of  Sylla  ?  His 
revenge?  His  dictatorship?  His  resignation  and  death?  The  state  of 
parties  in  the  republic  at  this  time  ?  The  popular  faction  under  Lepidus  and 
Brutus  ?  The  Sertorian  war  ?  The  servile  war  under  Spartacus  ?  Its  ter¬ 
mination  by  Crassus  ?  The  contention  between  Crassus  and  Pompey  ?  The 
good  fortune  of  Pompey?  The  character  of  Verres?  His  misconduct  in 
Sicily  ?  His  trial  and  condemnation  ?  Pompey’s  war  against  the  pirates  ? 
The  renewal  of  war  by  Mithridates  ?  The  operations  against  Mithridates 
by  Cotta  ?  By  Lucullus  ?  By  Pompey  ?  The  extraordinary  project  of 
Mithridates  ?  His  death  ?  The  foreign  and  domestic  condition  of  the  re¬ 
public  on  the  downfall  of  Mithridates  ?  The  character  of  Catiline  ?  His 
conspiracy  ?  Its  defeat  by  Cicero  ?  Cicero’s  exile  and  recall  ?  The  parti¬ 
tion  of  power  by  the  Triumvirate  ?  The  death  of  Crassus  ?  The  state  of 
affairs  at  Rome  during  Caesar’s  absence  in  Gaul  ?  Caesar’s  campaigns  in 
Gaul  ?  His  policy  at  the  close  of  the  Gallic  war  ?  The  proceedings  of 
Pompey  and  his  party  against  Caesar  ?  The  hesitation  of  Caesar  before 
a  crossing  the  Rubicon”  ?  His  entrance  into  Italy  ?  His  success  in  Spain  ? 
His  pursuit  of  Pompey?  His  victory  at  Pharsalia?  His  subsequent  suc¬ 
cesses  in  Egypt  and  Spain  ?  His  triumphs  ?  His  promotion  of  the  arts  of 
peace  ?  His  death  ?  His  character  ?  The  conduct  of  Antony  after  the 


white’s  universal  history 


13 


death  of  Caesar  ?  The  horrors  of  the  second  triumvirate  ?  The  death  of 
Cicero?  The  defeat  and  death  of  Antony?  The  progress  of  Augustus  to 
universal  dominion ?  The  birth  of  Jesus  Christ?  The  history  of  Roman 
literature  ?  The  policy  of  Augustus  towards  writers  ?  The  writers  of  the 
Augustan  age  distinguished  for  Eloquence  ?  Poetry  ?  Tragedy  ?  Comedy  ? 
Satire  ?  History  ?  Philosophy  ? 

Judea. — What  account  is  given  of  the  contentions  between  Alexander 
Jannaeus  and  the  Pharisees  ?  The  interference  of  the  Romans  in  favour  of 
Hyrcanus  ?  The  establishment  of  Herod  upon  the  throne  of  Judea  ?  The 
extent  of  his  dominions  ?  His  cruelties  ?  The  birth  of  the  Saviour  ? 


FIRST  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  124.) 


Rome. — What  account  is  given  of  the  extent  and  condition  of  the  Roman 
empire  under  Augustus  ?  His  character  ?  The  domestic  troubles  of  his 
later  days  ?  The  mode  by  which  he  perpetuated  his  power  ?  His  adminis¬ 
tration  of  the  empire  ?  The  contrast  between  him  and  Tiberius  ?  The 
sycophancy  of  the  Senate  ?  The  cruelties  and  death  of  Sejanus  ?  The  rapa¬ 
city  of  Tiberius  ?  His  death  ?  The  death  of  Jesus  Christ  ?  The  foreign 
wars  of  the  Romans  under  Tiberius  ?  The  character  and  reign  of  Caligula  ? 
The  mode  in  which  Claudius  succeeded  to  the  empire  ?  The  beneficial  acts 
of  his  government  ?  The  reign  of  Nero  ?  Galba  ?  Otho  ?  Vitellius  ? 
Vespasian  ?  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ?  The  events  of  the  empire 
during  the  reign  of  Titus  ?  The  reign  of  Domitian  ?  The  character  of  the 
twelve  Caesars,  as  described  by  Gibbon  ? 


Judea. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Archelaus  ?  The  reign  of 
Pontius  Pilate  ?  The  life  of  Herod  Agrippa  ?  His  remarkable  death  ?  The 
condition  of  the  Jews  under  their  various  governors  ?  Their  condition  under 
Claudius  Felix  ?  The  atrocities  of  Florus  ?  The  origin  of  the  rebellion  ? 
The  conduct  of  the  Christians  in  this  emergency  ?  The  progress  of  Vespa¬ 
sian  against  Jerusalem  ?  The  circumstances  of  its  siege  and  capture  by 
Titus  ? 


The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  life  and  death  of  the  Saviour? 
The  progress  of  Christianity  after  the  death  of  Christ  ?  The  constitution  of 
the  church  ?  The  first  persecution  ?  The  second  persecution  ? 


Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  invasion  and  conquest  of  this 
island  ?  The  means  taken  by  the  Romans  to  perpetuate  their  conquest  ? 
The  original  inhabitants  of  Britain?  Their  condition,  mode  of  life, 
religion,  &c.  ? 


SECOND  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  134.) 

Rome. — What  account  is  given  of  the  mode  of  Trajan’s  succession  to  the 
empire  ?  His  manners  and  administration  ?  His  foreign  wars  ?  The  revolt 
of  the  Jews  ?  The  character  of  Trajan  ?  The  character  and  acts  of  Adrian  ? 
The  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  ?  The  calamities  of  the  empire  under  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus  ?  The  character  and  excesses  of  Commodus  ?  The 
influence  of  the  Praetorian  Guards  ?  The  events  of  the  empire  a^ter  the  death 
of  Commodus?  The  condition  of  the  empire  at  this  time  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  spread  of  Christianity  ?  The 
third  persecution  under  Trajan  ?  The  martyrdom  of  Simeon  and  Ignatius? 
The  fourth  persecution  under  Marcus  Aurelius?  The  reasons  that  led  so 
2 


14 


QUESTIONS  TO 


humane  a  prince  to  be  the  most  fatal  persecutor  of  Christianity?  The  mar¬ 
tyrdom  of  Polycarp,  Justin  Martyr,  Pothinus  and  Blandina  ? 

THIRD  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  139.) 

Rome. — What  account  is  given  of  the  rise  of  Septimius  Severus  to  supreme 
power?  His  cruelties  as  emperor?  His  death?  The  cruelties  and  death 
of  Caracalla?  The  character  and  fate  of  Heliogabalus  ?  The  administra- 
tion  of  Alexander  Severus?  The  influence  of  his  mother  MammaBa  and  the 
lawyer  Ulpian  ?  The  success  of  their  attempts  to  maintain  the  vigour  and 
int  egrity  of  the  empire  ?  The  origin  and  character  of  Maximin?  His  cruel¬ 
ties  and  death?  Gordian  III.  ?  Philip  the  Arabian?  Valerius?  Gallie- 
nus  ?  Claudius?  Aurelian?  Tacitus?  Probus?  The  condition  of  the 
common  people  during  these  frequent  changes  of  administration  ?  The 
great  change  in  the  form  of  government  under  Diocletian  ?  His  abdication  ? 
Its  causes  ? 

Palmyra. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  Zenobia  ?  Her  capi¬ 
tal  ?  Her  contests  with  the  Romans  ?  Her  misfortunes  ?  The  critic  Lon¬ 
ginus  ? 

Persia.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  exploits  of  Artaxerxes  ?  The 
restoration  of  the  religion  of  the  Magi?  The  character  and  reign  of  Sapor  ? 
The  struggles  of  Chosroes,  king  of  Armenia,  and  his  son  Tiridates,  against 
the  Persians  ? 

Barbarian  Invasions. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  the  Goths 
who  invaded  the  empire  under  Decius  ?  their  language  and  religion  ?  The 
Franks?  The  Allemanni ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  fifth  persecution  under  Seve¬ 
rus  ?  The  sixth  persecution  under  Maximin?  The  seventh  under  Decius? 
The  eighth  under  Valerian  ?  The  ninth  under  Aurelian  ?  The  tenth  under 
Diocletian  ?  The  cruelties  of  Galerius  towards  Christians?  his  death  ?  The 
death  of  Maximin  ? 

FOURTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  147.) 

Rome. — What  account  is  given  of  the  partition  of  the  empire  on  the  death 
of  Diocletian  ?  The  elevation  of  Constantine  to  the  purple  ?  The  elevation 
of  Maxentius  and  Maximin?  The  administration  of  Galerius  ?  The  admi¬ 
nistration  of  Maxentius  ?  His  overthrow  by  Constantine  ?  The  overthrow 
of  Maximin  by  Licinius  ?  The  progress  of  Constantine  to  the  command  of 
the  whole  empire?  The  change  of  the  capital?  The  domestic  troubles  of 
Constantine?  His  partition  of  the  empire  ?  His  death?  The  administra¬ 
tion  of  the  empire  under  Constantine  ?  The  state  of  the  finances  ?  The 
disorders  of  the  empire  on  the  death  of  Constantine  ?  The  progress  of  affairs 
till  Constantius  became  sole  emperor  ?  The  conduct  and  death  of  Gallus  ? 
The  education  of  Julian?  His  elevation  to  the  purple?  His  apostasy 7 
H  is  reforms  ?  His  death  ?  His  character  and  administration  ? 

Eastern  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  government  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  under  Valens  ?  The  battle  between  him  and  the  Goths  at  Adriano- 
ple?  The  elevation  of  Theodosius  ?  His  success  against  the  Goths  ?  The 
other  events  of  his  reign?  His  character? 

Western  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians 
under  Valentinian?  The  affairs  of  the  Western  Empire  under  Gratian  ? 
Valentinian  II.?  The  condition  of  the  Western  Empire  at  this  time  ?  The 
settlement  of  the  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths  under  Aurelian  ?  The  first  ap- 


white’s  universal  history.  15 

pearance  of  the  Huns  in  Europe  ?  Their  character  and  previous  history  ? 
Their  entrance  into  Europe  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  progress  of  the  Church  under 
persecution  ?  The  Arian  controversy  ?  The  constitution  of  the  Church  in 
this  century  ?  The  errors  of  Arius  ?  The  general  councils  on  this  subject  ? 
The  assumption  of  authority  by  the  Church  of  Rome  in  this  century  ?  The 
circumstances  which  tended  to  increase  it?  The  benefits  resulting  from  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  by  Constantine?  The  errors  of  the  Gnostics? 
The  Manichees  ?  The  Carpocratians  ?  The  Nicolaitans  ?  The  Montanists  ? 
The  names  of  the  different  heresies  concerning  the  nature  of  Christ  ?  The 
heresies  respecting  the  will  and  original  sin  ? 

FIFTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  158.) 

Eastern  Empire.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  under  Arcadius  ?  The  invasion  of  the  Visigoths  under  Alaric  ? 
The  administration  of  Pulcheria  ?  Theodosius  ?  Marcian  ?  Leo  the  Great  ? 
Zeno  ?  Anastasius  ? 

Western  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  successes  of  the  armies 
of  Honorius,  under  Stilicho,  against  the  Visigoths?  The  death  of  Stilicho? 
The  capture  and  sack  of  Rome  by  Alaric?  The  events  of  Europe  after  the 
death  of  Alaric  ?  The  progress  and  power  of  Genseric  the  Vandal  in  Africa  ? 
The  progress  of  the  Huns  under  Attila  against  the  Eastern  Empire  ?  Their 
irruption  into  the  Western  Empire?  The  battle  between  the  Huns  and 
Visigoths  in  Gaul  ?  Attila’s  inroads  into  Italy  ?  His  death  ?  The  sack  of 
Rome  by  Genseric  the  Vandal  ?  The  attempts  of  Majorian  to  restore  the 
empire  ?  His  successors  ?  The  peaceful  measures  of  Odoacer  ?  His  over- 
throwT  and  death  ?  The  change  in  the  aspect  of  the  world  on  the  downfall 
of  the  empire  of  the  West  ? 

Venice. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  this  republic  ? 

Gaul. — What  account  is  given  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  Gaul  ?  The 
inroads  of  the  northern  barbarians  in  the  fifth  century  ?  The  settlement  of 
the  Franks  in  Gaul  ?  The  foundation  of  the  French  monarchy  ? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  contests  between  the  Britons  and 
the  Piets  and  Scots  ?  The  occasion  of  calling  in  the  aid  of  the  Saxons  ? 
Their  establishment  in  the  kingdom? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  Monachism  ?  Paul 
of  Thebes?  St.  Anthony?  The  propagation  of  Monachism  by  the  disciples 
of  St.  Anthony  ?  The  causes  which  contributed  to  the  rapid  spread  of 
Monachism  ?  The  excesses  to  which  it  led  ?  The  conversion  of  the  north¬ 
ern  barbarians  ?  The  character  of  the  barbarian  converts  ?  The  spread  of 
Christianity  in  the  East  ? 

History  of  Literature.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  ?  The  New  Platonists  ?  Their  suppression  under  Constantine  ?  Theii 
revival  under  Julian  ?  Hypatia?  Proclus  ?  Sacred  literature  ?  Clement? 
Origen?  Justin  Martyr?  Tertuilian  ?  Irenseus  ?  Early  translations  of 
the  Scriptures  ?  Gregory  Thaurnaturgus  and  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  ?  Cy¬ 
prian  ?  The  golden  age  of  ecclesiastical  literature  ?  The  character  of  the 
early  fathers  of  the  Church  ?  The  character  and  writings  of  Athanasius  ? 
Eusebius?  Basil?  Gregory  of  Nyssa  ?  Gregory  of  Nazianzen  ?  Chrysos¬ 
tom  ?  The  other  Greek  fathers  ?  Arnobius  and  Lactantius  ?  Hilary  ? 


16 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Ambrose?  Jerome?  Augustine?  Dionysius  the  Little  ?  Profane  learning 
in  the  West?  Claudian  ?  Priscian  ?  Ammianus  Marcellinus?  Gildas  ? 
Bede?  Boethius?  Philology?  Poetry  in  the  East?  Romance?  History? 
Geography  ?  Philology  ?  Mathematics  ? 

SIXTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  173.) 

The  Middle  Ages. — How  many  centuries  are  embraced  in  this  period  ? 
How  are  the  first  five  of  these  characterized  ?  What  was  the  condition  of 
Europe  about  the  middle  of  this  period  ?  What  common  bond  of  union 
among  all  the  minute  fragments  into  which  the  Western  Empire  had  been 
broken  ?  What  great  enterprise  cemented  this  union  ?  What  were  the 
leading  national  affairs  from  the  Crusades  to  the  Reformation  ? 

Greek  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  Belisarius?  His  successes 
against  the  Persians?  His  success  against  the  Vandals  in  Africa?  Against 
the  Goths  in  Italy  ?  His  second  command  in  Italy  ?  His  services  at  Con¬ 
stantinople  ?  His  death  ?  Narses  ?  His  expedition  and  government  in 
Italy  ?  His  recall  ?  The  factions  of  the  circus  ?  Their  excesses  ?  The 
earthquakes  in  the  time  of  Justinian  ?  The  plague  ?  The  introduction  of 
silk  into  Europe  ?  The  Justinian  Code  ?  The  alliance  of  the  Turks  with 
Justinian?  The  character  of  his  reign?  The  reign  of  Tiberius?  Of 
Maurice  ?  , 

Persia.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  Sassanian  dominion  in  Persia? 
The  reign  of  Chosroes?  Of  Hormisdas  ?  The  general  Varanes  ?  The 
deposition  of  Hormisdas  ?  The  succeeding  events  of  the  empire  ? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  Theodoric’s  appointment  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  ?  His  success  against  Odoacer  ?  His  reign  ?  His  enlargements 
of  the  territory  ?  His  general  administration  ?  The  affairs  of  Italy  under 
Totila  and  Narses?  The  invasion  of  the  Lombards?  The  circumstances 
of  the  death  of  Alboin  ?  The  subsequent  events  among  the  Lombards  ? 
The  propagation  of  Christianity  among  them  ?  The  origin  of  the  feudal 
system  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  dominions  of  Clovis  ?  The  other 
provinces  of  Gaul  ?  The  successes  of  Clovis  against  Syagrius  ?  Against 
the  Allemani  ?  The  conversion  of  Clovis  ?  His  expedition  against  the 
Visigoths  ?  His  investiture  by  the  emperor  Athanasius  ?  The  affairs  of  the 
kingdom  after  his  death  ?  The  civil  wars  of  France  after  the  death  of  CIo- 
taire  ?  The  Frank  laws  ? 

Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  invasion  of  Spain  by  the  barbarians  ? 
The  foundation  of  the  Gothic  monarchy  in  Spain  by  Ataulphus  ?  His  suc¬ 
cessor  Wallia  ?  The  power  and  success  of  Euric?  The  affairs  of  Spain 
a  fter  the  death  of  Euric  ?  Its  conversion  to  Christianity  ? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  foundation  of  the  Saxon  Heptar¬ 
chy?  The  character  and  exploits  of  King  Arthur  ?  The  disasters  attending 
the  settlement  of  the  Saxons  in  Britain  ?  The  conversion  of  the  Saxons  to 
Christianity  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  British  Church  previous  to 
the  mission  of  Augustine  ?  The  precise  object  of  that  mission  ?  The  origin 
and  result  of  the  fifth  general  council  ?  The  rise  of  Gregory  the  Great  ? 
His  character  and  administration  ?  The  Benedictines  ?  Their  condition 
and  discipline  ?  The  services  done  by  them  to  society  ? 


white’s  universal  history. 


17 


SEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  1 86.) 

Greek  Empire.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  oppressions  and  death  of 
Phocas  ?  The  accession  of  Heraclius?  The  assaults  upon  the  empire  by 
Chosroes  II.  ?  The  invasion  of  the  Avars  ?  The  ignominious  terms  im¬ 
posed  upon  Heraclius  by  Chosroes  ?  The  subsequent  successes  of  Heraclius  ? 
His  triumphal  return  from  the  East?  The  exhausted  condition  of  the  em¬ 
pire  ?  The  first  appearance  of  the  Mussulmans  in  Europe  ?  Their  successes 
against  Heraclius  ?  The  affairs  of  the  empire  under  his  successors  ? 

Persia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  successes  of  Chosroes  II.  ?  His 
reverses  ?  His  death  ?  His  magnificence  ? 

Arabia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Arabs  ?  Their  political  condition  ? 
Their  religion  ?  The  various  attempts  to  conquer  them  ?  The  early  history 
and  character  of  Mohammed  ?  His  first  converts  ?  The  Hegira  ?  His 
authority  and  influence  at  Medina  ?  His  line  of  policy  ?  His  successes  in 
Arabia  ?  His  death  ?  The  reputed  origin  of  the  Koran  ?  Its  contents  ? 
Mohammed’s  definition  of  his  religion  ?  Some  further  particulars  of  its 
doctrines  and  ceremonies  ?  Its  progress  under  the  first  four  caliphs  ?  The 
conquest  of  Syria  under  Abubeker  ?  The  capture  of  Arrestan  ?  The  con¬ 
quest  of  Egypt  under  Omar  ?  The  capture  of  Alexandria  ?  The  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  Alexandrian  library  ?  The  progress  of  the  Mohammedans  in  the 
East?  The  Contest  between  Ali  and  the  rebel  Moawiyah?  Its  result? 
The  two  great  sects  of  the  Mohammedans?  The  proceedings  of  Moawiyah 
against  the  Africans  ?  Against  the  Greeks  ?  The  Greek  fire  ?  The  com¬ 
munications  of  the  Arabs  with  China  and  India  ?  The  conquest  and  con¬ 
version  of  Africa  under  Hassan? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  ?  The  Lom¬ 
bard  kingdom  in  Italy  ?  The  doge  of  Venice  ?  The  other  particulars  of  the 
political  constitution  of  Venice  ?  The  establishment  of  its  hereditary  aris¬ 
tocracy  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reunion  of  the  French  monarchy 
under  Clotaire  II.  ?  The  origin  and  powers  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace  ? 
The  reign  of  Dagobert  ?  The  Sluggard  Kings  ? 

Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  Gondebert  and  his  successors  ?  The 
proceedings  of  the  fourth  council  of  Toledo?  The  affairs  of  Spain  under 
Chintilla  ?  Recesvind  ?  Wamba?  Erwuga?  The  conspiracy  and  subse¬ 
quent  sufferings  of  the  Jews?  The  archbishops  of  Toledo  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  progress  of  the  Eutychian 
heresy  ?  The  triple  crown  ? 

EIGHTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  199.) 

Greek  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  termination  of  the  Hera- 
clian  dynasty  ?  The  origin  of  Leo  III.  ?  His  successes  ?  His  zeal  against 
image-worship  ?  The  reign  of  Constantine  V.  ?  Of  Leo  IV.  ?  The  resolu¬ 
tions  of  the  second  council  of  Nice  respecting  image-worship  ?  The  career 
of  the  empress  Irene  ? 

Arabia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  attempts  of  the  caliphs  to  extend 
their  dominions  westward?  The  overthrow  of  the  Omniades  ?  The  eleva¬ 
tion  of  the  Abassides  to  the  caliphate  ?  The  family  of  the  Omniades  in 
Spain  ?  The  cruelties  of  Almanzor  ?  The  persecution  of  the  descendants 
of  Ali  ?  The  elevation  of  Haroun  A1  Raschid  to  the  caliphate-?  His  war 
with  the  Greeks  ?  His  embassy  to  Charlemagne  ?  His  cruelty  to  the  family 


18 


QUESTIONS  TO 


of  the  Barmecides  ?  His  patronage  of  letters  ?  The  condition  of  Arab  civil, 
ization  in  this  century  ? 

Spain.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  conquest  of  Spain  hy  the  Arabs? 
Their  policy  towards  the  conquered  Christians  ?  The  elevation  of  Abdalrah- 
man  to  the  caliphate  of  the  West?  The  magnificence  of  Hassan  I.,  caliph 
of  Cordova  ?  The  affairs  of  Christian  Spain  under  Pelayo  ?  Alphonso  the 
Catholic  ?  Fruela  ?  Alphonso  the  Chaste  ?  The  salutary  effects  of  the 
residence  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  ? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Luitprand?  The  extinc¬ 
tion  of  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  ?  The  origin  of  the  Pope’s  temporal  sove¬ 
reignty  ?  The  condition  of  the  papacy  under  Gregory  III.  ?  The  elevation 
of  Astolphus  to  the  throne  of  the  Lombards  ?  The  interposition  of  the 
Franks  in  behalf  of  the  Pope  and  against  the  Lombards?  The  bestowal  of 
the  exarchate  upon  the  Pope  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  victory  of  Charles  Martel  over  the 
Saracens  ?  The  division  of  the  Frank  dominions  on  the  death  of  Charles 
Martel?  The  elevation  of  Pepin  to  the  regal  authority?  His  efforts  to 
strengthen  the  kingly  power  ?  The  union  of  the  entire  Frank  monarchy 
under  Charlemagne?  His  wars  with  the  Saxons?  With  the  Saracens? 
His  visit  to  Rome  in  defence  of  Pope  Leo  III.  ?  The  extent  of  his  domin¬ 
ions  ?  The  influence  of  his  imperial  title?  His  political  reforms?  His 
literary  character  ?  His  private  life  ?  The  condition  of  the* Western  Em 
pire  in  his  time  ?  The  Eastern  Empire  ?  The  empire  of  the  caliphs  ? 
Denmark  ?  Sweden,  Russia  and  Poland  ?  Bohemia  ?  Spain  ?  Rome  ? 
Venice  ?  England  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  grounds  of  difference  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  ?  The  efforts  of  Leo  the  Iconoclast  to  abolish 
images  ?  The  result  of  the  council  of  Constantinople  ?  The  proceedings  of 
Gregory  II.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  in  reference  to  the  use  of  images  ?  The 
council  of  the  Lateran?  The  second  council  of  Nice?  The  disposition  and 
conduct  of  Charlemagne  towards  the  Church  ?  The  conduct  of  the  Gallican 
clergy  towards  the  Iconoclasts  ?  The  several  decisions  in  regard  to  the  pro¬ 
cession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ?  The  progress  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Popes  in  this  century  ?  The  increase  of  their  ecclesiastical  power  ?  The 
influence  of  Christianity  in  the  earlier  ages  upon  the  arts  ?  The  origin  of 
the  pointed  or  Gothic  style  of  architecture  ?  The  destruction  of  public 
libraries  during  the  first  part  of  the  middle  ages  ?  The  service  rendered  to 
literature  by  the  monks  ? 

NINTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  212.) 

Greek  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Nicephorus  I.  ? 
Michael  I.  ?  The  disasters  of  Leo  V.  ?  His  subsequent  successes  ?  His 
administration  of  the  empire?  His  assassination?  Michael  II.?  Theo- 
philus  the  Unfortunate?  Michael  III.?  The  origin  of  Basil  I.?  His 
elevation  to  the  empire  ?  His  administration  ?  His  death  ?  Basil  II.  ? 

Arabia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  decline  of  Haroun  A1  Raschid’s 
power  ?  His  death  ?  The  state  of  learning  under  Almamon  ?  The  war 
between  A1  Motassem  and  the  Greeks  ?  The  heresy  of  the  Karidjies  ?  Of 
Djead  Ibn  Dirkhem  ?  Of  Achmet  Ravendi  ?  Of  Hakem  ?  Of  Babek  ? 
The  introduction  of  the  Turks  into  the  service  of  the  caliphs  ?  The  increas¬ 
ing  weakness  and  divisions  of  the  caliphate  ?  The  heresy  of  Abdallah  and 
the  Karmathians  ? 


white’s  universal  history. 


19 


Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  naval  expeditions  of  the  Saracens 
under  Hakem  I.  ?  The  sedition  in  Cordova  ?  The  ravaging  of  Italy  by  the 
Moors  ?  The  successes  of  the  Christians  in  Spain  ?  The  career  of  Alphonso 
the  Great  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Debonnaire? 
The  division  of  the  empire  after  his  death  ?  The  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  ? 
His  coronation  by  Pope  John  VIII.?  Louis  III.  and  Carloman  ?  The 
union  of  the  French  and  German  kings  against  the  nobles  and  the  North¬ 
men  ?  The  victory  of  Louis  III.  over  the  Northmen  ?  His  death  ?  Charles 
the  Fat?  The  elevation  of  Eudes  to  the  crown?  His  victory  over  the 
Northmen  ?  The  origin  and  religion  of  the  Northmen  ?  Their  earliest 
incursions  into  Southern  Europe  ?  Their  ravages  after  the  death  of  Charle¬ 
magne  ?  The  conversion  of  the  pirate  chief,  Rollo  ?  His  establishment  as 
Duke  of  Normandy  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  struggles  of  Louis  the  German 
against  the  Sclavonic  tribes  ?  His  other  enterprises  ?  The  division  of  the 
kingdom  on  his  death  ?  Its  reunion  under  Charles  the  Fat  ?  His  difficul 
ties  with  the  Northmen  ?  His  deposition  ?  The  vigorous  measures  of 
Arnulph  ? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  Bernard,  the  son  of  Pepin?  Louis,  the 
son  of  Lothaire  ?  The  incursions  to  which  Italy  was  exposed  ?  The  mea¬ 
sures  of  defence  adopted  at  Rome  ?  The  object  of  the  Italian  league  ?  The 
false  policy  of  Louis  ?  Its  consequences  ?  His  subsequent  attempts  to  repair 
the  mischief?  The  temporal  independence  of  the  Pope  ?  The  succession 
to  the  empire  after  the  death  of  Louis  ?  Disputes  for  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
between  the  dukes  of  Spoleto  and  Benevento  ? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  formation  of  the  Heptarchy  under 
Egbert  ?  The  inroads  of  the  Danes  ?  The  accession  of  Alfred  ?  The  con¬ 
dition  of  the  kingdom  under  his  reign  ?  His  legislation  ?  The  literary 
character  of  Alfred  ?  His  private  character  ?  The  Anglo-Saxon  consti¬ 
tution  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  general  decline  of  piety  and 
learning  in  the  Church  ?  The  elevation  of  Photius  to  the  patriarchate  of 
Constantinople?  The  causes  of  schism  between  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches  ?  The  rise  of  saint  worship  ?  The  increase  of  dangerous  doc¬ 
trines  ? 


TENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  225.) 

Greek  ExMpire.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  Constantine 
VII.?  His  deposition  by  Romanus  ?  Restoration  of  Constantine?  The 
incursions  of  the  Bulgarians  ?  Of  the  Russians  ?  The  successes  of  Nice- 
phorus  ?  The  energy  of  the  empire  under  John  Zimisces  ?  Basil  II.  ? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  the  adventures  of  Adelaide,  Lothaire’s 
widow  ?  The  condition  of  the  papacy  ?  The  interference  of  Otho  in  the 
affairs  of  Rome  ?  The  deposition  of  the  pope,  John  XII.  ?  The  demagogue 
Crescentius  ? 

France. — -What  account  is  given  of  the  deposition  of  Charles  the  Simple  ? 
The  usurpation  of  Rodolph  ?  The  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  ? 
The  elevation  of  Hugh  Capet  ?  The  consolidation  of  his  power  ?  Robert 
the  Wise  ?  His  difficulties  with  the  Pope  ?  The  character  of  Constance  i 
The  origin  of  the  feudal  system  ?  The  threefold  division  of  the  lands  under 


20 


QUESTIONS  TO 


that  system  ?  The  obligations  of  liegemen  to  their  superiors  ?  The  mea¬ 
sures  which  abridged  the  power  of  the  nobles? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  elevation  of  Conrad  to  the  king¬ 
dom  of  Germany  ?  His  death  ?  Henry  the  Fowler  ?  His  enlargement  and 
consolidation  of  the  kingdom  ?  The  successes  of  Otho  the  Great  ?  His 
attempts  to  consolidate  the  monarchy  ?  His  checks  upon  the  nobles  ?  Otho 
II.  ?  Otho  III.  ? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Elder  ?  The 
accession  of  Athelstan  ?  His  successes?  The  growing  importance  of  Eng 
land  ?  Foreign  refugees  in  England  ?  The  foreign  connexions  of  Athelstan? 
His  beneficent  administration  ?  The  miseries  which  succeeded  ?  The  inter¬ 
ference  of  the  monks  ?  Dunstan  and  the  princess  Elgiva  ? 

Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Moorish  empire  in  Spain  ?  The 
administration  of  Abdalrahman  III.  ?  His  defeat  at  Simancas  ?  His  sub¬ 
sequent  successes?  Almanzor?  The  successes  of  the  Christians  under 
Ramires  II.?  Their  subsequent  defeats  and  final  triumph? 

Arabian  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  the  caliphate  ? 
The  office  of  Emir  al  Omra  ?  Obeidallah  and  the  Fatimites  ?  Origin  and 
condition  of  the  Egyptian  caliphate  ?  The  progress  and  conquests  of  the 
Mussulmans  in  the  East?  The  origin  of  the  Turks? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  general  character  of  this 
century  ?  The  extent  of  Christianity  at  this  time  ?  The  degeneracy  of  the 
clergy  ?  The  condition  and  claims  of  the  papacy?  The  dispersion  of  monks 
by  the  Normans  ?  Its  influence  upon  learning  ?  The  Benedictines  ?  The 
panic  respecting  the  end  of  the  world  ?  The  origin  of  penance  ?  Its  ex¬ 
cesses  ? 

The  World. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Greek  empire?  The  caliph¬ 
ate  ?  The  Frank  kingdom  ?  France  ?  Germany  ?  Spain  ?  England  ? 
Italy  ?  Rome  ? 

ELEVENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  236.) 

Greek  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Constantine  VIII.  ? 
Romanus  III.  ?  Michael  IV.  ?  Michael  V.  ?  Constantine  IX.  ?  The  in¬ 
vasion  of  the  Bulgarians  ?  The  Comneni  ?  The  elevation  of  Isaac  by  the 
army?  The  short-sighted  policy  of  Constantine  X.?  The  war  of  Romanus 
IV.  ?  The  encroachments  of  Soliman  upon  the  empire  ?  Deposition  of 
Michael  VII.?  The  accession  of  Alexius  Comnenus?  His  biographer? 
His  character?  The  difficulties  with  which  he  had  to  contend? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  the  first  visits  of  the  Normans  to  Italy  ? 
Their  success  against  the  infidels  in  Italy  ?  The  difficulties  between  them 
and  the  Pope  ?  The  projects  of  Robert  Guiscard  ?  His  death  ?  The  suc¬ 
cesses  of  his  brother  Roger  in  Sicily  ?  Roger’s  line  of  policy  ?  The  origin 
of  the  Italian  republics  ?  Their  condition  ?  Venice  ?  Genoa  ?  Pisa  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  Henry  II.  ?  His 
coronation  at  Rome  ?  Conrad  II.  ?  Henry  III.  ?  His  interference  in  the 
affairs  of  Rome?  Henry  V.  ?  Gregory  VII.  ?  The  controversy  between 
Gregory  and  Henry  respecting  the  right  of  investiture  ?  The  course  of  the 
German  aristocracy  in  this  controversy  ?  Its  result  ?  Subsequent  troubles 
of  Henry  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  Robert,  and  the  revolts  of  his  sons  ? 
The  persecution  of  heretics  ?  The  character  of  Robert  ?  The  accession  of 


white’s  universal  history.  21 

Henry  I.?  His  contests  with  the  duke  of  Normandy  ?  The  reign  of  Philip 
I.  ?  His  quarrels  with  the  Popes  ? 

Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  the  Moorish  empire  in 
Spain  ?  The  origin  of  the  Almoravides  ?  Their  expeditions  into  Spain  ? 
The  Christian  empire  in  Spain  ?  The  successes  of  Ferdinand  against  the 
Arabs  ?  The  Cid  ? 

Arabian  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  conquests  and  policy  of 
Togrul-Beg  ?  The  victories  of  Alp  Arslan  ?  The  reign  of  Malek-Shah  ? 
The  condition  of  the  empire  at  his  death? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  succession  of  Sweyn  to  the  throne 
of  England  ?  The  reign  of  Canute  the  Great  ?  His  character  ?  The  cha. 
racter  and  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor  ?  The  expedition  against  Mac¬ 
beth  ?  The  accession  of  Harold  ?  His  expedition  against  the  Norwegians  ? 
The  invasion  of  the  Normans  ?  The  battle  of  Hastings  ?  The  consequence 
of  this  invasion?  The  capture  of  London?  The  general  confiscation  of 
property  ?  Policy  of  William  towards  the  Saxons  ?  His  visit  to  Normandy  ? 
His  expedition  against  Malcolm  Canmore?  The  Norman  constitution? 
Doomsday  Book  ?  The  revolt  of  William’s  son  Robert  ?  The  reign  of  Wil¬ 
liam  Rufus  ?  The  phrase  M  benefit  of  clergy”  ?  The  events  of  Scotland  ? 

The  Church. — WThat  account  is  given  of  the  character  of  the  papacy  and 
the  clergy?  The  character  and  policy  of  Gregory  VII.?  His  controversy 
with  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  ?  The  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  ?  The 
order  of  Chartreuse  ?  The  “  Truce  of  God”  ?  The  disuse  of  the  vernacular 
languages  in  worship  ? 

The  Crusades. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  the  Crusades  ? 
The  expedition  of  Peter  the  Hermit?  The  first  crusading  army  ?  Its  num¬ 
bers  ?  Its  progress  through  Asia  Minor  ?  The  capture  of  Antioch  ?  Of 
Jerusalem  ?  The  new  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  ? 

Chivalry.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  institution  of  chivalry  ?  Its 
objects  and  character  ? 

State  of  the  World. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  Rome 
and  Germany  ?  France  ?  Spain  ?  England  ?  The  other  European  states  ? 
The  Greek  empire  ?  The  caliphate  ? 

TWELFTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  255.) 

Greek  Empire.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  prowess  of  Manuel  I.  ? 
The  early  career  of  Andronicus  ?  His  elevation  to  the  throne  ?  His  cruel¬ 
ties?  His  deposition?  The  reign  of  Isaac  Angeius  ?  The  capture  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  by  the  crusaders  ? 

The  East. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Attabeks  ?  The  power  and 
successes  ofSaladin? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  the  attempts  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  to 
establish  his  power  in  Italy  ?  The  league  against  him  ?  Arnold  of  Brescia? 
The  Venetians  ?  The  marriage  of  the  Adriatic  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  contentions  between  Henry  V. 
and  the  Pope  about  the  right  of  investiture  ?  The  origin  of  the  Guelfs  and 
Ghibellines  ?  The  plans  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  Italy  ?  The  close  of 
his  career  ?  Henry  VI.  ? 

France.— What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Fat  ?  Louis 
•  Philip  Augustus  ?  The  early  deliberative  assemblies  of  the  French? 
The  impulse  given  to  the  commons  by  Louis  the  Fat?  The  origin  and  his* 
tory  of  the  States  General  ? 


22 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  progress  of  the  Christians  in  Spain  t 
The  kingdom  of  Portugal?  The  military  orders  of  Spain? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  progress  of  English  liberty  under 
Henry  I.  ?  The  contest  for  the  crown  between  Matilda  and  Stephen  ?  The 
reign  of  Henry  II.  ?  The  progress  of  popular  liberty  in  his  reign  ?  The 
character  and  exploits  of  Richard  I.  ?  The  early  history  of  Ireland?  The 
early  history  of  Scotland  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  advancing  power  of  the  pa. 
pacy  under  Paschal  II.?  Adrian  IV.?  Alexander  III.?  Innocent  III.? 
The  origin  of  the  second  crusade  ?  The  march  of  the  crusaders  ?  Their 
successes  ?  The  origin  and  leaders  of  the  third  crusade  ?  The  siege  and 
capture  of  Acre  ?  The  result  of  the  crusade  ?  The  parallel  between  it  and 
the  Trojan  war?  The  Assassins?  The  Druses? 

THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  266.) 

Greek  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  interference  of  the  crusaders 
with  the  affairs  of  Constantinople  ?  The  establishment  of  Alexius  at  Trebi- 
zond  ?  Theodore  Lascaris  at  Nice  ?  Michael  Palseologus  ?  The  contro¬ 
versies  in  the  Church  ?  Andronicus  the  Elder  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  Frederick  II.  to  the 
empire  ?  His  contests  with  the  papacy  ?  The  interregnum  after  his  death  ? 
The  double  election  of  Richard  of  Cornwall  and  Alphonso  of  Castile  ?  The 
growth  of  commercial  cities  ?  The  election  of  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg  ?  His 
reign?  The  Hanse  towns?  The  evidence  of  their  wealth  and  power? 

Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Italian  republics  ?  The  misfortunes 
of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  ?  The  Lombard  leagues  ?  Their  contests 
with  the  emperor?  The  contentions  in  Italy  after  the  death  of  Frederick? 
The  affairs  of  Florence  ?  The  commercial  advantages  accruing  to  Venice 
from  the  crusades  ?  The  growth  of  the  aristocratic  influence  in  their  con¬ 
stitution  ?  The  history  and  power  of  Genoa  ?  Of  Pisa  ?  The  contest  be¬ 
tween  Genoa  and  Pisa  ?  The  prosperity  of  the  Italian  commercial  cities  ? 
The  attempts  of  the  Popes  to  wrest  Naples  from  the  empire  ?  The  contest 
between  Charles  of  Anjou  and  Manfred  ?  Between  Charles  and  Conradin  ? 
The  subsequent  cruelties  of  Charles  ?  The  insurrection  and  massacre  ?  The 
subsequent  events  of  Sicily  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  difficulties  between  France  and 
England  ?  The  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  under  Louis  VIII.  ?  The 
character  and  reign  of  Louis  IX.  ?  The  influence  of  his  reign  ?  The  in¬ 
crease  of  the  kingdom  under  Philip  the  Bold  ?  Under  Philip  the  Fair  ? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  circumstances  which  led  to  the 
adoption  of  Magna  Charta?  The  value  of  Magna  Charta  ?  The  disasters 
attending  the  close  of  King  John’s  reign?  The  character  and  reign  of 
Henry  III.  ?  The  rebellion  of  Leicester  and  the  barons  ?  The  character 
of  Edward  I.  ?  His  expeditions  into  Scotland  ? 

Spanish  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  wars  between  the  Moors 
and  Christians  in  Spain  ?  The  condition  of  Christian  Spain  at  this  period  ? 
The  successes  of  Alphonso  X.  ?  His  subsequent  troubles  ?  The  successes 
of  Saneho  IV.  ?  The  events  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  of  Ferdi¬ 
nand  IV.  ?  During  his  reign  ?  The  attempts  of  the  kings  of  Arragon  to 
conquer  the  Balearic  Isles  ?  The  conquest  and  continued  possession  of  Sicily  ? 

The  East. — What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  Egypt?  The  Mame¬ 
lukes?  The  conquests  of  Ghengis  Khan?  The  further  progress  of  the 
Mongol  power  ? 


white’s  universal  history. 


23 


The  Church  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the 
Franciscans  ?  The  other  mendicant  orders  ?  The  history  of  the  Inquisition  ? 
The  origin  and  persecution  of  the  Albigenses  ?  • 

Crusades. — What  account  is  given  of  the  fourth  crusade  ?  The  crusade 
of  children  ?  The  fifth  crusade  ?  The  sixth  crusade  ?  The  seventh  cru¬ 
sade  ?  The  eighth  crusade  ?  The  immediate  effect  of  the  crusades  ?  Their 
effect  upon  the  Church  ?  Their  political  effect  ?  Their  effect  on  commerce 
and  industry  ?  Their  effect  on  knowledge  ? 

FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  286.) 

Greek  Empire.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  continued  losses  of  the 
empire  ?  The  diasters  occurring  in  the  reign  of  John  Palaeologus  ?  The 
narrow  bounds  of  the  empire  ?  The  origin  of  the  Ottoman  empire  ?  The 
establishment  of  the  Janizaries  ?  The  successes  of  Bajazet  ?  His  cruelties  ? 
His  defeat?  The  disorders  of  the  Mongol  empire?  The  early  history  of 
Tamerlane?  His  eastern  conquests?  His  contest  with  Bajazet?  His  pro¬ 
jects  for  universal  dominion  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  Germany  ?  The  origi¬ 
nal  condition  of  the  Swiss  towns  ?  Their  first  efforts  at  independence  ?  The 
story  of  William  Tell?  The  battle  of  Morgarten?  The  conduct  of  the  fifty 
exiles  ?  The  heroism  of  Arnold  Struthan  in  the  battle  of  Sempach  ?  The 
extent  of  the  Helvetic  confederacy  ?  The  attempts  of  Henry  VII.  to  restore 
the  imperial  authority  in  Italy  ?  The  contests  between  the  Emperor  Louis 
and  the  Popes  ?  The  Golden  Bull?  The  other  events  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
IV.?  The  condition  of  the  country  under  Wenceslaus?  The  termination 
of  his  reign  ? 

Italian  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  Italy  at 
this  time  ?  The  attempts  of  the  Romans  to  resist  the  political  power  of  the 
Popes?  The  condition  of  Rome  during  the  residence  of  the  Popes  at  Avig¬ 
non?  The  revolution  attempted  by  Rienzi  ?  The  causes  of  its  failure  ?  The 
affairs  of  Genoa  ?  The  condition  of  Venice  ?  The  condemnation  and  exe¬ 
cution  ofFaliero?  The  interference  of  Venice  with  the  affairs  of  Constanti¬ 
nople  ?  The  contests  between  Venice  and  Genoa  ?  The  affairs  of  Tuscany  ? 
The  affairs  of  Florence?  The  contentions  between  the  Guelfs  and  Ghibel- 
lines  ?  The  contentions  between  the  greater  arts  and  the  less  arts  ?  The 
affairs  of  Lombardy  ?  The  affairs  of  Sicily  and  Naples  under  Frederick  of 
Arragon  ?  Subsequent  events  in  Naples  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Flemish  war  ?  The  quarrels  be¬ 
tween  the  French  King  and  the  Popes?  The  destruction  of  the  Knights 
Templars  ?  The  reign  of  Louis  Hutin  ?  The  Salic  law  ?  The  claims  of 
Edward  III.  of  England  ?  The  sedition  in  Flanders  ?  The  battle  of  Cressy  ? 
The  interposition  of  the  Pope  ?  The  arbitrary  measures  of  the  French  King  ? 
The  States  General  ?  The  battle  of  Poictiers  ?  The  Jacquerie  ?  The  peace 
of  1360?  The  renewal  of  the  war?  The  condition  of  the  kingdom  under 
Charles  VI.  ? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  Gaveston,  earl  of  Cornwall  ?  The 
battle  of  Bannockburn  ?  The  rebellion  of  Lancaster  ?  Rebellion  of  the 
Pembroke  party  ?  The  deposition  of  Edward  ?  The  first  steps  of  Edward 
III.  after  his  accession  ?  The  battle  of  Sluys  ?  The  battle  of  Cressy  ?  Of 
Poictiers  ?  The  treaty  of  Bretigny  ?  The  Black  Prince  ?  The  general 
affairs  of  the  kingdom  ?  The  march  of  the  earl  of  Buckingham  through 
France  ?  The  condition  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  of  Richard  II.  ? 
The  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler?  The  expedition  against  Scotland?  The  de 
position  and  death  of  Richard  ?  The  great  Plague  ? 


I 


m 


24  QUESTIONS  TO 

Spanish  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Alphonso  XI.? 
The  cruelties  of  Pedro  ?  His  deposition  ?  The  interposition  of  Edward  the 
Black  Prince?  The  death  of  Pedro?  The  reign  of  Henry  II.?  His  suc¬ 
cessor  John  I.?  The  reign  of  Henry  III.?  The  affairs  of  Aragon?  The 

affairs  of  Portugal  under  Dionysius?  Under  Pedro  I.  ?  The  subsequent 
events  in  Portugal  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  projects  of  Boniface  VIII.  ? 
His  controversy  with  Philip  the  Fair  ?  The  “  Babylonish  captivity  ?”  The 

great  schism  ?  The  attempts  of  Wickliffe  to  reform  the  Church  ?  The 

Flagellants  ?  The  Bianchi  ? 

Inventions.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  mariner’s  compass?  The 
invention  of  paper  ? 

FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  306.) 

Greek  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  John  Palaeologus 
II.  ?  Constantine  Palseologus  ?  The  siege  and  fall  of  Constantinople  ?  The 
dissolution  of  the  empire  ? 

Ottoman  Empire  and  Turkey. — What  account  is  given  of  the  invasion  of 
Tamerlane?  Subsequent  successes  of  the  Turks?  The  exploits  of  John 
Huniades  ?  The  abdication  of  Amurath  ?  His  return  to  power  and  final 
success  ?  His  second  abdication  and  return  to  power  ?  The  exploits  of 
Scanderbeg  ?  The  reduction  of  Constantinople  by  Mohammed  II.?  His 
attempt  upon  Rhodes  ?  The  siege  of  Belgrade  ?  The  reduction  of  Athens? 
The  expedition  against  Rhodes  ?  The  character  of  Mohammed  ?  The  dis¬ 
pute  between  Bajazet  II.  and  Zizim  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  attempt  of  Robert  to  re-establish 
his  authority  in  Italy  ?  The  elevation  of  Sigismond  ?  The  council  of  Con¬ 
stance  ?  The  Hussite  war  ?  The  policy  and  conduct  of  Albert  II.,  duke  of 
Austria  ?  The  concessions  of  Frederick  III.  ?  His  negotiations  with  the 
Pope  ?  The  affairs  of  Saxony  ?  The  negotiations  between  Frederick  and 
Charles  the  Bold  ?  The  consequences  of  the  death  of  Charles  ?  The  acces¬ 
sion  and  marriage  of  Maximilian  ?  The  decrees  of  the  diet  of  Worms? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  France  under  Charles 
VI.  ?  The  rival  factions  of  Orleans  and  Burgundy  ?  The  civil  wars  ?  The 
invasion  of  Henry  V-  ?  The  battle  of  Agincourt  ?  The  cruelties  of  the 
dominant  party  in  Paris  ?  The  assassination  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy  ? 
The  treaty  of  Troyes  ?  The  death  of  Henry  V.  and  Charles  VI.  ?  The 
accession  and  conduct  of  Charles  VII.  ?  The  condition  of  his  kingdom  ? 
The  character  and  early  history  of  Joan  of  Arc  ?  Her  success  ?  Her  capture 
and  death  ?  The  successes  of  Charles  ?  The  consequences  of  the  marriage 
of  Margaret  of  Anjou  with  Henry  VI.?  The  policy  of  Suffolk?  The  vic¬ 
tories  of  Dunois  ?  The  character  of  Charles  ?  The  accession  of  Louis  XI.  ? 
The  troubles  from  opposing  factions  ?  The  hostility  of  the  duke  of  Bur¬ 
gundy  ?  The  manoeuvre  of  Louis  to  divert  him  from  his  purpose  ?  The 
treachery  of  the  duke  towards  the  king  ?  His  cruelty  towards  Liege  ?  The 
interference  of  Louis  and  Charles  in  the  affairs  of  England  ?  The  reverses 
of  Charles  ?  His  death  and  character  ?  The  advantages  of  his  death  to 
Louis?  The  history  of  his  daughter  Mary?  The  death  of  Louis?  The 
character  and  policy  of  Louis  ?  The  regency  of  Anne  ?  The  opposition 
and  revolt  of  Orleans  ?  Of  Maximilian  ?  The  marriage  of  Charles  ?  His 
expedition  into  Italy  ?  His  projects  ?  The  coalition  against  him  ?  His 
return  to  France?  His  victory  and  death? 

Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  difficulties  of  Henry  IV.  ?  The 
accession  of  Henry  V.  ?  His  expedition  against  France  ?  The  battle  of 


white’s  universal  history. 


25 


Agincourt  ?  His  second  campaign  in  France  ?  The  treaty  of  Troyes  ? 
His  death  and  character  ?  The  progress  of  the  war  under  the  duke  of  Bed¬ 
ford  ?  The  siege  of  Orleans  ?  Joan  of  Arc  ?  The  decline  of  the  English 
arms?  The  earl  of  Warwick?  The  feeble  conduct  of  the  king?  The 
rebellion  of  Cade?  The  usurpation  of  Richard,  duke  of  York?  His  over¬ 
throw  and  death  ?  The  success  and  cruelty  of  the  earl  of  March  ?  His 
accession  to  the  throne?  His  marriage  and  its  consequences  ?  The  conduct 
of  Warwick?  Restoration  of  Henry  VI.  ?  The  intrigues  and  downfall  of 
Warwick?  The  death  of  Henry  and  restoration  of  Edward  IV.?  His  sub¬ 
sequent  history  ?  Edward  V.  ?  The  usurpation  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester  ? 
His  reign  ?  The  accession  and  marriage  of  Henry  VII.  ?  The  abolition  of 
“  maintenance”  ?  The  origin  of  the  “  Star  Chamber”  ?  Henry’s  invasion 
of  France?  The  insurrection  of  Perkin  Warbeck  ?  The  disorders  of  Scot- 
land  during  this  period?  The  policy  of  James  III.  towards  the  barons? 
Their  conspiracy  ?  The  interposition  of  Gloucester  in  favour  of  Albany  ? 
The  conduct  of  the  nobles  towards  the  king  ?  The  revolt  of  the  duke  of 
Rothsay  ?  The  reign  of  James  IV.  ? 

Italian  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  wars  between  the  Anjou 
and  Durazzo  families  ?  The  elevation  of  Alphonzo  to  the  throne  of  Naples  ? 
His  character  and  administration  ?  The  contests  between  Ferdinand  and 
his  nobles  ?  The  restoration  of  the  Medici  family  in  Florence  ?  John  de 
Medici  ?  Cosmo  ?  Pietro  ?  Lorenzo  ?  The  downfall  and  bankruptcy  of 
the  family  ?  The  papacy  ?  The  council  of  Basle?  The  pragmatic  sanc¬ 
tion  ?  The  attempts  to  excite  a  new  crusade  ?  Sixtus  IV.  ?  Innocent  VIII.  ? 
Alexander  VI.  ?  The  affairs  of  Cyprus  ?  The  interference  of  Venice  ?  The 
continental  aggrandizement  of  Venice?  The  origin  and  rise  of  Sforza? 
The  history  and  aggrandizement  of  his  son,  Francis  Sforza  ?  The  affairs  of 
Genoa  ?  Ludovico  the  Moor  ?  The  other  Italian  states  ?  The  general 
condition  of  Italy  ? 

Spanish  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  kingdom  of  Navarre? 
The  generosity  of  Carlos  to  his  father,  John  II.?  The  birth  of  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  ?  The  intrigues  of  the  queen  against  Carlos  ?  The  successive 
attempts  of  Carlos  to  regain  his  rights  ?  His  death  ?  The  death  of  Blanche  ? 
The  feelings  of  the  Catalonians  towards  John?  The  affairs  of  Aragon? 
The  affairs  of  Castile?  The  minority  of  John  II.?  The  reign  of  Henry 
IV.  ?  The  rebellion  of  the  nobles  ?  The  concessions  of  the  king  ?  The 
marriage  of  Isabella  ?  The  various  tyrannical  measures  of  the  king  ?  The 
contest  for  the  crown  at  his  death  ?  The  reforms  at  the  accession  of  Ferdi¬ 
nand  and  Isabella?  The  war  against  the  Moors  ?  Abulhassan  ?  Boabdil  ? 
The  siege  and  capture  of  Granada  ?  The  articles  of  capitulation  ?  The 
persecution  and  expulsion  of  the  Jews  ?  The  family  alliances  of  the  mo- 
narchs  ?  The  affairs  of  Portugal?  The  reign  of  John  I.?  Alphonso  V.? 
His  claims  to  the  throne  of  Castile  ?  His  disgust  with  royalty  ?  John  II.  ? 

Discoveries  and  Colonies. — What  account  is  given  of  the  maritime  entei- 
>rises  of  the  Portuguese  ?  The  discovery  of  Madeira  ?  Its  value  ?  The 
Canary  islands  ?  The  Portuguese  discoveries  around  Africa  ?  The  Indies  ? 
The  discovery  and  settlement  of  America  by  the  Scandinavians?  The  pro¬ 
ject  of  Columbus?  His  various  repulses?  His  first  voyage  and  return? 
His  second  and  third  voyages  ?  His  death  ?  His  remains  ?  Americo 
Vespucci. 

.  The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  great  schism  ?  The  council 
of  Constance  ?  The  conduct  of  Martin  Luther  ?  The  council  of  Basle  ? 
The  Pope’s  opposition?  The  pragmatic  sanction?  The  concessions  of 
Frederick  ?  The  decrees  of  the  council  of  Basle  ?  The  persecution  of  the 
Franciscans  ?  W  ickliffe  ?  Huss  ?  The  council  of  Constance  ?  The  in- 
3 


26 


QUESTIONS  TO 


dignation  excited  by  the  execution  of  Huss  ?  The  Taborites  ?  The  council 
of  Florence  ?  The  attempt  to  unite  the  Roman  and  Greek  Churches  ? 

Appendix  to  the  Middle  Ages. — What  account  is  given  of  the  commerce 
of  Western  Europe?  The  principal  commercial  marts?  The  trade  with 
India  ?  The  causes  of  the  decline  of  Venice  ?  The  commercial  routes  ? 
The  progress  of  commerce  in  England  ?  The  woollen  trade  ?  The  fisheries  ? 
The  naval  code  ?  Banks?  Gunpowder?  Printing?  The  Great  Plague?  The 
Gipsies  ?  The  revival  of  the  arts  ?  The  condition  of  learning  after  the  death 
of  Charlemagne  ?  The  languages  of  Europe  ?  The  universities  ?  The  Ro¬ 
mance  language  ?  The  English  language  and  literature  ?  The  Italian  ? 
The  influence  of  the  downfall  of  Constantinople  upon  learning  ?  The  do 
mestic  measures  of  the  age  ?  The  sumptuary  laws  ?  The  evidences  of 
domestic  and  social  comforts  ?  The  condition  of  agriculture  in  England  ? 
The  prices  of  various  articles  ?  The  comparative  value  of  money  ? 

SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  350.) 

Modern  History. — What  account  is  given  of  the  inventions  that  preceded 
and  marked  the  era  of  this  Reformation?  The  influence  of  race  and  lan¬ 
guage  ?  The  rise  of  the  middle  class  and  the  decline  of  feudalism  in  the 
different  states  of  Europe  ?  The  comparative  condition  and  strength  of  the 
leading  European  powers  during  the  seventeenth  century  ?  The  leading 
events  of  the  eighteenth  century  ?  Its  close  ? 

Eritain. — What  account  is  given  of  two  important  marriages  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  this  century  ?  The  accession  of  Henry  VIII.?  The  conduct  of 
Wolsey  ?  The  foreign  politics  of  Henry?  Crafty  policy  of  Wolsey  ? 
Henry’s  theological  discussions  ?  The  battle  of  Pavia,  and  consequent 
treaty  ?  Henry’s  passion  for  Anne  Boleyn  ?  His  proposals  to  the  Pope  ? 
His  treatise  on  his  marriage  with  Catherine  ?  Policy  of  the  Pope  ?  Dis¬ 
grace  of  Wolsey?  Advice  of  Cranmer  ?  Proceedings  of  Convocation  and 
Parliament  in  regard  to  the  king’s  marriage  and  the  Anglican  Church? 
Subsequent  proceedings  of  Henry  ?  The  abolition  of  the  monasteries  ?  The 
death  of  Anne  Boleyn,  and  marriage  of  Jane  Seymour  ?  The  discontents  in 
England,  and  their  consequences?  The  “bloody  statute”  ?  The  death  of 
Jane  Seymour,  and  marriage  of  Anne  of  Cleves  ?  The  disgrace  of  Cromwell 
and  the  queen  ?  Catherine  Howard  ?  Catherine  Parr  ?  Henry's  attention 
to  Wales?  The  affairs  of  Ireland?  Henry’s  measures  towards  Scotland 
and  France  ?  His  death  ?  His  character?  The  minority  of  Edward  VI.  ? 
The  policy  of  Somerset ?  Winchester?  Proceedings  of  Somerset  in  Scot¬ 
land  ?  The  progress  of  reform  ?  The  projects  and  death  of  Lord  Seymour? 
The  downfall  of  Somerset  ?  The  ambitious  views  and  projects  of  Warwick  ? 
Lady  Jane  Grey  ?  The  accession  of  Mary  ?  The  intentions  and  policy  of 
Mary  ?  Her  measures  for  the  re-establishment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  reli¬ 
gion  ?  Cardinal  Pole  ?  The  persecution  of  Protestants  ?  Death  of  Mary  ? 
Her  character  ?  Education  of  Elizabeth?  The  pretensions  of  Mary  Stuart  ? 
The  restoration  of  the  Protestant  religion  ?  Elizabeth’s  policy  towards  Scot¬ 
land  ?  The  oath  of  supremacy  ?  The  thirty -nine  articles  ?  Mary’s  flight 
into  England?  The  duke  of  Norfolk?  The  bull  of  Pius  V.  ?  Its  effect? 
Foreign  and  domestic  troubles  of  Elizabeth?  Death  of  Mary?  Warlike 
preparations  of  Spain?  Successes  of  Drake?  The  “invincible  Armada”? 
Conduct  of  Elizabeth  ?  The  preparations  for  defence  ?  Failure  and  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  Armada?  Irish  affairs?  James  IV.?  James  V.  ?  Cardinal 
Beaton?  John  Knox?  The  Scottish  reformation?  Troubles  and  vicissi¬ 
tudes  of  Mary  ?  The  union  of  Ireland  with  England  ?  Tlie  influence  of 
Henry  and  Elizabeth  upon  Irish  affairs? 

France.  —  What  account  is  given  of  Louis  XII.  ?  His  character  and 
policy  ?  His  marriages?  The  state  of  the  government  and  kingdom  during 


white’s  universal  history. 


27 


his  reign  ?  His  foreign  alliances  ?  His  Italian  expedition  ?  His  attempts 
upon  Naples?  War  with  Venice?  Gaston  de  Foix?  Proceedings  of 
Francis  I.  ?  Rivalry  between  Francis  and  Charles  ?  The  Constable  Bour¬ 
bon  ?  The  battle  of  Pavia  ?  Subsequent  treaty  ?  Its  violation  ?  Subse¬ 
quent  hostilities  ?  Interview  between  the  monarchs  ?  Alliances  of  the 
French  and  Turks  ?  Religious  disturbances  of  Germany  ?  The  history  of 
Henry  II.?  Francis  II.  ?  The  factions  during  his  reign  ?  The  conspiracy 
of  Amboise  ?  Charles  IX.  ?  The  Huguenots  ?  The  first  civil  war  ?  The 
second  civil  war  ?  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  ?  The  policy  of  Henry 

III.  ?  The  Catholic  League  ?  The  “  sixteen”  ?  The  “  barricades”  ?  The 
assassination  of  the  duke  of  Guise  ?  The  disturbed  condition  of  the  king¬ 
dom  ?  The  assassination  of  the  king  ?  The  accession  of  Henry  IV.  ?  The 
proceedings  of  parliament  ?  The  edict  of  Nantes  ?  The  subsequent  course 
of  the  king  ? 

Italian  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  measures  of  Ferdinand 
of  Spain  to  get  possession  of  Naples  ?  The  subsequent  events  in  Italy  ? 
The  parties  that  favoured  the  French  cause?  Jerome  Savonarola?  The 
difference  between  the  French  and  Italian  soldiery  ?  The  condition  of  Italy 
during  these  wars  ?  The  affairs  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont  ?  The  conspiracy 
in  Genoa  ?  Andrew  Doria  ?  Affairs  of  Genoa  after  his  death  ?  The  coali¬ 
tion  against  Venice?  Its  results?  The  affairs  of  Tuscany  ?  Alexander  de 
Medici  ?  Cosmo  ?  Ferdinand  ?  The  condition  of  the  states  of  the  Church  ? 
Caesar  Borgia?  Julius  II.  ?  Leo  X.  ?  Clement  VII. ?  Paul  III.  ?  Paul 

IV.  ?  Gregory  XIII.  ?  Sixtus  V.  ?  The  affairs  of  Parma  ? 

Spanish  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns  ? 
The  character  of  Ferdinand  ?  The  accession  of  Charles  ?  The  cause  of  his 
unpopularity  among  the  Spaniards  ?  The  subsequent  discontents  ?  The 
change  in  the  Cortes  ?  The  accession  of  Philip  II.  ?  His  severity  ?  Its 
consequences  ?  The  affairs  of  Portugal  ?  Sebastian  ?  The  union  of  Por¬ 
tugal  with  Spain  ?  The  “  invincible  Armada”  ? 

The  Netherlands. — What  account  is  given  of  the  rise  and  power  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy  ?  The  union  of  the  seventeen  provinces  with  Spain  under 
Charles  V.  and  Philip  II.  ?  The  revolt  of  the  Flemings  ?  The  proceedings 
of  the  duke  of  Alva  ?  The  prince  of  Orange  ?  The  continuation  of  the  war 
under  Louis  Requesens  ?  The  pacification  of  Ghent  ?  The  formation  of 
the  United  Provinces  under  William,  prince  of  Orange  ?  The  affairs  of  the 
Low  Countries  ?  The  interference  of  England  ?  Conclusion  of  the  contest  ? 
The  causes  of  the  success  of  the  Dutch  against  Philip  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Maximilian  ?  The  ele¬ 
vation  of  Charles  V.  ?  Hostility  of  Francis  ?  The  league  against  him  ? 
His  defeats  ?  His  capture  ?  The  Holy  League  ?  The  imperial  forces  in 
Italy  ?  Sacking  of  Rome  ?  The  treaty  of  Cambray  ?  Martin  Luther  ? 
The  progress  of  his  doctrines  ?  The  diet  of  Augsburg  ?  The  policy  of 
Charles  ?  His  brother  Ferdinand  ?  The  expedition  of  Charles  into  Africa  's 
The  Anabaptists  ?  French  and  Italian  wars  ?  The  second  expedition  into 
Africa  ?  Renewal  of  hostilities  between  Charles  and  Francis  ?  The  peace 
of  Crespy  ?  The  plans  of  Charles  against  the  Reformers  ?  His  success  ? 
The  subsequent  revolt  and  success  of  the  Reformers  under  Maurice  ?  The 
abdication  of  Charles  ?  The  reign  of  Ferdinand  I.?  Maximilian  II.?  Ru¬ 
dolph  II.? 

Hungary  and  Bohemia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  early  history  of 
these  states  ?  The  invasion  of  Hungary  by  the  Turks  ?  The  opposition  of 
the  Bohemians  to  the  Austrian  dominion  ?  The  origin  of  the  Croats  and 
Pandoors  ? 


28 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Poland  and  Russia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  early  history  of  Poland  ? 
The  reign  of  Alexander  ?  Sigismund  I.  ?  Sigismund  II.  ?  The  Confedera¬ 
tion  of  1573?  Henry?  Battori?  Sigismund  III.  ?  The  early  history  of 
Russia?  Ivan  III.  ?  Vasili  IV.?  Theodore?  Boris? 

Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway. — What  account  is  given  of  the  early  his¬ 
tory  of  these  countries  ?  Christian  II.  ?  Gustavus  Vasa  ?  Frederick  I.  ? 
The  Reformation  ?  Sweden  and  Denmark  ?  The  recess  of  Colding  ?  Erik? 
John  ?  Sigismund  ?  Charles  ? 

Ottoman  Empire  and  the  East. — What  account  is  given  of  the  internal 
disturbances  of  the  empire  ?  Selim  ?  The  war  with  Persia  ?  The  conquest 
of  Egypt  ?  Soliman  I.  ?  The  capture  of  Belgrade  ?  The  reduction  of 
Rhodes  ?  The  invasion  of  Hungary  ?  Khair  Eddin  Barbarossa  ?  Subse¬ 
quent  events  by  land  and  sea  ?  Domestic  troubles  of  Soliman  ?  Amurath 
III.?  Sheikh  Eidar  in  Persia?  Ismael?  Tamasp?  Mohammed  Mirza  ? 
Abbas  ?  The  early  history  of  India  ?  The  Mohammedan  conquests  and 
power  in  India  ?  The  Ghoriar  dynasty  ?  Tamerlane  ?  Baber  ?  Akbar  ? 
The  early  history  of  China  ?  The  Han  dynasty  ?  The  Tang  dynasty  ? 
The  Song  dynasty  ?  Kublai-Khan  ? 

Colonies  and  Discoveries. — What  account  is  given  of  the  West  Indies? 
Mexico?  Peru?  Brazil?  North  America ? 

[Discoveries  and  Settlements  in  North  America.  —  What  account  is 
given  of  the  Cabots?  Ponce  de  Leon?  Varrazani?  Gomez?  Cartier? 
Ferdinand  de  Soto ?  Ribault?  Melendez?  Frobisher?  Sir  Francis  Drake 
and  the  Oregon  territory?  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert?  Sir  Walter  Raleigh’s 
first  expedition  ?  His  second  expedition  ?  His  third  expedition  ?  His  fate  ?] 

Colonial  System. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  the  Spanish 
colonies  ?  The  Portuguese  dominion  in  the  East  ?  Causes  of  its  decline  ? 
Colonial  policy  of  England  ? 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  religious  movements  that 
preceded  the  Reformation  ?  Indulgences  ?  Luther’s  first  opposition  ?  Eras¬ 
mus  ?  Leo  X.  ?  The  progress  of  the  new  opinions  ?  The  diet  at  Spires  ? 
The  diet  of  Augsburg?  Maurice  of  Saxony?  The  Helvetic  Reformation  ? 
The  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  France  ?  In  other  countries  ?  The 
council  of  Trent  ?  Its  decrees  ?  The  Jesuits  ? 

Letters,  Arts  and  Sciences. — What  account  is  given  of  the  consequences 
of  the  invention  of  printing?  English  writers  ?  French?  Italian?  Spa¬ 
nish  ?  Portuguese  ?  German  and  Dutch  ? 

SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D,  (Page  400.) 

Great  Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  James  I.? 
His  character  ?  His  troubles  ?  The  Gunpowder  Plot  ?  The  oath  of  alle¬ 
giance  ?  The  pacification  and  settlement  of  Ireland  ?  Buckingham  ?  The 
state  of  parties  ?  Death  of  James  ?  Accession  and  marriage  of  Charles  I.  ? 
Ship-money  ?  Petition  of  right  ?  Laud  and  Strafford  ?  The  Star  Chamber  ? 
The  Scottish  Covenant  ?  The  Long  Parliament  ?  The  parties  in  the  civil 
war  ?  Its  issue  ?  Cromwell  ?  Death  of  Charles  ?  The  Rump  Parliament? 
Montrose  ?  Ormond  ?  Charles  II.  ?  The  Protectorate  ?  The  success  of 
British  arms?  Death  of  Cromwell?  His  son  Richard?  Restoration  of 
Charles  II.  ?  His  first  measures  ?  His  marriage  and  character  ?  The  sur¬ 
render  of  Dunkirk?  War  with  Holland?  The  plague  in  London?  The 
great  fire  ?  The  persecution  in  Scotland  ?  The  Test  Act  ?  The  Popish 
Plot?  Further  measures  of  Parliament?  Accession  of  James  II.?  His 
character  ?  The  rebellion  of  Monmouth  and  Argyle  ?  The  attempts  of 
James  to  introduce  the  Catholic  religion  ?  The  accession  of  William,  prince 


white’s  universal  history. 


29 


of  Orange?  The  influence  of  the  revolution  upon  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
empire  ?  The  disposition  of  the  Catholics  towards  William  ?  The  proceed¬ 
ings  in  Scotland? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  minority  of  Louis  XIII.  ?  Con- 
cini  ?  Luines  ?  Flight  and  insurrection  of  Mary  ?  Insurrection  of  the 
Protestants  ?  The  character  and  designs  of  Richelieu  ?  His  measures  of 
foreign  policy  ?  His  domestic  administration  ?  Mazarin  and  the  Fronde  ? 
The  war  between  France  and  Spain?  The  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees?  The 
ambitious  projects  of  Louis  XIV.?  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle?  The 
preparations  for  war  with  the  United  Provinces?  The  progress  of  the  war? 
Its  termination?  The  despotic  character  of  Louis  ?  The  motives  which  led 
to  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes?  The  persecuting  measures  of 
government  ?  Their_consequences  ?  The  grand  alliance  against  France  ? 
Progress  of  the  war  ?  The  treaty  of  Ryswick  ?  , 

Spain  and  Portugal. — What  account  is  given  of  the  character  and  reign 
of  Philip  III.  ?  Philip  IV.?  The  disasters  of  his  reign?  The  Portuguese 
revolution?  John  IV.?  Alphonso  VI.?  Peter  II.? 

Italian  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  influence  of  the  Refor¬ 
mation  upon  Italian  affairs  ?  The  contests  of  Venice  with  the  Pope  ?  With 
the  pirates  ?  With  Turkey? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  Germany  under  Mat¬ 
thias  ?  Ferdinand  II.  ?  The  parties  to  the  Bohemian  war  ?  Its  progress  ? 
The  Protestant  confederacy  of  1625?  Designs  of  the  emperor  upon  the 
liberties  of  the  German  princes  ?  His  proceedings  in  Bohemia  ?  In  Ger¬ 
many  ?  Resistance  of  the  diet  of  Ratisbon  ?  The  preparations  for  war 
under  Gustavus  Adolphus  ?  The  progress  of  the  war  ?  The  defeat  of  Tilly  ? 
The  defeat  of  Wallenstein  ?  Consequences  of  the  death  of  Gustavus  ?  Pro¬ 
gress  of  the  war  under  Ferdinand  III.?  The  peace  of  Westphalia  ?  The 
accession  of  Leopold  I.  ?  The  confederacy  of  the  Turks  and  Hungarians  ? 
The  siege  of  Vienna  ?  The  electorate  of  Hanover  ?  The  kingdom  of 
Prussia  ? 

Holland. — What  account  is  given  of  the  contest  between  the  Spanish  and 
the  Dutch?  The  origin  of  the  Synod  of  Dort?  Its  decrees  ?  The  resump¬ 
tion  of  hostilities  with  Spain  ?  Frederick  Henry  ?  William  II.  ?  The  war 
with  England  ?  Humiliation  of  the  Dutch  ?  Renewal  of  the  war  under  De 
Witt?  William  III.? 

Denmark. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Christian  IV.  ?  His 
participation  in  the  Protestant  League  ?  The  war  with  Sweden  ?  The 
reign  of  Frederick  III. ?  Christian  V.?  The  foreign  commerce?  Frede¬ 
rick  IV.  ? 

Sweden. — What  account  is  given  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  ?  The  attempt 
of  Sigismund  of  Poland  ?  The  interposition  of  the  Czar  ?  The  proceedings 
of  Gustavus  in  Germany  ?  The  minority  of  Christina  ?  The  part  taken  by 
her  in  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  ?  Her  character?  Her  resignation  of  the 
crown  ?  The  reign  of  Charles  X.  ?  His  war  with  Poland  ?  With  Denmark  ? 
The  general  pacification  after  his  death  ?  The  course  of  Charles  XI.  on 
attaining  his  majority  ?  His  domestic  administration? 

Poland. — What  account  is  given  of  the  interference  of  Sigismund  in  the 
affairs  of  Russia?  In  the  thirty  years’  war?  The  general  influence  of  his 
reign?  Ladislaus  IV.?  His  relations  with  Russia?  Turkey?  The  in¬ 
fluence  of  the  Jesuits?  The  reign  of  John  Casimir  ?  Invasion  of  Gustavus? 
Bad  policy  of  Gustavus?  The  part  taken  in  this  dispute  by  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg  ?  Relations  with  the  Cossacks  and  Muscovites  ?  The  acces- 
3  * 


30 


QUESTIONS  TO 


sion  of  Michael  ?  The  invasion  of  the  Turks  ?  The  election  of  Sobieski  as 
John  III.?  His  character  and  achievements?  The  domestic  troubles  of 
Poland  ? 

Russia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  state  of  Russia?  The  invasion  of 
of  the  Swedes  and  Poles  ?  The  elevation  of  Romanof  ?  His  pacific  policy  ? 
His  internal  administration  ?  The  minority  of  Alexis  ?  His  foreign  rela¬ 
tions  and  successes  ?  His  domestic  troubles?  The  rebellion  of  Razin  ?  The 
internal  administration  ?  The  reign  of  Theodore  ?  Peter  the  Great  ? 

Ottoman  Empire. — What  account  is  given  of  the  state  of  the  empire? 
The  character  of  its  sovereigns?  Osman?  Mustapha?  Murad?-  Ibra¬ 
him?  Mohammed  IV.?  The  capture  of  Candia?  The  war  in  Hungary? 
Soliman  III.?  Achmet  II.?  Mustapha  II.?  The  treaty  of  Carlowitz ? 

The  East. — What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  Persia  under  Saffi  ? 
Abbas  II.  ?  Hussein  Mirza  ?  The  origin  of  the  Mantchoos  ?  Their  rise 
to  supreme  power  in  China  ?  The  policy  of  Chun-tchi  ?  Kang-hi  ?  The 
early  history  of  Japan?  Its  form  of  government?  The  Catholics  ?  The 
Dutch?  The  Mogul  empire  ?  Its  disasters  under  Selim?  Jehan  ?  The 
reign  of  Aurengzebe  ?  The  Mahrattas  ?  Condition  of  the  Mogul  empire  ? 

Colonies. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  the  British  East  India 
Company?  The  extension  of  their  powers  in  1624?  Their  progress?  The 
African  companies?  The  West  Indies?  The  settlements  in  North  Ame¬ 
rica?  The  French  colonies  ?  The  Spanish  ?  Portuguese?  Dutch? 

[Settlement  of  the  United  States. — What  account  is  given  of  the  settle- 
ment  of  St.  Augustine  ?  Of  Virginia  ?  New  Plymouth  ?  Massachusetts  ? 
New  Hampshire?  Maine?  Rhode  Island?  Connecticut?  New  York? 
Delaware  ?  Maryland  ?  Carolina  ?  New  Jersey  ?  Pennsylvania  ?  Georgia  ?] 

The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  the  Jansenists? 
The  hostility  of  the  Jesuits  ?  The  interposition  of  papal  authority  ?  The 
schism  among  French  theologians  ?  The  Quakers  ? 

Literature,  Arts  and  Sciences. — What  account  is  given  of  their  condi¬ 
tion  in  England  ?  France  ?  Italy  ?  Spain  ?  Germany  ?  Holland  ? 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D.  (Page  432.) 

Great  Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Act  of  Succession  ?  The 
grand  alliance?  Hostile  movements  of  the  French?  Death  of  William  ? 
Incidents  of  his  reign  ?  The  accession  of  Anne  ?  The  successes  of  Marl¬ 
borough  ?  The  taking  of  Gibraltar  ?  The  Scottish  Act  of  Security  ?  The 
treaty  of  union  ?  The  continuance  of  the  war  on  the  continent  ?  Trial  of 
Sacheverell?  Accession  of  the  Tories  to  power?  Supposed  intentions  of 
Anne  and  the  Tories  ?  Accession  of  George  I.  ?  His  policy  towards  the 
tories  ?  The  Riot  Act  ?  The  rebellion  in  favour  of  the  Pretender  ?  Its 
suppression  ?  The  Quadruple  Alliance  ?  The  South  Sea  bubble  ?  The 
accession  of  George  II.  ?  The  policy  of  Walpole  ?  War  with  Spain  ?  The 
affair  of  Portobello  and  Carthagena  ?  The  war  in  behalf  of  the  queen  of 
Hungary  ?  The  rebellion  of  ’45  ?  Its  progress  ?  Its  termination  ?  Its 
consequences  to  the  Highlanders  ?  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ?  The  con¬ 
dition  of  the  British  colonies  ?  The  assistance  to  Prussia?  The  progress  of 
the  seven  years’  war  under  Mr.  Pitt  ?  Accession  of  George  III.  ?  The  progress 
and  termination  of  the  war  under  Bute  ?  His  retirement  ?  The  career  of 
John  Wilkes  ?  The  origin  and  object  of  the  Stamp  Act  ?  The  ground  of 
opposition  to  it  ?  The  concessions  of  the  ministry  ?  The  issue  of  the  con 
troversy  ?  The  affairs  of  Ireland  ?  The  national  debt  ?  The  difficulties 
that  beset  the  empire  during  the  American  war  ?  The  parliamentary  lead 


white’s  universal  history. 


31 


ers  ?  The  coalition  ministry  ?  Elevation  of  Mr.  Pitt  ?  His  first  measures  ? 
Warren  Hastings?  The  regency  discussion?  The  French  revolution? 
Commencement  of  hostilities  ?  The  successes  of  the  English  ?  The  union 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ?  The  condition  and  resources  of  England 
during  the  war  of  the  French  revolution?  Her  Indian  possessions?  Her 
national  debt  ?  Her  commerce  with  the  United  States  ?  Evidences  of 
wealth  ?  Sources  of  her  power  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  question  of  the  Spanish  succes¬ 
sion  ?  The  will  of  Charles  II.?  The  offensive  alliance  against  Philip  V.  ? 
The  success  of  Eugene  and  Marlborough  ?  Embarrassed  condition  of  Louis? 
The  successive  victories  of  the  allied  powers  ?  The  attempt  at  negotiation  ? 
Renewal  of  it?  The  change  in  European  affairs?  The  peace  of  Utrecht? 
The  character  of  Louis  XIV.  ?  His  principles  of  government  ?  Iiis  army 
and  revenues?  The  regency  of  Orleans?  The  Mississippi  scheme?  Its 
plan  ?  Its  extent  ?  Its  result  ?  The  majority  and  marriage  of  Louis  XV.  ? 
The  policy  of  Fleury  ?  The  war  against  Austria  and  Russia  ?  Treaty  of 
Vienna  ?  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  ?  Its  violation  by  Louis  ?  The  war  with 
Austria?  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ?  The  subsequent  events  of  his  reign? 
The  state  of  the  kingdom  ?  The  accession  and  marriage  of  Louis  XVI.  ? 
His  character  ?  His  first  acts  ?  Treaty  of  alliance  with  the  United  States  ? 
The  meeting  of  the  Notables  ?  The  proposition  of  Calonne  ?  The  assem¬ 
bling  of  the  States  General  ?  Measures  of  the  Third  Estate  ?  Formation 
of  the  National  Assembly  ?  Dismissal  of  Neckar  ?  Formation  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Guard  ?  Action  of  the  National  Assembly  ?  Attack  of  the  palace  at 
Versailles  ?  Condition  of  the  royal  family  ?  Further  proceedings  of  the 
assembly  ?  Attempted  flight  of  the  king  ?  Dissolution  of  the  assembly  ? 
Character  and  proceedings  of  the  new  assembly  ?  Action  of  Austria  and 
Prussia?  Condition  of  Paris  and  the  royal  family?  The  National  Conven¬ 
tion  ?  Execution  of  the  king  ?  Hostile  attitude  of  the  republic  ?  Progress 
of  the  war  ?  First  appearance  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte  ?  The  reign  of  ter¬ 
ror  ?  Its  atrocities  ?  Its  impieties  ?  Downfall  of  Robespierre  ?  Military 
operations  of  the  republic  ?  The  Directory  ?  State  of  the  war  ?  Napoleon’s 
campaign  in  Italy  ?  Political  changes  consequent  upon  the  peace  of  Campo 
Formio?  Napoleon’s  expedition  into  Egypt?  Expedition  into  Palestine  ? 
His  return  to  France?  Downfall  of  the  Directory  ?  Influence  of  the  French 
revolution  upon  English  and  continental  politics  ?  Upon  France  ? 

Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  Philip  V.  ?  The  war 
of  the  succession  ?  Its  results  upon  Spain?  Alberoni  and  Elizabeth  Far- 
nese  ?  Their  projects  ?  Internal  administration  of  Alberoni  ?  The  Quad¬ 
ruple  Alliance  ?  Abdication  and  resumption  of  the  crown  by  Philip  ?  Sub¬ 
sequent  wars  of  Philip  ?  The  policy  and  administration  of  Ferdinand  VI.  ? 
Accession  of  Charles  III.  ?  War  with  England  ?  Colonial  losses  ?  Internal 
administration?  Accession  of  Charles  IV.  ?  Godoy  ?  War  with  France ? 
Treaty  of  alliance  with  France  ?  War  with  England? 

Portugal. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Peter  II.  ?  Relations 
with  England  ?  The  character  and  reign  of  John  V.  ?  Joseph  I.  ?  Cha¬ 
racter  and  measures  of  Pombal  ?  The  earthquake  of  1755  ?  The  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits?  Accession  of  Maria?  Her  measures?  Her  melancholy 
death  ? 

Italian  Peninsula. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Victor  Ama¬ 
deus  II.  ?  Charles  Emanuel  III.  ?  Victor  Amadeus  III.  ?  The  affairs  of 
Tuscany?  Of  the  Two  Sicilies  ?  Of  Venice  ?  Church  affairs  under  Cle¬ 
ment  XI.  ?  Benedict  XIII.  ?  Benedict  XIV,  ?  Clement  XIII.  ?  Clement 
XIV.?  Pius  VI.? 


32 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Joseph  L?  Charles 
VI.  ?  The  treaty  of  Utrecht  ?  Successes  against  the  Turks  ?  The  Prag¬ 
matic  Sanction  ?  Reverses  towards  the  close  of  this  reign  ?  Claimants  to 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Austrian  dominions  ?  Proceedings  of  Maria  Theresa 
and  the  European  powers  ?  Election  of  Charles  VII.  ?  Position  and  treaties 
of  Maria  Theresa?  Hostilities  with  Prussia  in  1744?  Elevation  of  her 
husband  as  Francis  I.  ?  Progress  of  the  Austrian  arms  in  Italy  ?  Internal 
administration  of  the  queen  ?  The  seven  years’  war?  The  reign  of  Joseph 
II.  ?  Disputes  about  the  electorate  ?  Character  and  influence  of  Maria 
Theresa?  Ambitious  designs  qf  Joseph?  His  reformations  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  ?  Impolicy  of  some  of  his  measures  ?  War  with  Turkey?  Leopold 
II.?  His  measures?  Measures  of  Francis  II.? 

Holland. — What  account  is  given  of  the  position  of  William  III.  ?  The 
confederacy  against  Louis  XIV.  ?  Its  result  ?  The  change  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  ?  The  character  and  administration  of  the  grand  pensioner,  Heinsius  ? 
Condition  and  progress  of  Holland  after  the  peace  of  Utrecht  ?  Banishment 
of  the  Jesuits  ?  The  danger  from  the  dykes  ?  The  circumstances  which 
led  to  the  re-elevation  of  the  house  of  Orange  ?  The  minority  of  William  V.  ? 
Relations  of  the  Dutch  towards  the  United  States  ?  Reverses  ?  Discontents  ? 
Interposition  of  Prussia  in  favour  of  the  Stadtholder  ?  Invasion  of  the 
French  ?  Change  of  government? 

Denmark. — What  account  is  given  of  the  administration  of  Frederick  IV.? 
The  salutary  reforms  of  Christian  IV.  ?  The  prosperous  condition  of  the 
kingdom  under  Frederick  V.?  First  measures  of  Christian  VII.?  His 
marriage  ?  His  travels  ?  Character  and  administration  of  Struensee  ?  His 
downfall?  The  regency  of  Frederick  ? 

Sweden. — What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  Charles  XII.  ?  Ag¬ 
gressions  of  the  neighbouring  states  ?  Prompt  measures  of  Charles  towards 
Denmark  ?  His  successes  over  the  Russians  ?  His  measures  in  Poland  ? 
The  Russian  campaign  of  1708  ?  His  defeat  in  1709  ?  The  stay  of  Charles 
in  Turkey?  His  return,  measures  and  death?  Elevation  of  Ulrica  Elea- 
nora  ?  Subsequent  treaties  of  peace  ?  Politic  administration  of  Frederick  ? 
Factions  of  the  Hats  and  Caps  ?  Rupture  with  Russia  ?  Its  consequences  ? 
Measures  of  Adolphus  Frederick  ?  Measures  of  Gustavus  III.  ?  Dispute 
with  the  army  ?  Subsequent  events  ? 

Poland. — What  account  is  given  of  the  elevation  of  Augustus  II.  ?  His 
forced  abdication  ?  His  return  to  power  ?  Condition  of  the  country  ?  Ele¬ 
vation  of  Augustus  III.  ?  His  measures  ?  Election  of  Stanislaus  ?  Inter 
ference  of  Catherine  in  Polish  affairs  ?  The  civil  war  ?  The  project  for 
partitioning  Poland  ?  Its  accomplishment  ?  Efforts  of  the  Polish  govern¬ 
ment  at  internal  reforms  ?  New  interference  of  foreign  powers  ?  Second 
partition  ?  Effort  of  Kosciusko  to  regain  national  independence  ?  His  fail¬ 
ure  ?  Third  and  final  partition  ?  Character  of  this  transaction  ? 

Prussia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  Prussia  ?  The  title  of 
Margrave?  The  house  of  Brandenburg?  Albert?  Frederick  William? 
Assumption  of  the  royal  title  by  W’illiam  I.  ?  Administration  of  Frederick 
William  II.?  State  of  the  country  at  his  death?  Character  and  accession 
of  Frederick  II.  ?  The  war  of  the  Austrian  succession  ?  Internal  adminis¬ 
tration  ?  Confederacy  against  Prussia  ?  Measures  of  Frederick  in  this 
emergency?  Progress  of  the  war?  Battle  of  Zorndorf?  Of  Kunersdorf? 
Capture  of  Berlin  ?  Critical  position  of  Frederick  ?  Death  of  Elizabeth  ? 
Elevation  and  policy  of  Peter  III.  ?  Termination  of  the  war  ?  Condition 
of  the  kingdom  at  his  death  ?  His  character  and  policy  ?  Reign  of  Frede¬ 
rick  William  II.? 


WHITE'S  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


33 


Russia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  insurrection  of  the  Strelitzes  ?  The 
inferiority  of  the  Russian  soldiers  in  the  war  with  Sweden  ?  The  founding 
of  St.  Petersburg  ?  Success  of  the  Russian  arms  in  1709  ?  Catherine  Alex- 
ina  ?  Her  successful  intrigues  with  the  Porte  ?  Successes  of  Peter  ?  His 
promotion  of  the  arts  ?  His  character  ?  Reign  of  Catherine  ?  Peter  II.  ? 
Elevation  and  reign  of  Anne  ?  Of  Elizabeth  ?  Peter  III.  ?  Elevation  of 
the  Empress  Catherine  ?  Her  character  and  measures  ?  Her  contest  with 
Turkey?  Internal  administration?  The  Armed  Neutrality?  Further 
encroachments  and  conquests  ?  Her  Polish  policy  ?  Measures  of  Paul  I.  ? 

Turkey. — What  account  is  given  of  the  reign  of  Achmet  III.  ?  The  war 
about  the  Morea  ?  Its  result  ?  Persian  conquests  ?  Elevation  of  Mahmoud 
I.  ?  Persian  affairs  ?  European  war  ?  Reign  of  Osman  III.  ?  Measures 
of  Mustapha  III.?  Accession  of  Abdul-Hamid?  War  with  Russia  and 
Austria?  Character  of  Selim  III.?  Progress  of  the  Austrian  and  Russian 
arms  ?  Interposition  of  the  other  European  powers  ?  Condition  of  the  em¬ 
pire  ?  Attempts  at  reform  ? 

Persia.  —  What  account  is  given  of  Mahmoud?  Tamasp?  Ashraff? 
Nadir  Kouli?  His  talents  and  power?  Election  of  Abbas  III.?  Assump¬ 
tion  of  supreme  power  by  Nadir  Shah  ?  His  victories  in  Afghanistan  ?  In 
India?  In  Bokhara?  His  tyranny  and  death?  Condition  of  the  empire? 
Elevation  of  Kereem  Khan  ?  His  administration  ?  Lootf  Ali  Khan  ?  Aga 
Mohammed  Khan  ?  Shah  Futteh  Ali? 

India. — What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  Shah  Aulum  ?  Trou¬ 
bles  during  his  reign  ?  Character  of  Jehanda  Shah  ?  Elevation  of  Moham¬ 
med  Shah  ?  Imbecility  and  misfortunes  of  his  reign  ?  Invasion  of  Nadir 
Shah  ?  Reign  of  Ahmed  Shah  ?  Subsequent  troubles  ?  Contest  between 
the  Afghans  and  Mahrattas  ?  First  collision  between  the  French  and  Eng¬ 
lish  in  the  East?  Project  and  measures  of  the  French  governor,  Dupleix? 
Counter  movements  of  Lord  Clive  ?  Growing  importance  of  Calcutta  ?  Its 
capture  by  Surajah  Dowlah  ?  The  black  hole  ?  Successes  of  Clive  ?  Intrigue 
with  Meer  Jaffier?  Victory  of  Plassey ?  Its  results?  War  between  the 
French  and  English  in  the  Carnatic  ?  Decline  of  the  French  ?  Deposition 
and  restoration  of  Meer  Jaffier?  Progress  of  the  English  power?  Legisla¬ 
tion  of  Parliament  in  regard  to  British  India?  Warren  Hastings?  Efforts 
of  Hyder  Ali  ?  His  defeat  ?  Administration  of  Cornwallis  ?  Shore  ? 
Wellesley  ? 

United  States. — What  account  is  given  of  the  origin  of  the  United  States? 
The  government  of  the  colonies  ?  Their  growth  and  importance  ?  The 
proceedings  of  the  colonists  in  regard  to  the  shipments  of  tea  ?  The  Boston 
Port  Bill  ?  The  Congress  of  1774?  Their  measures  ?  Battle  of  Lexington? 
Congress  of  1775  ?  Battle  of  Bunker’s  Hill  ?  The  appointment  of  General 
Washington  as  commander-in-chief?  Expedition  into  Canada  ?  Evacua¬ 
tion  of  Boston  ?  The  Declaration  of  Independence  ?  Successes  of  the  Bri¬ 
tish  ?  Capture  of  Burgoyne  ?  French  alliance  ?  Movements  of  General 
Clinton  ?  The  British  and  French  fleets  ?  Success  of  Clinton  in  the  Caro- 
linas  ?  Subsequent  success  of  Greene  ?  Capture  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown? 
Treaty  of  peace?  Conduct  of  Washington  ?  State  of  the  country?  Con¬ 
vention  to  form  the  constitution?  Outline  of  the  form  of  government? 
Character  and  administration  of  Washington  ? 

Hayti. — What  account  is  given  of  the  history  and  condition  of  this  island? 
The  state  of  public  opinion  concerning  slavery  ?  Decree  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly  ?  Disastrous  consequences  ?  Elevation  of  Toussaint?  His  over¬ 
throw  and  death  ?  Revolt  of  John  James  Dessalines?  The  division  of  the 
island  ?  Its  reunion  under  Boyer  ?  State  of  the  island  ? 


34 


questions  to 


The  Church. — What  account  is  given  of  the  progress  of  infidel  opinions? 
Dictionnaire  Encyclopedique  ?  Voltaire?  Other  French  writers?  The 
suppression  of  the  Jesuits  ?  Breaking  down  of  the  papal  authority  ?  The 
measures  of  the  French  infidels  ?  The  origin  of  the  Methodists  ?  Their 
character  and  influence? 

Literature,  Arts  and  Sciences. — What  account  is  given  of  Prior,  Young, 
Pope,  &c.  ? 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY  A.  D,  (Page  490.) 

Great  Britain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  union  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  ?  Progress  of  the  French  on  the  continent  ?  Success  of  Nelson  ? 
Change  of  Russian  relations?  Events  in  Egypt  ?  Treaty  of  Amiens  ?  Re¬ 
newal  of  hostilities?  Designs  of  Napoleon?  Measures  of  Pitt  ?  Battle  of 
Trafalgar  ?  Battle  of  Austerlitz  ?  The  British  ministry  ?  Carrying  off  of 
the  Danish  navy  ?  Other  acts  of  the  new  ministry  ?  Power  of  Napoleon  .pn 
the  continent  ?  Reaction  of  public  opinion  against  him?  Events  in  the 
peninsula  under  Wellesley  ?  Dalrymple  ?  Moore  ?  Recall  of  Wellesley  to 
the  peninsula?  His  success?  The  Walcheren  expedition?  Position  of 
Austria?  Battle  of  Busaco?  Torres  Vedras?  The  Regency?  Progress 
of  the  British  arms  under  Wellington  ?  Distress  of  the  nation  ?  Change  of 
ministry  ?  War  with  the  United  States?  Successes  of  the  northern  powers? 
Wellington’s  campaign  of  1812?  1813?  1814?  Progress  of  the  allies? 
Abdication  of  Napoleon  ?  Proceedings  of  the  allied  sovereigns  ?  Renewal 
of  the  war?  Battle  of  Waterloo?  Exile  and  death  of  Napoleon?  Evils 
resulting  from  his  ambition  ?  Its  lesson  to  nations  ?  Efforts  for  the  im¬ 
provement  of  the  race  ? 

France. — What  account  is  given  of  the  elevation  of  Napoleon  ?  His  pro¬ 
position  to  England  and  Austria  ?  Progress  of  the  war  in  Germany  ?  In 
Italy  ?  Battle  of  Hohenlinden  ?  Treaties  of  peace  ?  Aims  of  Napoleon  ? 
Domestic  troubles  ?  Re-establishment  of  religion  ?  Legion  of  Honour  ? 
General  administration  of  affairs  ?  Hostile  measures  on  both  sides  ?  Mur¬ 
der  of  the  duke  of  Enghien?  Coronation  of  Napoleon  as  emperor  of  the 
French  ?  Coalition  against  him  ?  His  invasion  of  Germany  ?  His  suc¬ 
cesses  ?  Terms  of  the  treaty  of  Presburg  ?  His  progress  towards  universal 
dominion  ?  War  with  Prussia  ?  Activity  and  success  of  Napoleon  ?  Berlin 
decrees?  War  with  Russia?  Peace  of  Tilsit?  Arrogant  proceedings 
towards  Portugal  ?  Spain  ?  Renewal  of  the  war  by  the  Austrians  ?  Its 
result?  His  marriage  ?  Extent  of  his  power?  Preparations  for  war  with 
Russia  ?  Capture  of  Smolensk  ?  Battle  of  Borodino  ?  Capture  and  burning 
of  Moscow?  Position  of  Napoleon  ?  Retreat  from  Russia?  Attempts  to 
reinforce  his  army  ?  New  victories?  Reverses  of  Napoleon  ?  His  retreat 
to  France  ?  New  levy  ?  The  allied  forces  ?  Genius  displayed  by  Napoleon 
in  this  emergency  ?  Result  of  the  campaign  ?  Elevation  of  Louis  XVIII.  ? 
Terms  of  the  peace?  Discontents  in  Paris?  Return  of  Napoleon?  His 
attempts  to  maintain  his  position?  Forces  under  Blucher  and  Wellington  ? 
Battle  of  Waterloo?  Character  of  Napoleon  by  Dr.  Channing  ?  General 
pacification  at  Paris  ? 

Spain. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  Spain  under  the  admi¬ 
nistration  of  Godoy  ?  Secret  plot  for  the  partition  of  Portugal  ?  Intrigues 
of  the  French  in  Madrid  ?  Abdication  of  the  king  ?  Forced  cession  of  the 
crown  to  France  ?  Nomination  of  Joseph  ?  Popular  insurrection  ?  Inter¬ 
ference  of  the  British  ?  Restoration  of  Ferdinand  ?  His  illiberal  policy? 

Portugal.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  policy  of  Napoleon  towards 
Portugal  ?  The  occupation  of  the  country  by  the  French  ?  Their  expulsion 
by  the  British  ?  Subsequent  movements  of  the  royal  family  ? 


white’s  universal  history. 


35 


Italy. — What  account  is  given  of  the  interference  of  the  French  in  the 
affairs  of  Naples  ?  The  career  of  Murat  in  Naples  ?  The  settlement  of  upper 
Italy  agreed  upon  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ?  Switzerland  ? 

Germany. — What  account  is  given  of  the  contest  between  Napoleon  and 
the  Emperor  ?  The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  ?  Humiliation  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  princes  by  Napoleon  ?  Successes  of  the  Archduke  Charles?  Settlement 
of  Germany  established  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna? 

Holland. — What  account  is  given  of  the  French  interference  in  the  affairs 
of  Holland  ?  Character  and  policy  of  Louis  ?  His  abdication  ?  Revolution 
in  favour  of  the  house  of  Orange  ?  Settlement  of  the  provinces  by  the  Con¬ 
gress  of  Vienna  ? 

Denmark. — What  account  is  given  of  the  affairs  of  Denmark  ? 

Sweden. — What  account  is  given  of  the  accession  of  Charles  XIII.  ?  Ces¬ 
sions  to  Russia  ?  Alliance  with  Napoleon  ?  Election  of  Bernadotte  ?  Al¬ 
liance  with  England  ?  Settlement  of  the  country  ? 

Prussia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  administration  of  Frederick  III.? 
Harsh  terms  of  Napoleon  ?  His  oppression?  The  popular  feeling?  Suc¬ 
cesses  of  the  Prussians  under  Blucher  and  others  ?  The  Tugenbund  ?  Set¬ 
tlement  of  the  country  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ? 

Russia. — What  account  is  given  of  the  character  and  death  of  Paul  ?  First 
measures  of  Alexander  ?  Meeting  with  Napoleon  ?  Its  consequences  ?  War 
with  Turkey?  Hostile  feelings  towards  France?  Declaration  of  Napoleon? 
The  progress  of  the  Russian  arms  ?  Settlement  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ? 

Turkey. — What  account  is  given  of  the  foreign  relations  of  the  Porte  ? 
The  discontents  of  the  Janissaries  ?  Hostilities  with  England  and  Russia  ? 
Elevation  and  deposition  of  Mustapha  IV.  ?  Elevation  of  Mahmoud  II.  ? 
His  character  and  measures  ?  Mehemet  Ali  ?  Ibrahim  ?  Greek  inde¬ 
pendence  ? 

British  India.  —  What  account  is  given  of  the  policy  ot  the  British  in 
India?  The  Mahrattas?  Movements  of  Scindia?  Successes  of  General 
Lake  ?  Of  Wellington  ?  The  result  of  these  victories  ?  New  war  with  the 
Mahrattas  ?  Policy  of  Lord  Minto  ?  Proceedings  of  the  marquis  of  Hast¬ 
ings  ?  The  extent  and  population  of  British  India  ?  Religion  of  the  na¬ 
tives  ?  The  government  ? 

United  States. — What  account  is  given  of  the  condition  of  the  United 
States  ?  Political  parties  ?  Increase  of  power,  territory  and  population  ? 
Expedition  against  Tripoli  ?  Difficulties  with  England  ?  The  non-inter¬ 
course  act  of  1809  ?  Its  results?  Declaration  of  war?  Expeditions  into 
Canada  ?  Naval  battles  ?  Proceedings  of  General  Ross  ?  Defeat  of  Pack- 
enham  ?  Extension  of  territory  under  Monroe  ? 

Brazil. — What  account  is  given  of  the  revolution  in  Brazil  ?  Its  present 
form  of  government  ? 

Spanish  Colonies. — What  account  is  given  of  the  state  of  the  colonies? 
Attempt  of  Miranda  ?  Congress  of  1810  ?  New  Grenada  ?  Bolivar  ?  The 
rising  of  the  other  Spanish  states  ?  Present  condition  of  the  South  American 
states  ? 

Literature,  Arts  and  Sciences.  —  What  account  is  given  of  Crabbe, 
Shelley,  Ac.  Ac.  ? 

Conclusion. — What  account  is  given  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ?  The 
progress  of  democratic  principles  ?  General  condition  and  prospects  of  the 
world?  The  reign  of  Louis  XVIII.  ?  Charles  X.?  Prince  Polignac  ?  In¬ 
surrection  in  Paris  ?  Change  of  government  ?  Elevation  and  administration 


36 


QUESTIONS. 


of  Louis  Philippe?  Revolution  in  Belgium?  Insurrection  in  Poland?  Com 
mercial  reverses  in  Great  Britain  ?  Catholic  emancipation  ?  Accession  of 
William  IV.?  Administration  of  Earl  Grey?  Reform  Bill  ?  Abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  British  West  Indies  ?  Accession  of  Queen  Victoria  ?  The 
condition  of  the  peninsula?  Contest  between  Don  Carlos  and  Christina? 
Interference  of  France  and  England  ?  Appointment  of  Espartero  ?  Contest 
in  Portugal  between  Don  Miguel  and  Don  Pedro  ?  Interference  of  England 
and  France?  Treaty  of  1834?  Majority  of  Donna  Maria?  The  public 
feeling  in  regard  to  the  Greeks?  Battle  of  Navarino?  War  between  the 
Turks  and  Russians?  Present  condition  of  Greece?  Of  Turkey?  Of 
Egypt  ?  Commercial  league  of  Germany  ?  Condition  of  Prussia  ?  Pro¬ 
gress  of  British  power  in  India  ?  Origin  of  the  dispute  with  China  ?  Pro¬ 
ceedings  of  Lin  ?  Hostilities  against  the  Chinese  ?  Treaty  of  commerce  ? 


2ND  OF  THE  QUESTIONS 


' 


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Ka 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


3  0112061597313 


